PSYC312

Study Unit 2.3. and 2.4.:

Revision: Qualitative Research
Qualitative Data Collection

Leereenheid 2.3. en 2.4.:

Hersiening: Kwalitatiewe Navorsig
Kwalitatiewe Dataversameling

Lecturer/Dosent: Dr Ingrid Opperman

Office/Kantoor: Potchefstroom Campus, E8, G16
Consulting Hours/Spreekure: By Appointment/Per afspraak
Learning Outcomes: Qualitative Data Collection (Study
Section 2.4.)
Leeruitkomste: Kwalitatiewe data-insameling (Leergedeelte
2.4.)
• Describe and identify the three • Beskryf en identifiseer die drie
traditional methods of data tradisionele metodes van data-
collection used in qualitative insameling wat in kwalitatiewe
research navorsing gebruik word
• Compare and describe the • Vergelyk en beskryf die
differences between the three verskille tussen die drie
traditional methods of tradisionele metodes van
qualitative data collection, and kwalitatiewe data-insameling,
recommend the most suitable en beveel die mees geskikte
method for a research project metode vir 'n navorsingsprojek
aan
Learning Materials: Study Section 2.4.
Leermateriaal: Leereenheid 2.4
• First Steps in Research:
Chapter 5, Section 5.4.
(Qualitative research methods
for data collection)
• Introduction
• 5.4.3.: Observation
• 5.4.4.: Interviews
• 5.4.5.: Focus Groups
• First Steps in Research:
Hoofstuk 5, Afdeling 5.4.
(Kwalitatiewe
navorsingsmetodes vir data-
insameling)
• Inleiding
• 5.4.3.: Waarneming
• 5.4.4.: Onderhoude
• 5.4.5.: Fokusgroepe
Types of Qualitative Data
Tipes Kwalitatiewe Data
• First-hand accounts
• Interviews
Primary Data
• Observations
• Writings

• Second-hand information
• Newspaper stories
Secondary data • Journal articles
• Another researcher’s interview transcripts
 Qualitative Research Designs and Data
Phenomenological Unique, individual experiences from the participants’ perspectives
•Type of data: Individual participants’ experiences and discussions

Narrative Participants’ “stories” about a phenomenon or event from their own perspective in their own context
•Type of data: Individual participants’ experiences and discussions

Ethnography Study of a phenomenon within the culture, usually using long-term immersion
•Types of data: Individual participants’ experiences, observing how things are and what happens, reading information about the culture

Case study Single entity or bounded system (place, time, etc.) which is a unique “thing” or case
•Types of data: Individual people’s experiences, observing how things are and what happens, reading information about the case

Action research Participants are active volunteers who help effect social change
•Types of data: Individual people’s experiences, observing how things are and what happens, reading academic literature to integrate new information, assessing the quality of
a program using monitoring and evaluation
 Kwalitatiewe Navorsingsontwerpe en Data
Fenomenologies Unieke, individuele ervarings vanuit die deelnemers se perspektiewe
•Tipe data: Individuele deelnemers se ervarings en besprekings

Narratief Deelnemers se "stories" oor 'n verskynsel of gebeurtenis vanuit hul eie perspektief in hul eie konteks
•Tipe data: Individuele deelnemers se ervarings en besprekings

Etnografie Studie van 'n verskynsel binne die kultuur, gewoonlik deur langtermyn-onderdompeling te gebruik
•Tipe data: Individuele deelnemers se ervarings, waarneming van hoe dinge is en wat gebeur, lees inligting oor die kultuur

Gevallestudie Enkele entiteit of begrensde sisteem (plek, tyd, ens.) wat 'n unieke "ding" of geval is
•Tipe data: Individuele mense se ervarings, waarneming van hoe dinge is en wat gebeur, lees inligting oor die saak

Aksienavorsing Deelnemers is aktiewe vrywilligers wat help om sosiale verandering te bewerkstellig

•Tipe data: Individuele mense se ervarings, waarneming van hoe dinge is en wat gebeur, lees van akademiese literatuur om nuwe inligting te integreer, assessering van die
kwaliteit van 'n program deur monitering en evaluering
What type of qualitative research design is this?
Who will the data come from? How will the researcher get the data?
Watter tipe kwalitatiewe navorsingsontwerp is dit? Van wie sal die
data kom? Hoe sal die navorser die data kry?
The researcher conducts face- Die navorser voer van aangesig
to-face interviews with one tot aangesig onderhoude met
participant at a time. The een deelnemer op 'n slag. Die
researcher asks the participants navorser vra die deelnemers om
to describe what aspects of their te beskryf watter aspekte van
life are currently lowering their hul lewe tans hul welstand en
well-being and happiness. The geluk verlaag. Die deelnemers
participants talk about well- praat oor welstand en geluk, en
being and happiness, as well as gee ook aan die navorser
giving the researcher examples voorbeelde van die laaste paar
from the last few months. maande.
 Entry Quiz
Reasoning, paradigms, research designs, sampling, and
data collection in qualitative research

Ingangsvasvra
Redenering, paradigmas, navorsingsontwerpe, steekproefneming en
data-insameling in kwalitatiewe navorsing

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Qualitative Data Collection
Kwalitatiewe Data-insameling
• Researchers are “instruments” in
collecting data
• Data is understood via the
researcher from the participants’
perspective (interpretivist)
• Naturalistic observations such
as interviews or immersion in a
culture
• Data must be credible (“true”),
applicable to the research
question, dependable (reliable),
and confirmable (can be
replicated)
• Navorsers is “instrumente” in die
insameling van data
• Data word deur die navorser
begryp vanuit die perspektief van
die deelnemers
• Naturalistiese waarnemings
soos onderhoude of verdieping in
‘n kultuur
• Data moet geloofwaardig
(“waar”), toepaslik tot die
navorsingsvraag, betroubaar en
bevestigbaar (kan herhaal word)
wees
Qualitative data must be from the participants’
perspective(s) / Kwalitatiewe data moet vanuit die
deelnemers se perspektiewe wees
• The interpretivist / social • Die interpretivistiese / sosiaal-
constructivist paradigm: Unique konstruktivistiese paradigma:
perspectives about what “is” and Unieke perspektiewe oor wat "is"
what it means en wat dit beteken
• Inductive reasoning: Require • Induktiewe redenering: Vereis
enough information to draw a genoeg inligting om 'n voorlopige
tentative conclusion from what gevolgtrekking te maak uit wat
multiple participants say or do verskeie deelnemers sê of doen
• Participant perspectives are • Deelnemerperspektiewe is
complex kompleks
• Additions to answers • Byvoegings tot antwoorde
• Qualifying statements • Kwalifiserende verklarings
• Emergence of new ideas • Opkoms van nuwe idees
 Common Methods of Qualitative Data Collection
Algemene Metodes van Kwalitatiewe Data-insameling

• Interviews: One-on-one or • Onderhoude: Een-tot-een of

groups
• Focus groups: Groups of
participants discuss the topic
• Observations: Observing what
people do and what is
happening
groepe
• Fokusgroepe: Groepe
deelnemers bespreek die
onderwerp
• Waarnemings: Waarneming
van wat mense doen en wat
gebeur
One-on-one Interviews / Aangesig tot
Aangesig Onderhoude
• Interview: Two-way conversation
where the researcher asks the
participants questions
• Questions are focused on the topic
of the study to answer the research
questions
• See and understand the
phenomenon as the participant
does (rich data in a social reality)
• Single or multiple interviews can be
used for one topic depending on the
focus of the study
• Onderhoud: Tweerigtinggesprek
waar die navorser vrae aan die
deelnemers vra
• Vrae is gefokus op die onderwerp
van die studie om die
navorsingsvrae te beantwoord
• Sien en verstaan die verskynsel soos
die deelnemer (ryk data in 'n sosiale
werklikheid)
• Enkel- of meervoudige onderhoude
kan vir een onderwerp gebruik word,
afhangende van die fokus van die
studie
Group Interviews (Not Focus Groups!) /
Groepsonderhoude (Nie Fokusgroepe nie!)
• Groups of participants are • Groepe deelnemers word op 'n
interviewed at a single time enkele tyd (minder algemeen)
(less common) each answering ondervra wat elkeen dieselfde
the same question vraag beantwoord
• Participants do not discuss the • Deelnemers bespreek nie die
topic with each other (that is a onderwerp met mekaar nie (dit
focus group) is 'n fokusgroep)
• Common in market research • Algemeen in marknavorsing en
and similar fields where the soortgelyke velde waar die
topic is not sensitive onderwerp nie sensitief is nie
A good interview:
‘n Goeie onderhoud:
Flexible Elaborative Contextual Understanding

Contextual factors in opinions and ideas

Explore emerging areas about the topic Clarify participant ideas and responses
are explained

Probe for further information (ask for Explore of “what it means” in that social
Ensure correct interpretation
more details and ideas) or cultural setting

Open to new ideas Explore ideas Identify what influences viewpoints

Structured Interviews (Descriptive) /
Gestruktureerde Onderhoude (Deskriptief)
• Detailed questions similar to a • Gedetailleerde vrae soortgelyk
survey aan 'n opname
• Highly specific questions • Hoogs spesifieke vrae wat
related to the core of the topic verband hou met die kern van
• Same order or sequence die onderwerp
• Little flexibility in how • Dieselfde volgorde
questions are asked • Min buigsaamheid in hoe vrae
• Can inhibit probing (asking for gevra word
more details and ideas) • Kan ondersoek inhibeer (vra vir
meer besonderhede en idees)
Semi-structured Interviews (Guided, but exploratory)
/ Semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude (Begeleide, maar
verkennend)
• Broader, but specific, questions • Breër, maar spesifieke vrae
• Explore emerging lines of inquiry • Verken opkomende lyne van
• Flexible while still focused on the ondersoek
topic • Buigsaam terwyl steeds op die
• Allow for more probing (asking for onderwerp gefokus
elaborations and expansion) • Laat toe vir meer ondersoek (vra
• More variation in content and vir uitbreidings en uitbreiding)
focus • Meer variasie in inhoud en fokus
Unstructured Interviews (purely exploratory) /
Ongestruktureerde onderhoude (suiwer verkennend)
• Similar to a conversation • Soortgelyk aan 'n gesprek
• General topic to discuss, not • Algemene onderwerp om te
query bespreek, nie navraag nie
• No specific or set questions • Geen spesifieke of vasgestelde
• Interviewer must be well- vrae nie
prepared for the topic • Onderhoudvoerder moet goed
• No specific order of questions voorbereid wees vir die
onderwerp
• Can be difficult to stay with the • Geen spesifieke volgorde van
focus of the study vrae nie
• Dit kan moeilik wees om by die
fokus van die studie te hou
Focus Groups (Exploratory discussions in groups) /
Fokusgroepe (Verkennende besprekings in groepe
• Discussion focused on a specific • Bespreking gefokus op 'n spesifieke
topic (not a group interview!) with onderwerp (nie 'n groeponderhoud
the researcher as a moderator nie!) met die navorser as moderator
• Group interactions: • Groepinteraksies:
• Widen range of responses • Verbreed reeks antwoorde
• Richer detail: Building on each • Ryker detail: Bou op mekaar se
others’ ideas idees
• Consider group dynamics • Oorweeg groepdinamika
• Not suitable for highly sensitive • Nie geskik vir hoogs sensitiewe
topics onderwerpe nie
• Relatively passive moderator • Relatief passiewe moderator
• Encourage discussion • Moedig bespreking aan
• Maintain focus • Behou fokus
 Process of conducting a focus group
Proses om 'n fokusgroep te hou

Generate multiple
Encourage debate or
views and
• Start the discussion discussion • More focus on the perceptions
• Develop rapport topic
• Note general • Individual ideas
• More specific views
perspectives • Elaboration
about the topic
• Increased • Dynamics of
• Deliberate probing
interaction discussion
Shift to more
Broad set of
structured
questions
questioning
Types of Probing in Interviews / Focus Groups
Tipes ondersoek in onderhoude / fokusgroepe
Detail probes Elaboration probes Clarification probes

Who are you talking about? Tell me more about… Is …. What you mean?

Where did that happen? Can you give an example? Is …. Correct?

What do you mean by that? Can you explain it to me? Did I understand…correctly?
 Achieving good interviews and focus groups
Die bereiking van goeie onderhoude en fokusgroepe

Reproducible Systematic
• Someone else • Interviewees must
could use the have unique
same topic guide interpretations
• Similar information • Do not focus on
every time just choosing data
that supports ideas

Credible Transparent
• Questions asked in • Clear report of
a way that methods
generates truthful • Documenting
accounts sampling,
• Careful planning of collection, and
questions analysis
Observations / Waarnemings
• Systematically recording behavioral
patterns of participants and/or occurrences
• Insider perspective (emic) or outsider
perspective (etic) based
• What is observed is based on:
• Purpose of study
• Focus of study
• Natural immersion in a setting recording
using:
• Anecdotes / descriptions
• Running records / sequential accounts
• Structured observation schedules (specific
information written down)
• Being conscious of bias:
• Selective observation
• Missing the big picture
• Sistematies optekening van gedragspatrone
van deelnemers en/of gebeurtenisse
• Insider-perspektief (emies) of buitestander-
perspektief (etiese) gebaseer
• Wat waargeneem word, is gebaseer op:
• Doel van studie
• Fokus van studie
• Natuurlike onderdompeling in 'n
omgewingsopname deur gebruik te maak
van:
• Anekdotes / beskrywings
• Lopende rekords / opeenvolgende vertellings
• Gestruktureerde waarnemingskedules
(spesifieke inligting neergeskryf)
• Om bewus te wees van vooroordeel:
• Selektiewe waarneming
• Mis die groter prent
Types of Observation / Tipes Waarneming
• Non-participant
Complete observer • Etic (outsider) observation
• Unobtrusive

• Part of the situation as an observer

Observer as participant
• Uninvolved

• Emic (insider)
• Part of the research process
Participant as observer
• Work with participants (common in action research)
• Intervenes and participates in dynamics of situations

• Immersed in setting
Complete participant • Participants often unaware of observations
• Ethical concerns
Choosing the Right Data Collection Method /
Kies van die Regte Dataversamelingsmetode
Who can give me the
information
What do I want to find
(participants /
out? (Focus of Study)
sampling) and how
sensitive is the topic?

Is it more important to Do I need a broad

discuss the topic or to description or in-depth
get in-depth individual information? How
experiences? much detail?

How complicated is How specific do I need

the topic? the information to be?
 Exit Quiz
Reasoning, paradigms, research designs, sampling,
and data collection in qualitative research

Uitgangsvasvra
Redenering, paradigmas, navorsingsontwerpe,
proefneming en dataversameling in kwalitatiewe
navorsing
Please use the below code in menti.com
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CODE 42283246
Connections between collection and analysis: Data
Saturation from an Iterative Process
Summary / Opsomming
• The most common data collection
methods in qualitative research are:
• Interviews (individual or group)
• Focus groups
• Observations
• A combination of methods is
sometimes used in ethnography and
case studies
• Choice of data collection method
depends on the research question and
design – what you want to find out and
from whom
• Data saturation is reached when no
new themes or information emerge
from the data
• Die mees algemene data-
insamelingsmetodes in kwalitatiewe
navorsing is:
• Onderhoude (individu of groep)
• Fokusgroepe
• Waarnemings
• 'n Kombinasie van metodes word soms
in etnografie en gevallestudies gebruik
• Keuse van data-insamelingsmetode
hang af van die navorsingsvraag en
ontwerp – wat jy wil uitvind en by wie
• Dataversadiging word bereik wanneer
geen nuwe temas of inligting uit die
data na vore kom nie