Utilitarian Ethics:

a) Overview of Utilitarianism: Utilitarian ethics, founded by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, judges the rightness of actions
based on their consequences, aiming to maximize overall happiness or utility.

b) Historical Background: Utilitarianism traces its roots to classical utilitarianism, which emphasizes the principle of utility as the
criterion of morality.

c) Principle of Utility and Greatest Happiness Principle: Utilitarianism is guided by the principle of utility, which advocates
maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain, encapsulated in the greatest happiness principle.

d) Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism can be understood in terms of act utilitarianism, which evaluates individual actions, or
rule utilitarianism, which focuses on the utility of moral rules.

e) Applications in Moral and Political Philosophy: Utilitarian principles are applied to various moral and political issues, including
healthcare, environmental policy, and distributive justice.

f) Criticisms and Ethical Challenges: Critics challenge utilitarianism on grounds of its treatment of individual rights, its ability to
account for justice, and the feasibility of calculating utility.

g) Utilitarianism in Public Policy and Decision-Making: Utilitarian considerations often influence policy decisions, prompting debates
over balancing competing interests and ethical considerations.

Epicurus and Epicurean Ethics:

a. Biography of Epicurus: Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher who founded the school of Epicureanism, advocating for a
philosophy of pleasure and tranquility.

b. Epicurean Philosophy and Hedonism: Epicureanism posits that the highest good is pleasure, understood as the absence of pain
and mental tranquility (ataraxia).

c. Ataraxia (Tranquility) and Aponia (Absence of Pain): Ataraxia represents the state of inner peace and freedom from disturbance,
while aponia refers to the absence of bodily pain.

d. Critique of Common Beliefs about Epicureanism: Epicureanism is often misunderstood as a philosophy of indulgence or
hedonistic pursuit, whereas Epicurus emphasized moderation and simplicity.

e. Epicurean Ethics in Ancient and Modern Contexts: Epicurean ethics challenged prevailing notions of happiness and the good life
in ancient Greece and continues to inspire contemporary discussions on well-being and fulfillment.

f. Relationship between Epicurean Ethics and Hedonistic Utilitarianism: While both Epicureanism and hedonistic utilitarianism
prioritize pleasure, they differ in their understanding of pleasure and their approach to ethical decision-making.

g. Contemporary Relevance and Applications of Epicurean Principles: Epicurean principles of moderation, self-sufficiency, and
tranquility find resonance in contemporary discussions on mindfulness, minimalism, and holistic well-being.

Epicurus: Ancient Greek philosopher who founded Epicureanism, emphasizing the pursuit of happiness and tranquility.

Epicurean Ethics: Ethical philosophy focused on maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain to achieve a state of tranquility (ataraxia).

Bases of Good: Pleasure (Hedonism): Epicurus believed that pleasure, especially tranquility and absence of pain (ataraxia), is the
highest good.

Absence of Pain: Avoidance of physical and mental suffering is central to Epicurean ethics.

Simple Living: Epicurus advocated for a simple life free from unnecessary desires and excess, as they often lead to pain and
disturbance.

Friendship (Philosophical Companionship): Meaningful relationships based on friendship and mutual support contribute to happiness
and well-being.

Epicurus' philosophy promotes a balanced pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain, emphasizing the importance of moderation,
simplicity, and meaningful human connections in achieving a fulfilling life.

Utilitarian ethics is a consequentialist ethical theory that asserts that the best action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or
pleasure and minimizes suffering or pain for the greatest number of people. Here's a concise explanation:

Utilitarian Ethics: Consequentialist ethical theory that prioritizes actions that maximize overall happiness or pleasure and minimize
suffering or pain for the greatest number of individuals

Principle of Utility: The foundational principle of utilitarianism, stating that actions are morally right if they produce the greatest amount
of happiness or pleasure and morally wrong if they produce more suffering or pain.

Greatest Happiness Principle: Also known as the greatest happiness for the greatest number principle, it emphasizes maximizing the
overall well-being of the greatest number of people.

Quantifiable Consequences: Utilitarianism often involves quantifying pleasure and pain to evaluate the consequences of actions,
though qualitative assessments can also be considered.
Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism: Act utilitarianism evaluates each individual action based on its consequences, while rule utilitarianism
assesses actions based on adherence to rules or principles that, if universally followed, would lead to the greatest happiness.

Utilitarian ethics provides a straightforward framework for making moral decisions by focusing on the consequences of actions and
aiming to maximize overall well-being.

Discourse Ethics

Premise

1, In pre-modern times, the conceptions of the good were often shared, dictated by culture.

2. In multi-cultural societies of post-modern times, there are always competing conceptions of the good.

3. As a result, conflicts and injustice are readily felt by those whose voices are not heard.

4. Utilitarian formula was too simplistic to address the competing conceptions of good and in some cases amplified the felt injustice.

5. Discourse theory was conceived to provide a way of creating a system of shared conceptions of the good in societies where there
are competing conceptions of the good.

Principles for Formulating Shared Conceptions

1. Human beings act in a community and so, one needs the perspective of others.

2. To articulate norms of human behavior, it needs a process of justification (discourse).

3. It needs to accept that discourse is a process of consensus-building.

4. In consensus, a norm can only be valid if all affected can accept (approval of all affected) the consequences.

Consensus

1. is different from election or votation.

2. is different from making compromises.

To ensure fairness

1. All affected must be part of the process of deliberation.

2. The process must be fair such that all external influences like power and money are suspended and only the force of better
argument has influence over the participants.

3. All decisions or agreements have a "for now" characteristic.

Introduction:

- Common assumption: People can easily judge right and wrong based on their common sense.

- Moral judgment is often instinctive and unshakable.

- Example: Instinctive judgments about proper dressing, stealing, killing, and violence against women and children.

- Differing opinions on moral issues such as wife beating.

Concepts and Theories:

1. Common Sense Morality: Instinctive and unshakable moral judgment based on common sense.

2. Cultural Influence on Morality: Moral understanding influenced by social status, ethnicity, generation, historical situation, and
gender.

3. Variability of Moral Perspectives: Multiple ways of understanding and articulating the good.

4. Ethical Frameworks: Frameworks constructed from societal and cultural influences.

5. Transcendent vs. Autonomous Morality: Transition from a transcendent moral order to an autonomous moral order.

6. Autonomous Morality: Human reason as the basis for understanding the good.Legitimacy of moral laws based on rational
consensus.

7. Multicultural Society and Ethical Conflict: Challenge of arriving at a shared conception of the good in a multicultural society.

8. Discourse Theory:Theory for arriving at a shared conception of the good using reason.

9. Jürgen Habermas and Discourse Ethics: Philosopher influenced by Frankfurt School of Thinkers. Focus on democratization of
modern societies and discourse theory.
Terms and Definitions:

Common Sense Morality: Instinctive and unshakable moral judgment based on common sense.

Cultural Influence on Morality: Moral understanding influenced by social status, ethnicity, generation, historical situation, and gender.

Ethical Frameworks: Frameworks constructed from societal and cultural influences.

Transcendent Morality: Moral order based on a transcendent authority (e.g., God, cosmos).

Autonomous Morality: Moral order based on human reason and rational consensus.

Discourse Theory: Theory for arriving at a shared conception of the good using reason.

Jürgen Habermas: Philosopher focused on discourse theory and democratization of modern societies.

Discourse Ethics: Habermas's theory for arriving at a shared conception of the good through discourse and rational consensus.

Competing Conceptions of the Good

Emergence of discourse ethics due to competing conceptions of the good in modernized societies.

In multicultural societies, different forms of reasoning, including moral reasoning, exist, leading to conflict and injustice.

Concepts and Theories:

1. Competing Conceptions of the Good: Different understandings of what is morally right or good.

2. Dominant Ethical Systems: Guides for acceptable behavior in societies. Determine acceptable and unacceptable behavior,
expectations, and duties.

3. Evolution of Dominant Systems: Dominant systems evolve as societies experiment with what works and what is fair.

4. Oppressiveness of Dominant Systems: Dominant systems can become oppressive when societal conditions change.

5. Multicultural Societies: Large, cosmopolitan communities with people from diverse cultures. Conceptions of the good from other
cultures can be oppressive for newcomers.

6. Tragic Examples of Oppressiveness: Examples of oppression due to clashes between dominant systems and traditional cultures.

7. Imposition of Dominant Systems by Colonizers: Many dominant legal, ethical, cultural, and economic systems were imposed by
colonizers.

8. Importance of Shared Conception of the Good: Essential for building communities without violence and alienation.

9. Discourse Theory: Provides a way to create shared conceptions of the good in societies with competing conceptions.

Terms and Definitions:

1) Competing Conceptions of the Good: Different understandings of what is morally right or good.

2) Dominant Ethical Systems: Guides for acceptable behavior in societies.

3) Oppressiveness of Dominant Systems: Dominant systems can become oppressive when societal conditions change.

4) Multicultural Societies: Large, cosmopolitan communities with people from diverse cultures.

5) Imposition of Dominant Systems by Colonizers: Many dominant legal, ethical, cultural, and economic systems were imposed by
colonizers.

6) Shared Conception of the Good: Essential for building communities without violence and alienation.

7) Discourse Theory: Provides a way to create shared conceptions of the good in societies with competing conceptions.

"Legislating" for Autonomous, Rational Beings

Introduction:

Basic Idea of Discourse Theory: Human beings are rational and autonomous, needing to legislate their own rules of behavior.

Reasons for Action:

Practicality: Actions are taken because they are beneficial.

Fear of Negative Consequences: Actions are taken to avoid negative outcomes.

Authority: Actions are taken based on the authority of respected individuals or institutions.

Conviction of the Good: Actions are taken because they are perceived as good and ought to be done.

Human Need for Norms:To guide behavior and realize one's fullest potential (the good).
Challenges in Formulating Norms

Lack of a transcendent authority or universal reason to determine norms.

The Communal Process: Norms must be acceptable to the community. Articulating a shared conception of the good requires dialogue
and perspective from others.

Principles for Formulating Norms:

Justification Process: Process of explaining the basis for norms to each other.

Consensus Building: Process of opinion and will formation to achieve a shared understanding of the good.

Habermas's Modification of Kant's Categorical Imperative: Norms must be acceptable to all affected individuals.

Principle of Discourse Ethics (D): Valid norms are those that meet with the approval of all affected in a practical discourse.

Practical Discourse: Cooperative process of argumentation where people justify the validity of norms to each other.

Terms and Definitions:

Discourse Theory: Theory based on the idea that human beings are rational and autonomous, thus needing to legislate their own rules
of behavior.

Practical Discourse: Cooperative process of argumentation where people justify the validity of norms to each other.

Principle of Discourse Ethics (D): Valid norms are those that meet with the approval of all affected in their capacity as participants in a
practical discourse.

The Basic Character of Discourse Procedures

Introduction:

Principles of Deliberative Democracy:

Argumentative Form: Process involves the regulated exchange of information and reasons among parties.

Inclusivity and Publicness: Deliberations are inclusive and public; no one is excluded, and affected parties have equal chances to
participate.

Uncoerced Deliberation: Deliberations are uncoerced; participants are bound only by the presuppositions of communication and rules
of argumentation.

Equality of Participants: Deliberations are free of internal coercion, ensuring equality among participants. Yes/no positions are taken
solely based on the unforced force of the better argument.

Rationality and Continuity: Deliberations aim at rationally motivated agreements and can be indefinitely continued or resumed.

Scope of Political Deliberations: Extend to any matter that can be regulated in the equal interest of all. Include interpretation of needs
and wants, and the change of prepolitical attitudes and preferences.

Terms and Definitions:

Deliberative Democracy: Political system in which decisions are made through deliberation and discussion among citizens.

Argumentative Form: Process involving the regulated exchange of information and reasons among parties.

Inclusivity and Publicness: Deliberations are inclusive and public; all affected parties have equal chances to participate.

Uncoerced Deliberation: Deliberations are free from coercion, with participants bound only by the presuppositions of communication
and rules of argumentation.

Equality of Participants: Deliberations are free of internal coercion, ensuring equality among participants.

Rationality and Continuity: Deliberations aim at rationally motivated agreements and can be indefinitely continued or resumed.

Scope of Political Deliberations: Extend to any matter that can be regulated in the equal interest of all. Include interpretation of needs
and wants, and the change of prepolitical attitudes and preferences.

Shared Opinion and Will-Formation

Introduction:

Shared Opinion and Will-Formation:

We-Perspective: People live in harmony when they reconcile their competing conceptions of the good and articulate a shared
conception of the good that they can equally accept. The shared conception of the good becomes their shared norm for acting
together.
Cooperative Discourse and Mutual Justification: Participants engage in a process of mutual justification and clarification to understand
and respect each other's perspectives. Engaging in cooperative discourse helps in mutual clarification and deepening of
understanding.

Example: Indigenous Land Ownership vs. Modern Westernized Ownership:

Indigenous people view land as a shared territory and are stewards of their land, while modern Westernized people view land as a
commodity for private ownership and economic gain.

Conflicting conceptions of land ownership require a process of mutual justification and clarification to arrive at shared norms of land
stewardship and ownership.

Consensus Building vs. Compromise:

Consensus building seeks a shared understanding of the good, arrived at through mutual recognition and communication. Compromise
entails surrendering one's judgment and autonomy for practical purposes.

Conditions for Consensus Building:

Inclusivity: All affected parties must be part of the deliberation process.

Fairness: Deliberative process must be fair, suspending external influences like power and money, and allowing only the force of the
better argument to influence participants.

Provisionality: Decisions are made based on existing knowledge and arguments but can change with the emergence of better
arguments.

Terms and Definitions:

We-Perspective: A community's shared horizon of understanding, born from free and fair engagement of persons with different frames
of understanding the good.

Cooperative Discourse: Process of mutual justification and clarification where participants explain to each other why they believe what
they believe.

Consensus Building: Process of arriving at a shared understanding of the good through mutual recognition and communication.

Compromise: Surrendering one's judgment and autonomy for practical purposes.

Inclusivity: All affected parties must be part of the deliberation process.

Fairness: Deliberative process must be fair, with the suspension of external influences like power and money.

Provisionality: Decisions are made based on existing knowledge and arguments but can change with the emergence of better
arguments.

Democracy and Discourse

Introduction:

Ethnolinguistic Diversity in the Philippines: The Philippine nation is divided among various cultures or ethnolinguistic communities.
Significant divides exist between classes and sectors within the nation.

Western Systems of Governance:The government and its systems are defined by Western systems of democratic governance. Legal,
economic, and bureaucratic systems in the Philippines are borrowed from Western democracies.

Divergent Conceptions of the Good: People from traditional societies often feel lost in the dominant economic system, which is based
on Western liberal, free-market systems. There is a disconnect between the values of the dominant rationality and those of
marginalized groups, leading to the perception that the dominant system does not serve them.

Disadvantages Faced by Marginalized Groups: Laws and systems often work against the interests of the poor and marginalized.
Existing structures, including ownership, traffic, and economic laws, often disadvantage marginalized groups such as farmers,
fisherfolk, and laborers.

Role of Discourse Theory in Reform: Discourse theory provides a framework for reforming policies that disadvantage marginalized
groups.Strengthening civil society institutions is crucial for providing marginalized groups with platforms to engage in discourse and
advocate for reform.

Importance of Civil Society Institutions: Civil society organizations represent the voices of various citizens in the public sphere. Non-
governmental agencies, people's organizations, professional organizations, and special interest groups help represent marginalized
sectors and advocate for policy reform.

Hope for Reform: There is hope that civil society organizations can make existing institutions in the Philippines more representative of
the interests of the people. Existing systems, such as the Party-List System and local sectoral representation, provide avenues for
discourse and policy reform, although they are not fully functional.

Utilizing Discourse Theory for Reform: Using discourse theory principles can activate existing systems and aid in building a more
inclusive and representative nation.
Terms and Definitions:

Civil Society Institutions: Organizations representing various citizens in the public sphere, including non-governmental agencies,
people's organizations, professional organizations, and special interest groups.

Party-List System: A system of proportional representation in the Philippines that allows marginalized sectors to gain representation in
the House of Representatives.

Local Sectoral Representation System: A system that provides representation for various sectors at the local government level.

Discourse Theory: A framework for reforming policies through inclusive and open discourse among affected parties.

Marginalized Groups: Social, economic, and cultural groups that are disadvantaged and underrepresented in society.

Habermas's Ideal Discourse Situation:

Objective: Provides an ideal discourse situation for building norms of behavior consensually.

Practical Implementation: Offers reasonable norms to guide humanity in forming universalizable norms in a diverse world of
rationalities.

Criteria for Fair and Reasonable Discourse: Habermas's criteria for fair and reasonable discourse can shape governance systems and
consensus-building processes at all levels.

Applications of Discourse Theory:

Democratic Institutions and Reform: Used to understand and reform democratic institutions.

Building Just Societies: Applied to create fair and just societies.

Institutions for Peace Building: Utilized to assess institutions for peace building.

Importance of Fair and Discursive Institutions:

Chantal Mouffe's Perspective: Even those who disagree with Habermas acknowledge the importance of fair and discursive institutions.

Achieving Peace and Order: Mouffe suggests that peace and order can be achieved if societies accept that the contest of discourse is
reasonable and fair.

ASIAN ETHICAL TRADITIONS

Hinduism

 The Karmic Cycle - the cycle of rebirth as entrapment in the life of a finite body.
 Samsara - reincarnation/ repeated birth in different life forms
 Karma - actions and their consequences
 Darma - the duty based on one's station in life.
 Moksha - liberation from the Karmic cycle/ enlightenment

Buddhism

Human life is suffering.

 Nirvana - liberation from the Karmic cycle/ enlightenment

The Four Noble Truths

1. dukkha - Life is suffering.

2. karma - The cause of suffering is the wrong valuation of self. "I" is the cause of suffering.

3. Nirvana - the dissolution of suffering resulting from the surrender of the ego.

 Dhyana - meditation. The path to nirvana, destroys all pas karma.

4. Astangika-marga - The Eightfold Paths

 correct/right view
 correct/right intentions
 correct/right speech
 correct/right actions
 correct/right livelihood
  correct/right effort
 correct/right mindfullness
 correct/right concentration

Chinese Philosophy

Confucian

The order of heaven in one's coduct.

 Ren - benevolence, kindness, human heartedness, humanity.

 Ancient ways sacred - traditional rituals and form of conduct.
 Filial piety
 Li - harmonious realization of customs and rituals
 For government officials
o virtue, benevolence, propriety
o proper social relationships
o humane government
o moral leadership – exemplars

Lao Tzu - Taoism

Tao/ Dao - The Way

 simplicity
 no rigid code of behavior
 meditation/ taichi
 solitary contemplation of nature
 By doing nothing, one can accomplish everything.

Of course, here is some additional information for each topic:

Asian Ethics:

a. Hinduism:

Hindu ethics are deeply rooted in the concept of dharma, which refers to duty, righteousness, and moral order. Dharma is considered
the moral and religious duty of an individual, encompassing both societal and personal responsibilities.

The ethical principles in Hinduism are largely based on the duties and responsibilities associated with one's social position (varna) and
stage of life (ashrama). For example, the duties of a student (brahmacharya), householder (grahastha), hermit (vanaprastha), and
renunciant (sannyasa) vary according to one's stage of life.

Key ethical principles include:

Ahimsa: Non-violence towards all living beings. Ahimsa is considered one of the highest virtues in Hinduism and is central to the
teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.

Dharma: Doing one's duty and acting in accordance with righteousness.

Karma: The law of cause and effect. According to this principle, one's actions have consequences, and individuals are responsible for
the consequences of their actions.

Moksha: Liberation from the cycle of reincarnation (samsara). Moksha is the ultimate goal of human life in Hinduism and is achieved
through self-realization and spiritual enlightenment.

b. Buddhism:

Buddhist ethics are guided by the principles of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which provide a framework for moral
conduct and spiritual development.

Central to Buddhist ethics is the concept of avoiding harm to oneself and others, and cultivating virtues such as compassion, loving-
kindness, and wisdom.
The Five Precepts (pancasila) serve as the basic code of ethics for Buddhists, encouraging abstention from:

- Killing or harming living beings.

- Stealing or taking what is not given.

- Sexual misconduct.

- Lying or engaging in false speech.

- Intoxicants that cloud the mind.

In addition to the Five Precepts, Buddhists are encouraged to cultivate positive virtues known as the Paramitas (perfections), which
include generosity, morality, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom.

c. Confucianism:

Confucian ethics emphasize the importance of moral cultivation, social harmony, and filial piety. The teachings of Confucius focus on
the proper conduct of individuals in society and the cultivation of moral virtues.

Key ethical concepts include:

Ren (Benevolence): The virtue of compassion, kindness, and humanity. Ren is considered the highest moral virtue in Confucianism
and is the foundation of ethical conduct.

Li (Propriety/Ritual): The observance of proper social behavior and etiquette. Li encompasses both religious rituals and everyday social
norms and customs.

Xiao (Filial Piety): The virtue of respecting and honoring one's parents and ancestors. Filial piety is considered the root of all other
virtues in Confucian ethics.

Confucian ethics emphasize the cultivation of virtues such as loyalty, sincerity, righteousness, and propriety, as well as the importance
of proper conduct in interpersonal relationships.

d. Taoism:

Taoist ethics are based on the principle of living in harmony with the Tao, or the Way, which is the fundamental principle underlying the
universe. Taoist ethics emphasize simplicity, spontaneity, and naturalness.

Key ethical principles in Taoism include:

Wu Wei (Non-Action): The principle of effortless action or non-interference. Wu Wei involves acting in accordance with the natural flow
of life, without striving or forcing.

Ziran (Naturalness): Embracing one's true nature and living in harmony with the natural world. Taoist ethics emphasize the importance
of simplicity and spontaneity, and encourage individuals to follow their innate instincts and desires.

Taoist ethics also emphasize the importance of humility, moderation, and selflessness. Taoist sages teach that excessive desire and
attachment lead to suffering, and that true happiness and fulfillment come from aligning oneself with the Tao.