Module 2

PHYSICS

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 M2.3 – Thermodynamics
GOALS
General notions:
- Temperature, calorimetry, heat transfer, thermodynamic
transformations;
- Ideal Gas;
- Work produced by the expansion of a gas;
- Laws of thermodynamics;
- Carnot cycle, motor cycle and heat pumps.

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 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that is dedicated to the
study of the relationships between heat and other forms of
energy. It analyzes, therefore, the effects of changes in
temperature, pressure, density, mass and volume in the systems
at the macroscopic level.

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 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic system

Thermodynamic system can be classified as:

- Closed system – It is a system of fixed mass with fixed identity,
there is no mass transfer across system boundary. Energy
transfer can take place into or out of the system.
- Open system – It is a system of fixed volume, mass transfer
can take place across a control volume. Energy transfer may
also occur into-out of the system.
- Isolated system – It is a system of fixed mass with same
identity and fixed energy. No interaction of mass or energy
takes place between system and surrounding.

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 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic system

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 Thermodynamics
State variables

Precisely measurable physical properties which characterizes the

(macro)state of a system, independent of how the system was
brought to that state.
State variables describe the state of a system. In the macroscopic
approach to thermodynamics, variables are used to describe the
state of the system. The following are examples os state
variables:
- Pressure.
- Temperature.
- Volume.
- Internal energy.

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 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic equilibrium

The two systems are said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium

with each other when they are in mechanical, chemical and
thermal equilibrium with each other.
- Thermal equilibrium - When the system is in mechanical and
chemical equilibrium and there is no spontaneous change in
any of its properties.
- Mechanical equilibrium - When there are no unbalanced
forces within the system and between the system and the
surrounding.
- Chemical equilibrium - When there are no chemical reactions
going on within the system or there is no transfer of matter
from one part of the system to other due to diffusion.

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 Temperature
Temperature is a statistical measure of the level of agitation
between molecules, related to the displacement of the kinetic
energy of an atom or molecule. In physics, temperature is related
to the internal energy of a thermodynamic system.
- Heat is the energy transferred from one body to the other
when there is a temperature difference;
- As a body receives thermal energy, it increases the state of
motion of its molecules, thus increasing its temperature;
- To measure the temperature, an instrument called a
thermometer is used.

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 Temperature
Triple point

Triple point of a substance is the temperature and pressure at

which the three phases of that substance coexist in
thermodynamic equilibrium.

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 Temperature
Temperature Scales

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 Temperature
Conversion of temperature scales

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 Calorimetry
Specific Heat Capacity

Heat and work are not forms of energy but processes of

transferring energy from one system to the surrounding and vice
versa.
Specific Heat Capacity
The specific heat capacity refers to the amount of heat required
to cause a unit of mass (say a gram or a kilogram) to change its
temperature by 1°C. In ​SI units, specific heat capacity (symbol: c)
is the amount of heat in joules required to raise 1 gram of a
substance 1 Kelvin.

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 Calorimetry
Specific Heat Capacity

Heat capacity is defined as the ratio of the amount of energy

transferred to a material and the change in temperature that is
produced:

Where C is heat capacity, Q is energy (usually expressed in joules),

and ΔT is the change in temperature (usually in degrees Celsius or
in Kelvin). Alternatively, the equation may be written:

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 Calorimetry
Table of Common Specific Heats and Heat Capacities

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 Calorimetry
Latent Heat

Latent heat, energy absorbed or released by a substance during a

change in its physical state (phase) that occurs without changing
its temperature.

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 Calorimetry
Latent Heat

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 Heat transfer
Heat transfer

Heat transmission can occur by conduction, convection or

radiation and heat always propagates spontaneously from the
higher temperature bodies to the lower temperature bodies.

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 Heat transfer
Conduction

Conduction transfers heat via direct molecular collision. An area

of greater kinetic energy will transfer thermal energy to an area
with lower kinetic energy. Higher-speed particles will collide with
slower speed particles. The slower-speed particles will increase in
kinetic energy as a result.
Conduction is the most common form of heat transfer and occurs
via physical contact. Examples would be to place your hand
against a window or place metal into an open flame.

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 Heat transfer
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

The law of heat conduction is also known as Fourier’s

law. Fourier’s law states that:
“The time rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional
to the negative gradient in the temperature and to the area.”

Where:
- Q is the heat flow rate by conduction (W)
- k is the thermal conductivity of body material (W·m−1·K−1)
- A is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow
(m2) and
- dT/dx is the temperature gradient (K·m−1).
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 Heat transfer
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

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 Heat transfer
Convection

When a fluid, such as air or a liquid, is heated and then travels

away from the source, it carries the thermal energy along. This
type of heat transfer is called convection. The fluid above a hot
surface expands, becomes less dense, and rises.
At the molecular level, the molecules expand upon introduction
of thermal energy. As temperature of the given fluid mass
increases, the volume of the fluid must increase by same factor.
This effect on the fluid causes displacement. As the immediate
hot air rises, it pushes denser, colder air down.
This series of events represents how convection currents are
formed.

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 Heat transfer
Convection

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 Heat transfer
Radiation

Thermal radiation generates from the emission of electromagnetic

waves. These waves carry the energy away from the emitting
object. Radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent
medium (either solid or fluid).
Thermal radiation is the direct result of random movements of
atoms and molecules in matter. Movement of the charged protons
and electrons results in the emission of electromagnetic radiation.

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 Heat transfer
Considering the surface of a body on which radiant energy is
incident, part is absorbed by the body, part is reflected and part
transmitted. By the principle of conservation of energy:

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 Thermodynamic process
There are two main types of thermodynamic processes: the
reversible and irreversible. The reversible process is the ideal
process which never occurs, while the irreversible process is the
natural process that is commonly found in the nature.
- Reversible process – A thermodynamic process is reversible if
the system passes through a continuous series of equilibrium
states.
- Irreversible process – If the thermodynamic system passes
through a sequence of non-equilibrium states, it is called
irreversible process.

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 Thermodynamic process
Thermodynamic process

Types of reversible process:

- Adiabatic - constant heat and mass.
- Isobaric – constant pressure;
- Isochoric – constant volume;
- Isothermal – constant temperature;

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 Thermodynamic process
Thermodynamic process

Adiabatic process
An adiabatic process is one in which no heat or mass is transferred
between the system and its surrounding (Δm = 0, ΔQ = 0).
In practice this assumption is most often used for rapidly acting
systems or as a method for obtaining conservative results.

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 Thermodynamic process
Thermodynamic process

Isobaric process
An isobaric process is one in which the pressure is held
constant (ΔP = 0). Assuming that the quantity of gas in an isobaric
process remains constant the work done by the system is directly
promotional to the change in volume or temperature of the
system.
The ratio of heat capacity of a gas in an isobaric system with the
heat capacity of the gas in an isochoric system makes up the ratio
of specific heats for gases k = Cp /Cv.

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 Thermodynamic process
Thermodynamic process

Isobaric process

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 Thermodynamic process
Coefficient of thermal expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansion describes how the size of na

object changes with a change in temperature.

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 Thermodynamic process
Thermodynamic process

Isochoric process
An isochoric system is one in which volume is held constant
(ΔV = 0). Isochoric processes can also be referred to as isometric or
isovolumetric.

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 Thermodynamic process
Thermodynamic process

Isothermal process
Na isothermal process is one in which there is no temperature
change (ΔT = 0). There may be energy flow into and out of the
system, however only the amount required to keep the
temperature of the system constant. For Example:
- Phase changes - melting solids and boiling liquids of pure
substances requires substantially energy transfer, but does not
change temperature.

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 Thermodynamic process
Thermodynamic process

Isothermal process

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 Ideal Gas Law
An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions between
atoms or molecules are perfectly elastic and in which there are
no intermolecular attractive forces.
One can visualize it as a collection of perfectly hard spheres
which collide but which otherwise do not interact with each
other. In such a gas, all the internal energy, is in the form of
kinetic energy and any change in internal energy is accompanied
by a change in temperature.

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 Ideal Gas Law
Na ideal gas can be characterized by three state variables: absolute
pressure (P ), volume (V ), and absolute temperature (T ). The
relationship between them may be deduced from kinetic theory,
and is called the Ideal Gas Law.
Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT = NkT

Where:
- n = number of moles.
- R = universal gas constant = 8.3145 J/mol K.
- N = number of molecules.
- k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38066 x 10-23 J/K = 8.617385 x 10-5 eV/K.
- k = R/NA.
- NA = Avogadro's number = 6.0221 x 1023/mol.
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 Ideal Gas Law
Gas constant

The gas constant, also known as the universal molar gas constant,
is a physical constant that appears in na equation defining the
behavior of a gas under theoretically ideal conditions. The gas
constant is, by convention, symbolized R.

P0 = 1 atm
V0= 22,4 L
T0 = 273,15 K

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Clapeyron diagram

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 Work produced by the expansion of a gas
The work, W, can be calculated by:

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 Laws of Thermodynamics
Internal Energy: Internal energy of a system (U) is the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies of the particles that make up a gas.
Entropy – Is the measure of a system’s thermal energy per
unit temperature that is unavailable for doing useful work.
Because work is obtained from ordered molecular motion, the
amount of entropy is also a measure of the molecular disorder,
or randomness, of a system.

Enthalpy - Enthalpy is a measurement of energy in a

thermodynamic system. It is the thermodynamic quantity
equivalent to the internal energy of the system plus the product
of pressure and volume.

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 Laws of Thermodynamics
Zeroth Law

“If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium

with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each
other”.

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 Laws of Thermodynamics
First Law of thermodynamics

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only change

forms. In any process, the total energy of the universe remains the
same. The change in a system’s internal energy is equal to the
difference between heat added to the system from its
surroundings and work done by the system on its surroundings.

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 Laws of Thermodynamics
Second Law of Thermodynamics

Heat does not flow spontaneously from a colder region to a hotter

region, or, equivalently, heat at a given temperature cannot be
converted entirely into work. Consequently, the entropy of a
closed system, or heat energy per unit temperature, increases
over time toward some maximum value.
Thus, all closed systems tend toward an equilibrium state in
which entropy is at a maximum and no energy is available to do
useful work.

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 Laws of Thermodynamics
Third Law of thermodynamics

The entropy of a perfect crystal of an element in its most stable

form tends to zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
This allows an absolute scale for entropy to be established that,
from a statistical point of view, determines the degree of
randomness or disorder in a system.

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 Laws of Thermodynamics
Laplace’s Law

A transformation is said to be adiabatic when there is no heat

exchange between the system and the surrounding environment.
Still, we can admit that there is variation of internal energy, and
that the variation of that energy is converted into work.
This process can be expressed by:

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 Laws of Thermodynamics
Laplace’s Law

According to Laplace, when sound travels in a gas, there is no time

for heat conduction in the medium and so the propagation of
sound is adiabatic.
For such an adiabatic process, the modulus of elasticity (Young's
modulus) can be expressed as E = γP, where γ is the ratio of
specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume
(γ = Cp/Cv ) and P is the pressure of the gas.
Definition of adiabatic calculus or Laplace Poisson's Law:

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 Carnot Cycle
The most efficient heat engine cycle is the Carnot cycle, consisting
of two isothermal processes and two adiabatic processes. The
Carnot cycle can be thought of as the most efficient heat engine
cycle allowed by physical laws.
When the second law of thermodynamics states that not all the
supplied heat in a heat engine can be used to do work, the Carnot
efficiency sets the limiting value on the fraction of the heat which
can be so used.

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 Carnot Cycle
In order to approach the Carnot efficiency, the processes involved
in the heat engine cycle must be reversible and involve no change
in entropy.
This means that the Carnot cycle is an idealization, since no real
engine processes are reversible and all real physical processes
involve some increase in entropy.

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 Carnot Cycle
4 step Carnot cycle:
- Step 1, Isothermal Expansion:
Heat, QH, is absorbed from
the hot reservoir at
temperature TH. Because
none of the heat goes into
changing the temperature of
the gas, all of the heat goes
into pushing the piston up as
the gas expands. All of QH is
turned into work, W.

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 Carnot Cycle
4 step Carnot cycle:
- Step 2, Adiabatic Expansion:
Now we remove the hot
reservoir heat source and
allow the gas to expand
adiabatically with no heat
added to the system. The gas
continues to expand, and the
temperature of the gas drops
to the temperature of the cold
reservoir, TC.
Remember your PV = nRT training. If the volume of the gas has
expanded, and the pressure is constant, then the temperature
has to drop to compensate.

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 Carnot Cycle
4 step Carnot cycle:
- Step 3, Isothermal
compression: We now do
work on the gas to compress
it, but simultaneously hold
the temperature of the gas
constant. Instead, the
heat, Qc is transferred to the
cold reservoir.

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 Carnot Cycle
4 step Carnot cycle:
- Step 4, Adiabatic
compression: In this last step,
we also do work on the gas,
but no longer allow the heat
to be transferred to the cold
reservoir. That means the
heat has to stick around
inside the piston, causing the
temperature of the gas to rise
back to TH.

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 Otto Cycle
The Otto cycle is a set of processes used by spark ignition internal
combustion engines (2-stroke or 4-stroke cycles).
These engines ingest a mixture of fuel and air, compress it, cause
it to react, thus effectively adding heat through converting
chemical energy into thermal energy, expand the combustion
products, and then eject the combustion products and replace
them with a new charge of fuel and air.

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Otto Cycle

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 Otto Cycle
The Otto cycle consists of four processes. They are as follows:
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression - In this process, the piston
moves from bottom dead center (BDC) to top dead center (TDC)
position. Air undergoes reversible adiabatic (isentropic)
compression.
We know that compression is a process in which volume
decreases and pressure increases. Hence, in this process, volume
of air decreases from V1 to V2 and pressure increases from p1 to
p2. Temperature increases from T1 to T2. As this an isentropic
process, entropy remains constant (i.e., s1 = s2). Refer p-V and T-s
diagrams for better understanding.

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 Otto Cycle
Process 2-3: Constant Volume Heat Addition - Process 2-3 is
isochoric (constant volume) heat addition process. Here, piston
remains at top dead center for a moment. Heat is added at
constant volume (V2 = V3) from an external heat source.
Temperature increases from T2 to T3, pressure increases from p2 to
p3 and entropy increases from s2 to s3. (See p-V and T-s diagrams
above).
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion - In this process, air undergoes
isentropic (reversible adiabatic) expansion. The piston is pushed
from top dead center (TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC) position.
Here, pressure decreases fro p3 to p4, volume rises from v3 to v4,
temperature falls from T3 to T4 and entropy remains constant
(s3 = s4). (Refer p-V and T-s diagrams above).

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 Otto Cycle
Process 4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection - The piston rests at
BDC for a moment and heat is rejected at constant volume
(V4 = V1). In this process, pressure falls from p4 to p1, temperature
decreases from T4 to T1 and entropy falls from s4 to s1. (See
diagram above).

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Otto Cycle

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 Diesel Cycle
The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline
powered Otto cycle by using a higher compression of the fuel to
ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug ("compression
ignition" rather than "spark ignition").
In the diesel engine, air is compressed adiabatically with a
compression ratio typically between 15 and 20. This compression
raises the temperature to the ignition temperature of the fuel
mixture which is formed by injecting fuel once the air is
compressed.

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Diesel Cycle

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 Heat Pump
A heat pump is a device that “transports” heat energy from one
place to another place. This is the basic feature of how heat
pumps work.
An air conditioner is a form of heat pump. It “extracts” heat from
indoors and pumps it to the outside. So on the indoor side you
have cool air blowing out of the vent, after passing through a heat
exchanger.
On the outdoor side you have warm air blowing out of another
heat exchanger. The heat exchanger on the indoor side is called an
evaporator and the heat exchanger on the outdoor side is called a
condenser.

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 Heat Pump
Principle of operation

A simple heat pump has four basic components:

- Condenser (1);
- Expansion valve (2);
- Evaporator (3);
- Compressor (4).
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 Heat Pump
Principle of operation

In the heating mode, heat transfer Qc occurs to the working fluid

in the evaporator (3) from the colder outdoor air, turning it into a
gas.
The electrically driven compressor (4) increases the temperature
and pressure of the gas and forces it into the condenser coils (1)
inside the heated space.
Because the temperature of the gas is higher than the
temperature in the room, heat transfer from the gas to the room
occurs as the gas condenses to a liquid.
The working fluid is then cooled as it flows back through an
expansion valve (2) to the outdoor evaporator coils.

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Questions ?
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