PSYC312

Study Unit 2: Qualitative Research Designs

Leereenheid 2: Kwalitatiewe Navorsingsontwerpe
Lecturer/Dosent: Dr Ingrid Opperman
Office/Kantoor: Potchefstroom Campus, E8, G16
Consulting Hours/Spreekure: By Appointment/Per afspraak
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 IMPORTANT: Changes to Assessment Plan
# Date Open Date Closed Type Content Module
Weight
1 15 March 2024 18 March 2024 eFundi MCQ Conceptualizing psychological and 10%
qualitative research
Qualitative research designs
Qualitative data collection
2 12 April 2024 15 April 2024 eFundi MCQ Qualitative research designs 10%
Quantitative research designs
3 TBC TBC Mid-semester Test Conceptualizing psychological research 15%
Inductive and deductive reasoning
Qualitative and quantitative research
designs and data collection
4 10 May 2024 13 May 2024 eFundi MCQ Full scope of Study Unit 1-3, 15%
particularly inductive and deductive
reasoning, research designs, data
collection, data analysis, and report
writing
5 TBC 24 May 2024 Summative Assignment The summative assignment replaces 50%
the examination
Learning Outcomes: Study Section 2.1. and 2.2
Leeruitkomstes: Bestudeer Afdeling 2.1. en 2.2.
• Define and explain what qualitative research is
• Describe the philosophical underpinnings of the
interpretivist / social constructivist paradigms
• Motivate why the interpretivist and social
constructivist paradigm is suitable for a qualitative
research study
• Identify and apply the characteristics of a
qualitative research project
• Identify and describe the different qualitative
research designs and apply their characteristics to
solving research-related problems and answering
research questions
• Justify the choice of a specific qualitative research
design in a research project
• Definieer en verduidelik wat kwalitatiewe
navorsing is.
• Beskryf die filosofiese onderbou van die
interpretatiewe/sosiaal konstruktivistiese
paradigmas.
• Motiver waarom die interpretatiewe en sosiaal
konstruktivistiese paradigma geskik is vir 'n
kwalitatiewe navorsingstudie.
• Identifiseer en pas die eienskappe van 'n
kwalitatiewe navorsingsprojek toe.
• Identifiseer en beskryf die verskillende kwalitatiewe
navorsingsontwerpe en pas hul eienskappe toe om
navorsingsverwante probleme op te los en
navorsingsvrae te beantwoord.
• Regverdig die keuse van 'n spesifieke kwalitatiewe
navorsingsontwerp in 'n navorsingsprojek.
Study Materials
Studiemateriaal
• Chapter 4 of First Steps in Research:
Introducing Qualitative Research
• Chapter 5 of First Steps in Research:
Qualitative research designs and data
gathering techniques
• Suggested reading: Creswell, J. W.
(2009) Research Designs: Qualitative,
quantitative and mixed methods
approaches. Thousand Oaks.
(Appropriate Sections)
• Additional materials communicated
on eFundi.
• Please consult eFundi for a full list of
readings and sections.
• Hoofstuk 4 van First Steps in Research:
Introducing Qualitative Research
• Hoofstuk 5 van First Steps in
Research: Qualitative research
designs and data gathering
techniques
• Voorgestelde leeswerk: Creswell, J. W.
(2009) Research Designs: Qualitative,
quantitative and mixed methods
approaches. Thousand Oaks.
(Gedeeltes van toepassing)
• Addisionele materiaal wat op eFundi
gedeel is.
What is Qualitative
Research?
Qualitative research focuses on the human
experience; the perspectives of people.
Qualitative research is concerned with
individual behaviours, perspectives,
experiences, and understandings of a
phenomenon using in-depth non-numerical
data such as interviews, focus groups, or
observations.

Kwalitatiewe navorsing fokus op die menslike

ervaring; die perspektiewe van mense.
Kwalitatiewe navorsing hou verband met
individuele gedrag, perspektiewe, ervarings,
en begrip van 'n verskynsel deur die gebruik
van diepgaande nie-numeriese data soos
onderhoude, fokusgroepe, of waarnemings.
The Interpretivist / Social Constructivist Paradigms in Qualitative
Research
Die Interpretivistiese / Sosiale Konstruktivistiese Paradigmas in
Kwalitatiewe Navorsing

• Multiple, subjective realities (no one • Meervoudige, subjektiewe werklikhede

truth, the truth depends on the person)
• Meaning is socially constructed
(dependent on other people and the
community)
• Meaning is dynamic and changes with
society and people’s perceptions
• Researchers cannot be neutral – they
have their own opinions and ideas which
they need to be aware of
• There are multiple interpretations of any
single phenomenon
(geen enkele waarheid nie, die waarheid
hang af van die persoon)
• Betekenis is sosiaal gekonstrueer
(afhanklik van ander mense en die
gemeenskap)
• Betekenis is dinamies en verander met
die samelewing en mense se persepsies
• Navorsers kan nie neutraal wees nie –
hulle het hul eie opinies en idees waaraan
hulle bewus moet wees
• Daar is meervoudige interpretasies van
enige enkele verskynsel
What indicates that the case study is using the
interpretivist paradigm?
Wat dui daarop dat die gevallestudie die
interpretatiewe paradigma gebruik?
Published research studies have Gepubliseerde navorsingsstudies
shown that men feel overlooked, het getoon dat mans voel asof
unimportant, or even unwanted hulle oor die hoof gesien word,
as fathers to their own children. onbelangrik is, of selfs as
This is known to have a negative ongewens as vaders tot hulle eie
effect on their mental health, kinders. Dit is bekend dat dit 'n
particularly in societies where negatiewe uitwerking op hulle
men are considered providers, not geestesgesondheid het, veral in
caregivers. samelewings waar mans beskou
word as verskaffers, nie versorgers
nie.
Choice of Qualitative Research Designs are Linked to the Research
Paradigm (Worldview)

Die keuse van kwalitatiewe navorsingsontwerpe is gekoppel aan die

navorsingsparadigma (wêreldbeskouing)

Are you What about their

What is the What is the What does the exploring perspectives are
phenomenon literature say? people’s you trying to find
question? perspectives? out?

Wat is die Wat is die Wat sê die

Verken jy mense
se
Wat probeer jy
uitvind oor hul
verskynsel? literatuur?
vraag? perspektiewe? perspektiewe?
Qualitative Research Designs
Kwalitatiewe Navorsingsontwerpe
• A research design is a method to
approach answering the
research question, choosing
participants, and collecting data
• Research designs help ensure
that research is systematic
• Phenomenology is the most
common qualitative research
design that we will explain
• ‘n Navorsingsontwerp is ‘n
metode om die beantwoording
van ‘n navorsingsvraag, die
seleksie van deelnemers en die
insameling van data te benader
• Navorsingsontwerpe help om te
verseker dat navorsing
sistematies is
• Fenomenologie is die mees
algemene kwalitatiewe
navorsingsontwerp
Common Qualitative Research Designs
Gewone Kwalitatiewe Navorsingsontwerpe
Ethnography Case study
• Cultures • Specific cases
• Communities • Details about
everything

Phenomenonology Narrative
• Lived experiences • Personal stories
• Explore and understand • Experiences of events
Qualitative:
Personal
Interpretations
and Constructed
Meanings
Common types of qualitative designs
Phenomenology is used to understand complex phenomena in individuals. This is the most
common design when using interviews for data collection.

Narrative designs focus on stories participants tell about their own experiences. This studies a
(often chronological) story about the phenomenon of interest. Individual interviews are often
used for participants to tell their stories.

Ethnography is used to study culture-sharing groups in-depth. Long-term access is used for a
comprehensive understanding of previously little understood groups. Ethnography does not
refer to just living in, or studying, some phenomenon in a community, but rather to studying
the culture itself. Different data collection methods are combined to fully understand the
group.

Case studies are important to study a specific “thing” within a bounded system. They refer to
something that has happened or a specific way things are which the researcher wants to
investigate (i.e., the phenomenon, such as how an impoverished school achieved very high
grade 12 results). Case studies usually use multiple forms of data collection.
Phenomenology
Fenomenologie
• Individual experiences and • Individuele ervarings en
meanings assigned to betekenisse word aan fenomene
phenomena toegeskryf
• Common themes about what • Algemene temas oor wat
phenomena mean to the fenomene vir die individu kan
individual beteken
• Individual and group • Individuele- en groeps
interpretations of a interpretasies van ‘n fenomeen
phenomenon • In-diepte beskrywings van ‘n
• In-depth descriptions of a spesifieke fenomeen
specific phenomenon
 Phenomenology: Studies of experiences

Study of experiences of people
Individual interpretations
Socially constructed meanings
Experience is a conscious
process
Individual experiences
Meaning is attached to experiences
Interpretations are dynamic Descriptions or interpretations
of themes in different people’s
experiences
Over time Common interpretations in context of
In context of culture culture
Similar lived experiences with individual
interpretations
What makes this phenomenology?
Wat maak dit fenomenologie?
Researchers interview 13 people
who survived COVID-19 after being
in the intensive care unit for over
three weeks. The research question
was “What helps COVID-19 patients
recover faster after being in intensive
care?” The themes from the
interviews showed that familiar
places and people, doctors who
communicate well, and family
support are important for a quick
recovery.
Navorsers ondervra 13 mense wat
COVID-19 oorleef het nadat hulle vir
meer as drie weke in die
intensiewesorg-eenheid was. Die
navorsingsvraag was "Wat help
COVID-19-pasiënte om vinniger te
herstel nadat hulle in intensiewe sorg
was?" Die temas uit die onderhoude
het getoon dat bekende plekke en
mense, dokters wat goed
kommunikeer, en
gesinsondersteuning belangrik is vir
'n vinnige herstel.
What type of research design should be used? Explain your answer with
reference to the scenario (2)

A researcher wants to understand whether women CEO’s

experience discrimination from male colleagues. A group
of 8 women CEO’s discuss their experiences of
discrimination with each other and the researcher.

‘n Navorser wil verstaan of vroulike HUBs (Hoof

Uitvoerende Beamptes) diskriminasie vanaf manlike
kollegas ervaar. ‘n Groep van 8 vroulike HUBs bespreek
hulle ervarings van diskriminasie met mekaar en die
navorser.
Answer

A phenomenological design is used (1) …

… to get in-depth understandings of the women CEO’s

experiences of discrimination from male colleagues (1)
Ethnography
Etnografie
• Study of a “peoples”
• Unique, culture-sharing groups
• Long-term access
• Immersion in the culture
• Considers context and culture-
shared interpretations of the
world
• Complex descriptions of various
phenomena
• Studie van ‘n “volke”
• Unieke groepe wat ‘n kultuur
deel
• Langtermyn toegang
• Verdieping in die kultuur
• Oorweeg konteks en gedeelde-
kultuur interpretasies van die
wêreld
• Komplekse beskrywings van
verskeie fenomene
Ethnography:
Writing about
people
Who are the focus of this ethnographic study and why is it
ethnography and not phenomenology?
Wie is die fokus van hierdie etnografiese studie en waarom
is dit etnografie en nie fenomenologie nie?
Researchers made observations of Navorsers het waarnemings van
local people, participated in daily plaaslike mense gemaak, aan
activities, and did formal daaglikse aktiwiteite deelgeneem,
interviews with the Sikasso people en formele onderhoude met die
in southern Mali between the Sikasso volk in suidelike Mali
years 2011 and 2013. The tussen die jare 2011 en 2013
researchers focused on rites of gevoer. Die navorsers het gefokus
passage into manhood for boys op inwydingsrituele vir seuns tot
and what roles men are expected manwees en watter rolle van
to play in society. mans in die samelewing verwag
word.
Case Study
Gevallestudie
• Highly detailed account of a • Hoogs-gedetailleerde verslag
bounded system or event van ‘n begrensde sisteem of
• Single, specific person, company, gebeurtenis
or event • Enkele, spesifieke persoon,
• Holistic groep of gebeurtenis
• Highly detailed • Holisties
• Variety of data collection • Hoogs-gedetailleerd
methods • Verskeidenheid van data-
insamelingsmetodes
 Personal
(individual)
information Real-world
exemplar to
generalize to
similar cases

Application Unique
of theory to occurrences
existing
practice

Single real-world entity

Who or what is the case study about?
Wie of wat is die gevallestudie oor?
Medical students use practical
knowledge, critical thinking, and
problem-solving to diagnose their
patients. Similar skills are used by
psychologists. However, few
psychology students exhibit strong
critical thinking and reasoning skills.
One university is known for
producing graduates with stronger
skills through a variety of teaching
methods which could be understood
better.
Mediese studente gebruik praktiese
kennis, kritiese denke, en
probleemoplossing om hul pasiënte
te diagnoseer. Soortgelyke
vaardighede word deur sielkundiges
gebruik. Tog toon min
sielkundestudente sterk kritiese
denke- en redeneervaardighede. Een
universiteit staan bekend daarvoor
dat hulle gegradueerdes met sterker
vaardighede produseer deur 'n
verskeidenheid onderrigmetodes wat
beter verstaanbaar kan wees.
Who are the participants and what is the approach / design? Explain your answer
with reference to the scenario (4)
Wie is die deelnemers en wat is die benadering / ontwerp?

A researcher is studying people’s individual experiences

of xenophobic attacks. 10 foreign nationals agree to be
interviewed about their personal experience.

‘n Navorser bestudeer mense se individuele ervarings van

xenofobiese aanvalle. 10 buitelanders stem in tot
onderhoude rakende hul persoonlike ervarings.
Answer
The participants are foreign nationals who have experienced
xenophobic attacks (1; just listing foreign nationals gives ½).

A phenomenological design (1) will be used because …

… the researcher wants an in-depth understanding of a

specific phenomenon (1).

Phenomenology will help understand these participants’

personal experiences of xenophobic attacks (1).
What is the approach / design? Explain your answer referencing the scenario (3)
Wat is die benadering / ontwerp?
A researcher is investigating how an individual with autism spectrum
disorder responds to a new play-based therapy. The researcher is
conducting interviews with various people, making observations with
extensive notes, and searching much literature on how this program would
work.

‘n Navorser ondersoek hoe ‘n individu met outisme spektrum versteuring

reageer op ‘n nuwe spel-gebaseerde terapie. Die navorser voer onderhoude
met verskeie mense, vorm waarnemings met breedvoerige notas, en
deursoek baie literatuur rakende hoe hierdie program sou werk.
Answer

A case study (1) is appropriate because the researcher

is seeking to understand how a …

…single individual with autism spectrum disorder (1;

bounded system) is responding to an intervention.

A case study involves in-depth research into a single

subject or process (1), such as play-based therapy.
Who are the participants and what is the approach / design?
Explain your answer with reference to the scenario. (4)

Illegal immigrants in the USA are often subjected to much

discrimination and many misconceptions exist. However,
many life events can culminate in their arrival in the new
country. A researcher wants to find out what life events took
place over time leading to 3 illegal immigrants arriving in the
USA and their individual experiences of those events.

Onwettige immigrante in die VSA is dikwels onderworpe aan

erge diskriminasie en vele wanopvattings bestaan. Vele
lewensgebeurtenisse kan egter lei tot hul aankoms in die
nuwe land. ‘n Navorser wil vasstel watter
lewensgebeurtenisse plaasgevind het met die verloop van tyd
wat lei na die aankoms van 3 onwettige immigrante in die
VSA en hul individuele ervarings van daardie gebeurtenisse.
Answer

The participants in this study are illegal immigrants in the USA (1).

The sample can be obtained using purposive sampling (1) with the criteria
that the participants must be illegal immigrants living in the USA.

Since the researcher wants to understand the events in the participants’

lives which led them to arriving in the USA, and their experiences of those
events, a narrative design (1) can be used …

… for participants to tell their stories (1)

Narrative Designs
Narratiewe Ontwerpe
• Narrative / Story-telling
• Lived stories about a
phenomenon or event
• Chronological: The phenomenon
or story over time
• Episodic: The specific story or
event
• Highly detailed
• Narratief / Storie-vertelling
• Geleefde stories rakende ‘n
fenomeen of gebeurtenis
• Chronologies: Die fenomeen of
storie oor tyd
• Episodies: Die spesifieke storie of
gebeurtenis
• Hoogs-gedetailleerd
Narrative Designs
Narratiewe Ontwerpe
Who or what is the case study about? What sort of
information could the researcher get?
Wie of wat is die gevallestudie oor? Watter tipe inligting kan
die navorsers bekom?
Islamic women are often denied even
basic education in their own countries.
However, some young Islamic women
have refused to accept this practice, left
their family homes at great risk to
themselves, and travelled to other
countries as immigrants (often illegally)
to try and obtain access to educational
programs. Six of these women agree to
share the story of how they came to the
decision to leave their home and the
challenges they experienced in seeking
education as immigrants in a new
country which often viewed them as a
threat due to their religion.
Islamitiese vroue word dikwels selfs basiese
onderrig ontneem in hul eie lande. Tog het
sommige jong Islamitiese vroue geweier om
hierdie praktyk te aanvaar, het hul
gesinswoningen verlaat met groot risiko vir
hulself, en na ander lande gereis as immigrante
(dikwels onwettig) om toegang tot
onderwysprogramme te probeer verkry. Ses van
hierdie vroue stem daarmee in om die verhaal te
deel van hoe hulle tot die besluit gekom het om
hul huis te verlaat en die uitdagings wat hulle
ondervind het om as immigrante in 'n nuwe land
onderrig te bekom, waar hulle dikwels as 'n
bedreiging beskou is as gevolg van hul
godsdiens.
Action Research
Aksienavorsing
• Sample / participants are active
participants in the research
process
• Focus on change and community
solutions
• Empowerment
• Researcher mediates interventions
• Cyclical process: Problem,
intervention, consequence,
develop further interventions for
“new” problems
• Steekproef / deelnemers is aktiewe
deelnemers in die
navorsingsproses
• Fokus op verandering en
gemeenskapsoplossings
• Bemagtiging
• Navorser bemiddel intervensies
• Sikliese proses: Probleem,
intervensie, gevolg, ontwikkel
verdere intervensies vir “nuwe
probleme”
Who would be interviewed? Explain your answer with reference to the focus of
the study (3)
Met wie sal onderhoude gevoer word?

A researcher is considering how parents with young

children in the Western Cape can be resilient even
though there are very high crime levels.

‘n Navorser oorweeg hoe ouers met jong kinders in die

Wes-Kaap veerkragtig kan wees selfs met die baie hoë
misdaadsyfer.
Answer

The researcher would interview the parents (1) …

… of young children in the Western Cape (1) in a high-

crime area.

The researchers would interview these parents to better

understand how they are resilient (1) despite high crime
levels.
What type of research design is most appropriate? Explain your answer
with reference to the scenario. (4)
Watter tipe navorsingsontwerp is mees gepas?

A researcher is interested in teen girls’ experiences after

being rescued from human trafficking rings. The researcher
wants to understand how they came to be part of the ring as
well as how they were rescued. The researcher identifies 3
girls who meet the purpose of the study.

‘n Navorser is geïnteresseerd in die ervarings van

tienermeisies nadat hulle uit die slawehandel gered is. Die
navorser wil verstaan hoe hulle deel geword het van die
slawehandel sowel as hoe hulle gered is. Die navorser
identifiseer 3 meisies wat aan die doel van hierdie studie
voldoen.
Answer
The researcher will use a narrative design (1) …

… to understand the stories (1) …

… about how the girls came to be part of the ring and how they were rescued (1).

The researcher wants an in-depth account of the girls’ experiences (1)

What type of research design is this and what is the data collection technique?
Explain your answer with reference to the scenario (4)
Watter tipe navorsingsontwerp is hierdie en wat is die tegniek?

A researcher is interested in how Grade 12 mathematics

teachers perceive students who are struggling
academically and what they believe the reasons behind
these struggles are. The researcher wants to develop an
in-depth understanding of the teachers’ perspectives.

‘n Navorser is geïnteresseerd in hoe Graad 12 wiskunde

onderwysers studente waarneem wat akademies sukkel
en wat hulle dink die rede daarvoor is. Die navorser wil ‘n
in-diepte begrip ontwikkel van die onderwysers se
perspektiewe.
Answer

The researcher is using a phenomenological design (1) …

… to understand the phenomenon of teacher’s perceptions

about the reasons that students are struggling academically (1).

The researcher will use interviews (1, see next) or focus groups
(1, see prev) …

… to gain an in-depth understanding of the teachers’

perspectives in their own words (1)
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Geloofwaardigheid en Betroubaarheid
• Research is systematic so data must
be credible (valid) and trustworthy
(reliable)
• Data should be applicable to other
contexts
• Interviews with different participants
• Data must be confirmable
• Repeating the same study for
confirmation
• Methods should be clear so that
others can repeat the study
• Using multiple data sources to
confirm ideas and understand
changing perspectives (triangulation
and crystallization of concepts)
• Navorsing is sistematies, so data
moet geloofwaardig (geldig) en
betroubaar wees
• Data moet toepaslik aan ander
kontekste wees
• Onderhoude met ander deelnemers
• Data moet bevestigbaar wees
• Herhaal dieselfde studie vir
bevestiging
• Metodes moet duidelik wees sodat
ander navorsers die studie kan herhaal
• Die gebruik van veelvoudige data-
bronne om idees te bevestig en om
veranderende perspektiewe te
verstaan (triangulasie en
kristallisasie van konsepte)
Is this data trustworthy?
State why (3)
Is hierdie data betroubaar?
A researcher chooses 12 women to interview about their experiences
of university life. Although the researcher is not interested in any
specific experiences, they believe that the information will be useful.
The researcher writes a final report stating that women have negative
experiences based on “conversations.”

‘n Navorser kies 12 vrouens om mee onderhoude te voer rakende hul

ervarings van universiteitslewe. Alhoewel die navorser nie in enige
spesifieke ervarings geïnteresseer is nie, glo hy dat die inligting nuttig
sal wees. Die navorser skryf ‘n finale verslag waar hy stel dat vrouens
negatiewe ervarings deurgaan gebaseer op “gesprekke”.
Answer

The data is not trustworthy (reliable) (1) …

… because the researcher did not have a systematic approach /

research question / design (1) …

…so the data cannot be trustworthy because the research cannot be

replicated (it is not confirmable). (1)
Summary
Opsomming
• Qualitative research is a systematic process of
gathering in-depth information based on
individual interpretations and social
constructions
• Phenomenology (in-depth understanding of a
phenomenon) is the most common
qualitative research design
• Non-probability, purposive sampling is often
used to ensure that participants can provide
suitable information
• Qualitative research usually uses interviews
and focus groups
• Data should accurately reflect a specific
phenomenon and other researchers should
be able to replicate the study
• Kwalitatiewe navorsing is ‘n sistematiese
proses van in-diepte inligting versamel,
gebaseer op individuele interpretasies en
sosiale konstruksies
• Fenomenologie (in-diepte begrip van ‘n
fenomeen) is die algemeenste kwalitatiewe
navorsingsontwerp
• Nie-waarskynlikheid, doelbewuste
steekproefneming word dikwels gebruik om te
verseker dat deelnemers gepaste inligting kan
voorsien
• Kwalitatiewe navorsing maak gewoonlik
gebruik van onderhoude en fokusgroepe
• Data moet ‘n spesifieke fenomeen akkuraat
reflekteer en ander navorsers behoort in staat
te wees om die studie te herhaal