Electronic Devices &

Circuits
About Me
Aatif Saeed
Education
 M.Sc Electronics
 M.Sc Systems Engineering
 MS Project Management
Experience
 16+ Years Teaching
 14+ Years Industry Projects
Email
 aatifsaeed@gmail.com
Course Outline
Chapter1 – 12
Marks Distribution
 Assignments – 10%
 Quizzes – 10%
 Class Participation – 5%
 Mid Term – 25%
 Final – 50%
Final Examination Question Paper
 8 Review Questions out of 12
 Course Breakup
Chapter # Final Exam Chapter Heading
Q. No
1 Introduction to Electronics
2 Diodes and Applications
3 Special Purpose Diodes
4 Bipolar Junction Transistors
5 Transistor Bias Circuits
6 BJT Amplifiers
7 Power Amplifiers
8 Field Effect Transistors (FETs)
9 FET Amplifiers and Switching
Circuits
Course Breakup
Chapter # Final Exam Chapter Heading
Q. No
10 Amplifier Frequency Response
11 Thyristors
12 Operational Amplifiers
Text Book
Electronic Devices – 9th Edition
 Thomas L. Floyd
Chapter 1
Introduction to Electronics
The Start of the Modern
Electronics Era

Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain The first germanium bipolar

at Bell Labs - Brattain and transistor. Roughly 50 years
Bardeen invented the bipolar later, electronics account for
transistor in 1947. 10% (4 trillion dollars) of the
world GDP.
 Electronics Milestones
1874 Braun invents the solid-state
rectifier.
1906 DeForest invents triode
vacuum tube.
1907-1927
First radio circuits developed
from diodes and triodes.
1925 Lilienfeld field-effect device
patent filed.
1947 Bardeen and Brattain at Bell
Laboratories invent bipolar
transistors.
1952 Commercial bipolar transistor
production at Texas
Instruments.
1956 Bardeen, Brattain, and
Shockley receive Nobel prize.
1958 Integrated circuits developed
by Kilby and Noyce
1961 First commercial IC from
Fairchild Semiconductor
1963 IEEE formed from merger of
IRE and AIEE
1968 First commercial IC opamp
1970 One transistor DRAM cell
invented by Dennard at IBM.
1971 4004 Intel microprocessor
introduced.
1978 First commercial 1-kilobit
memory.
1974 8080 microprocessor
introduced.
1984 Megabit memory chip
introduced.
2000 Alferov, Kilby, and Kromer
share Nobel prize
 Evolution of Electronic Devices

Vacuum Discrete
Tubes Transistors

SSI and MSI VLSI

Integrated Surface-Mount
Circuits Circuits
Introduction to Electronics
Types of Electricity
Two forms of electricity Static and
Produced
Static Electricity is an electrical charge
at rest.
Produced Electricity is produced by
either magnetism, chemicals, light, heat, or
pressure.
Introduction to Electronics

The study of electronics can be broken

down into four basic steps:
• Step 1 – Basic Electricity
• Step 2 – Electronic Components
• Step 3 – Electronic Circuits
• Step 4 – Electronic Systems
 Step 1: Basics of Electricity
• Step 1: Basics of Electricity
• Current – Andre’ Ampere’
• Voltage – Alessandro Volta
• Resistance – George Ohm
• Power – James Watt
Andre’ Ampere’

Current Power

Voltage Resistance
Georg Ohm
Alessandro
Volta James Watt
Step 2: Electronic Components
• Step 2: Electronic Components
Switches and Keyboard
Semiconductors
Transducers
Resistors
Capacitors
Nikola Tesla Electron Tubes

Components
Magnetic

Power
Current

Thomas Edison Voltage Resistance

 Step 3: Electronic Circuits
• Step 3: Electronic Circuits
• Signal Generators and
Timers
• Amplifiers
Charles Wheatstone
• Digital Circuits
• Power Supplies

Circuits
• Detectors and Mixers
• Filters
Components

• Phase-locked Looks
• Converters
Gustav Kirchoff
• Data Acquisition Power

Current
• Synthesizers Votlage Resistance

Robert Noyce
Step 4: Electronic Systems

• Step 4: Electronic Systems

• Communications
• Computers
• Consumer
• Industrial
• Test and Measurement
• Biomedical Circuits
Components

Power
Current
Votlage Resistance
 Step 4: Electronic Systems
• Communications Systems

Radio
Telecommunications
Television

Heinrich Hertz
Data Communications

Communications
Systems

Circuits

Components

Guglielmo Marconi
Power
Current
Lee Deforest John Baird Votlage Resistance
 Step 4: Electronic Systems
• Computers
Data Terminals
Computer Systems
George Boole
Data Storage
Input/Output Devices

John von Neuman Computers

Communication

Systems
Circuits
Components

Power

Alan Turing Current

Charles Babbage Votlage Resistance
 Step 4: Electronic Systems
• Consumer
Video Equipment
Audio Equipment
Personal
William Shockley Automobile Electronics
Consumer
Computers

Communication

Systems
Circuits
Jack Kilby Components

Power
Nolan Bushnell Current
Chester Carlson
Votlage Resistance
 Step 4: Electronic Systems
• Industrial
Manufacturing Equipment
Computer-Aided-Design
and Engineering CAD/CAE
Industrial
Charles Steinmetz
Management

Consumer
Computers

Communication

Systems
Circuits
Werner Von Siemens Components

Carl Gauss

Power
Current
James Joule Votlage Resistance
 Step 4: Electronic Systems
• Test and Measurement
General Test and
Measurement Equipment
Industrial
Automated Test Systems
Test and Measurement
Sir Isaac Newton

Consumer

Computers

Communication

Systems
Circuits
RAdm Grace Harper Components

Power
Benjamin Franklin
Current
John Napier Votlage Resistance
 Step 4: Electronic Systems
• Biomedical
Patient Care
Industrial
Diagnostics
Test and Measurement
Luigi Galvani
Biomedical
Consumer

Computers

Communication
Henry Cavendish

Systems
Circuits
Components

Sir John Fleming

Power
Current
Votlage Resistance
Chapter 1
Introduction to Electronics
 The Bohr atom

The Bohr atom is useful for visualizing atomic structure.

•The nucleus is positively charged

and has the protons and neutrons.
•Electrons are negatively
charged and in discrete shells.
•The atomic number is the
number of protons and
determines the particular
element.
•In the neutral atom, the number
of electrons is equal to the
number of protons. Electron Proton Neutron
 The valence shell

The outer shell is called the valence shell. Electrons in

this shell are involved in chemical reactions and they
account for electrical and thermal conductivity in metals.

A neutral Si atom is shown. There are

4 electrons in the valence shell.

+ Shell 1 Shell 2 Shell 3

Is Si a conductor, insulator, or
semiconductor?
Semiconductor
 The valence shell

Metals have one, two or three electrons in the valence

shell. The atom illustrated here is a sodium atom (Na), with
only one electron in its outer shell.

Sodium is highly reactive, and easily

gives up its single valence electron.
For this reason, it is not used in
electrical work.

+ S he ll 1 S he ll 2 S he ll 3

Non-metals have either

complete or nearly compete
outer shells, so they make poor
electrical conductors. Sodium atom
Electrons and Shells
Energy Levels
 Electrons near the nucleus have less energy
than those in more distant orbits.
 Only discrete (separate and distinct) values of
electron energies exist within atomic
structures.
 In an atom, the orbits are grouped into
energy levels known as Shells.
 A given atom has a fixed number of shells.
Each shell has a fixed maximum number of
electrons. The shells (energy levels) are
designated 1, 2, 3, and so on, with 1 being
closest to the nucleus.
Electrons and Shells
Electrons and Shells
Max. # of Electrons in Each Shell

Valence Electrons.
 This outermost shell is known as the valence
shell and electrons in this shell are called
valence electrons.
Ionization
If a valence electron acquires a sufficient
amount of energy, called ionization
energy, it can actually escape from the
outer shell and the atom’s influence.
The departure of a valence electron
leaves a previously neutral atom with an
excess of positive charge (more protons
than electrons).
The process of losing a valence electron
is known as ionization, and the resulting
positively charged atom is called a positive
ion.
The Quantum Model
Each shell or energy level consists of up
to four subshells called orbitals, which
are designated s, p, d, and f.
Orbital s can hold a maximum of two
electrons, orbital p can hold six electrons,
orbital d can hold ten electrons, and
orbital f can hold fourteen electrons.
The Quantum Model
The Quantum Model
Materials Used In Electronics
Insulators
 An insulator is a material that does not
conduct electrical current under normal
conditions.
 Most good insulators are compounds rather
than single-element materials and have very
high resistivities.
 Valence electrons are tightly bound to the
atoms; therefore, there are very few free
electrons in an insulator.
 Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics,
glass, mica, and quartz.
Materials Used In Electronics
Conductors
 A conductor is a material that easily
conducts electrical current.
 Most metals are good conductors.
 The best conductors are single-element
materials, such as copper (Cu), silver (Ag),
gold (Au), and aluminum (Al), which are
characterized by atoms with only one valence
electron very loosely bound to the atom.
Materials Used In Electronics
Semiconductors
 A semiconductor is a material that is
between conductors and insulators in its
ability to conduct electrical current.
 A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is
neither a good conductor nor a good
insulator.
 Single-element semiconductors are antimony
(Sb), arsenic (As), astatine (At), boron (B),
polonium (Po), tellurium (Te), silicon (Si), and
germanium (Ge).
Materials Used In Electronics
Semiconductors
 Compound semiconductors such as gallium
arsenide, indium phosphide, gallium nitride,
silicon carbide, and silicon germanium are also
commonly used.
 The single-element semiconductors are
characterized by atoms with four valence
electrons.
 Silicon is the most commonly used
semiconductor.
Band Gap
Valence shell of an atom represents a
band of energy levels and that the valence
electrons are confined to that band.
When an electron acquires enough
additional energy, it can leave the valence
shell, become a free electron, and exist in
what is known as the conduction band.
The difference in energy between the
valence band and the conduction band is
called an energy gap or band gap.
Band Gap
Comparison
Semi-Conductor Atom vs Conductor
Atom
 The core includes everything except the
valence electrons.
 The core of the silicon atom has a net charge
of 4 (14 protons 10 electrons)
 The core of the copper atom has a net charge
of 1 (29 protons 28 electrons)
Comparison
Silicon & Germanium
Silicon & Germanium
Both Silicon and Germanium have the
characteristic Four Valence electrons.
 The valence electrons in Germanium are in
the fourth shell while those in Silicon are in
the third shell, closer to the nucleus
 Germanium valence electrons are at higher
energy levels than those in silicon
 Germanium more unstable at high
temperatures and results in excessive reverse
current.
Covalent Bonds
Silicon Crystal
Current In Semiconductors
Energy band diagram for an unexcited
atom in a pure (intrinsic) silicon crystal.
Conduction Electrons and Holes
Conduction Electrons and Holes
Hole
 When an electron jumps to the conduction
band, a vacancy is left in the valence band
within the crystal.
Electron-Hole Pair
 For every electron raised to the conduction
band by external energy, there is one hole left
in the valence band, creating what is called an
electron-hole pair.
Recombination
 occurs when a conduction-band electron
loses energy and falls back into a hole in the
valence band.
Conduction Electrons and Holes
Electron and Hole Current

 When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic

silicon, the thermally generated free electrons in the
conduction band, which are free to move randomly in
the crystal structure, are now easily attracted toward
the positive end.
 This movement of free electrons is one type of
current in a semiconductive material and is called
electron current.
Electron and Hole Current
N-type And P-type
Semiconductors
Doping
 Since semiconductors are generally poor
conductors, their conductivity can be
drastically increased by the controlled
addition of impurities to the intrinsic (pure)
semiconductive material.
 This process increases the number of current
carriers (electrons or holes).
 The two categories of impurities are
 n-type and
 p-type.
N-Type Semiconductor
To increase the number of conduction-
band electrons in intrinsic silicon,
pentavalent impurity atoms are added.
These are atoms with five valence
electrons such as arsenic (As),
phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and
antimony (Sb).
N-Type Semiconductor

Donor Atom
Majority and Minority Carriers
 Since most of the current carriers are
electrons, silicon (or germanium) doped with
pentavalent atoms is an n-type semiconductor
(the n stands for the negative charge on an
electron). The electrons are called the
majority carriers in n-type material.
 Although the majority of current carriers in n-
type material are electrons, there are also a
few holes that are created when electron-
hole pairs are thermally generated. These
holes are not produced by the addition of the
pentavalent impurity atoms. Holes in an n-
type material are called minority carriers.
P-Type Semiconductor
To increase the number of holes in
intrinsic silicon, trivalent impurity atoms
are added.
These are atoms with three valence
electrons such as boron (B), indium (In),
and gallium (Ga).
 P-Type Semiconductor

Acceptor Atom
The PN Junction
When you take a block of silicon and
dope part of it with a trivalent impurity
and the other part with a pentavalent
impurity, a boundary called the PN
junction is formed between the resulting
p-type and n-type portions.
The PN Junction
The PN Junction
Formation of the Depletion
Region
 When the pn junction is formed, the n region
loses free electrons as they diffuse across the
junction.
 This creates a layer of positive charges
(pentavalent ions) near the junction. As the
electrons move across the junction, the p
region loses holes as the electrons and holes
combine.
 This creates a layer of negative charges
(trivalent ions) near the junction. These two
layers of positive and negative charges form the
depletion region.
Energy Diagrams of the PN
Junction
Energy Diagrams of the PN
Junction
Chapter 2
Diodes & Applications
The Diode
A diode is made from a small piece of
semiconductor material, usually silicon, in
which half is doped as a p region and half
is doped as an n region with a pn junction
and depletion region in between.
Diode Packages
Forward Bias

Forward bias is the condition that

allows current through the pn junction.
Forward Bias
Requirements
 Negative side of VBIAS is connected to the n
region of the diode and the positive side is
connected to the p region.
 VBIAS >>> Barrier Potential
Effect of Forward Bias on the
Depletion Region
 As more electrons flow into the depletion
region, the number of positive ions is reduced.
 As more holes effectively flow into the
depletion region on the other side of the pn
junction, the number of negative ions is
reduced.
 This reduction in positive and negative ions
during forward bias causes the depletion
region to narrow
-cont.
Barrier Potential
 When forward bias is applied, the free
electrons are provided with enough energy
from the bias-voltage source to overcome the
barrier potential and cross the depletion
region.
 The energy that the electrons require in
order to pass through the depletion region is
equal to the barrier potential.
 This energy loss results in a voltage drop
across the pn junction equal to the barrier
potential (0.7 V)
Reverse Bias
Reverse bias is the condition that
essentially prevents current through the
diode.
-continued
Reverse Current
The extremely small current that exists in
reverse bias after the transition current
dies out is caused by the minority carriers
in the n and p regions that are produced
by thermally generated electron-hole
pairs.
V-I Characteristic of a Diode
V-I Characteristic of a Diode
Point A corresponds to a zero-bias
condition.
Point B corresponds to where the
forward voltage is less than the barrier
potential of 0.7 V.
Point C corresponds to where the
forward voltage approximately equals the
barrier potential.
V-I Characteristic for Reverse
Bias
The Complete V-I
Characteristic Curve
Diode Approximations
The Ideal Diode Model
Diode Approximations
The Ideal Diode Model
Diode Approximations
 Since the barrier potential and the forward
dynamic resistance are neglected, the diode is
assumed to have a zero voltage across it when
forward-biased
 VF = 0 V
 Forward Current

 Reverse Current Neglected

Diode Approximation
Practical Diode Model
Diode Approximation
Practical Diode Model
Diode Approximation
Practical Diode Model

Applying KVL
Diode Approximation
Complete Diode Model
Diode Approximation
Complete Diode Model
Diode Approximation
Complete Diode Model
 Formulas
Example 2-1
Solution
Solution
Half-wave Rectifiers
Because of their ability to conduct
current in one direction and block
current in the other direction, diodes are
used in circuits called rectifiers that
convert ac voltage into dc voltage.
Rectifiers are found in all dc power
supplies that operate from an ac voltage
source.
Half-wave Rectifiers
Half-wave Rectifiers
The rectifier converts the ac input
voltage to a pulsating dc voltage.
The rectifier converts the ac input
voltage to a pulsating dc voltage.
The regulator is a circuit that maintains
a constant dc voltage for variations in the
input line voltage or in the load.
Half-Wave Rectifier Operation
Half-wave Rectifier
Average Value of the Half-Wave Output
Voltage

Example 2-2
Effect of Potential Barrier
Transformer Coupling
Itallows the source voltage to be stepped
down as needed.
The ac source is electrically isolated from
the rectifier, thus preventing a shock
hazard in the secondary circuit.
Transformer Coupling
Turns Ratio = Nsec / Npri
Turns Ratio > 1  Step Up
Turns Ratio < 1  Step Down
Secondary Voltage of Transformer

Example 2-4 (Do it by yourself)

Full-wave Rectifiers
A full-wave rectifier allows
unidirectional (one-way) current through
the load during the entire 360o of the
input cycle.
Full-wave Rectifier
Example 2-5
Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier
Operation
Operation
Effect of the Turns Ratio on the
Output Voltage
Effect of the Turns Ratio on the
Output Voltage
Bridge Full-wave Rectification
Bridge Full-wave Rectification

…

Example 2-7 (Assignment)

Peak Inverse Voltage
For rectifier applications, peak inverse
voltage (PIV) or peak reverse
voltage (PRV) is the maximum value
of reverse voltage which occurs at
the peak of the input cycle when the
diode is reverse-biased.
Power Supply Filters &
Regulators
A power supply filter ideally eliminates
the fluctuations in the output voltage of a
half-wave or full-wave rectifier and
produces a constant-level dc voltage.
A voltage regulator prevents changes in
the filtered dc voltage due to variations in
input voltage or load.
Power Supply Filters &
Regulators

The small amount of fluctuation in the

filter output voltage is called Ripple.
Capacitor-Input Filter
Capacitor-Input Filter
Capacitor-Input Filter
Capacitor-Input Filter
Ripple Voltage
Example 2-8
Solution
Voltage Regulators
Percent Regulation
The line regulation specifies how much
change occurs in the output voltage for a
given change in the input voltage.
It is typically defined as a ratio of a change
in output voltage for a corresponding
change in the input voltage expressed as a
percentage.
Percent Regulation
The load regulation specifies how much
change occurs in the output voltage over
a certain range of load current values,
usually from minimum current (no load,
NL) to maximum current (full load, FL).
Example 2-9
Diode Limiters & Clampers
Diode circuits, called limiters or clippers,
are sometimes used to clip off portions of
signal voltages above or below certain
levels.
Another type of diode circuit, called a
clamper, is used to add or restore a dc
level to an electrical signal.
Diode Limiters
Diode Limiters

Example 2-10 (do it)

Biased Limiters
Diode Clampers
A Clamper adds a dc level to an ac voltage.
 Operation
 During the negative half cycle of the input signal, the
diode conducts and acts like a short circuit. The
output voltage Vo  0 volts .
 The capacitor is charged to the peak value of input
voltage Vm. and it behaves like a battery.
 During the positive half of the input signal, the diode
does not conduct and acts as an open circuit.
 Hence the output voltage Vo Vm+ Vm
 This gives a positively clamped voltage.
 Diode Clampers

 Ifthe RC time constant is 100 times the period, the

clamping action is excellent. An RC time constant of ten
times the period will have a small amount of distortion at
the ground level due to the charging current.
The Diode Datasheet
Chapter 3
Special Purpose Diodes
The Zener Diode
A Zener diode is a Silicon pn junction
device that is designed for operation in
the reverse-breakdown region.
The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode
is set by carefully controlling the doping
level during manufacture.
V-I Characteristics
Zener Breakdown
Zener diodes are designed to operate in
reverse breakdown.
Two types of reverse breakdown in a
zener diode are
 avalanche and
 Zener
The avalanche effect, occurs in both
rectifier and Zener diodes at a sufficiently
high reverse voltage.
Zener Breakdown
Occurs in a zener diode at low reverse
voltages
A zener diode is heavily doped to reduce
the breakdown voltage.
This causes a very thin depletion region.
As a result, an intense electric field exists
within the depletion region.
Near the zener breakdown voltage (VZ),
the field is intense enough to pull
electrons from their valence bands and
create current.
Breakdown Characteristics
Breakdown Characteristics
 As the reverse voltage (VR) is increased, the
reverse current (IR) remains extremely small up
to the “knee” of the curve.
 The reverse current is also called the zener
current, IZ.
 At this point, the breakdown effect begins; the
internal zener resistance, also called zener
impedance (ZZ), begins to decrease as the
reverse current increases rapidly.
 From the bottom of the knee, the zener
breakdown voltage (VZ) remains essentially
constant although it increases slightly as the
zener current, IZ, increases.
Zener Regulation
A zener diode operating in breakdown
acts as a voltage regulator because it
maintains a nearly constant voltage across
its terminals over a specified range of
reverse-current values.
The zener diode maintains a nearly
constant voltage across its terminals for
values of reverse current ranging from IZK
to IZM.
Zener Equivalent Circuits
Zener Equivalent Circuits
Zener Equivalent Circuits
Zener Impedence
Example 3-1
Temperature Coefficient
The temperature coefficient specifies the
percent change in zener voltage for each
degree Celsius change in temperature.

where VZ is the nominal zener voltage at

25oC the reference temperature of TC is
the temperature coefficient, and ∆T is the
change in temperature from the reference
temperature.
Example 3-2
Zener Power Dissipation and
Derating
Power Dissipation

Power Derating
Example 3-3
Zener Diode Applications
 Zener Regulation with a Variable Input Voltage
 Zener diode regulators can provide a
reasonably constant dc level at the output, but
they are not particularly efficient.
 For this reason, they are limited to pplications
that require only low current to the load.
Zener Diode Applications
Zener Diode Applications
 Zener Regulation with a Variable Load
Zener Limiter
In addition to voltage regulation
applications, Zener diodes can be used in
ac applications to limit voltage swings to
desired levels.
Zener Limiter (a)
 a zener used to limit the positive peakof a
signal voltage to the selected zener voltage.
During the negative alternation, the zener acts
as a forward-biased diode and limits the
negative voltage to -0.7 V.
Zener Limiter (b)
 When the zener is turned around the
negative peak is limited by zener action and
the positive voltage is limited to +0.7 V.
Zener Limiter (c)
 Two back-to-back zeners limit both peaks to
the zener voltage.
 During the positive alternation, D1 is
2

functioning as the zener limiter and D2 is

1

functioning as a forward-biased diode.

 During the negative alternation, the roles are
reversed.
Assignment