Structural Mechanics

2.0 Vectors

Objectives:
• Parallelogram Law
• Cartesian vector form
• Dot product and angle between 2 vectors

Content:
1. Scalars and Vectors
2. Vector Operations
3. Vector Addition of Forces
4. Addition of a System of Coplanar Forces
5. Cartesian Vectors
6. Addition and Subtraction of Cartesian Vectors
7. Position Vectors
8. Force Vector Directed along a Line
9. Dot Product

2.1 Scalars and Vectors

• Scalar
• A quantity characterized by a positive or negative number
• Indicated by letters in italic such as A, e.g. mass, volume and length
• Vector
• A quantity that has magnitude and direction, e.g. Position, force and moment
• Represent by a letter with an arrow over it, 𝐴⃗
• Magnitude is designated as |𝐴⃗|
• In this subject, vector is presented as A and its magnitude (positive quantity)
as A

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2.2 Vector Operator
⚫ Multiplication and Division of a Vector by a Scalar
- Product of vector A and scalar 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑨
- Magnitude = |𝛼𝐴|
- Law of multiplication applies e.g. 𝑨⁄𝑎 = (1⁄𝑎)𝑨, 𝑎 ≠ 0

⚫ Vector Addition
- Addition of two vectors A and B gives a resultant vector R by the parallelogram
law

- Result R can be found by triangle construction

- Communicative e.g. R = A + B = B + A
- Special case: Vectors A and B are collinear (both have the same line of action)

⚫ Vector Subtraction
- Special case of addition, e.g. R’ = A – B = A + ( - B )
- Rules of Vector Addition Applies

⚫ Finding a Resultant Force

• Parallelogram law is carried out to find the resultant force

• Resultant, FR = ( F1 + F2 )

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2.3 Vector addition of Forces
Procedure for Analysis
• Parallelogram Law
- Make a sketch using the parallelogram law
- 2 components forces add to form the resultant force
- Resultant force is shown by the diagonal of the parallelogram
- The components is shown by the sides of the parallelogram

• Trigonometry
- Redraw half portion of the parallelogram
- Magnitude of the resultant force can be determined by the law of cosines
- Direction if the resultant force can be determined by the law of sines
- Magnitude of the two components can be determined by the law of sines

Cosine law: 𝐶 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 − 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝑐

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Sine law: = sin 𝑏 = sin 𝑐
sin 𝑎

Example:
The screw eye is subjected to two forces, F1 and F2. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force.

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Solution:
(i) Parallelogram Law
Unknown: magnitude of FR and angle θ

(ii) Trigonometry
Law of Cosines
𝐹𝑅 = √1002 + 1502 − 2(100)(150) cos 115°
= √10000 + 22500 − 30000(−0.4226) = 212.6N = 213N
Law of Sines,
150N 212.6N
=
sin 𝜃 sin 115°
150N
sin 𝜃 = (0.9063)
212.6N
𝜃 = 39.8°

2.4 Addition of a System of Coplanar Forces

⚫ Scalar Notation
- x and y axes are designated positive and negative
- Components of forces expressed as algebraic scalars
𝑭 = 𝑭𝒙 + 𝑭𝒚
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 and 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜃

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⚫ Cartesian Vector Notation
- Cartesian unit vectors i and j are used to designate the x and y directions
- Unit vectors i and j have dimensionless magnitude of unity (= 1)
- Magnitude is always a positive quantity, represented by scalars Fx and Fy

⃗F⃗ = 𝐹𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐹𝑦 𝒋
⚫ Coplanar Force Resultants
- To determine resultant of several coplanar forces:
1. Resolve force into x and y components
2. Addition of the respective components using scalar algebra
3. Resultant force is found using the parallelogram law
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = 𝐹1𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐹1𝑦 𝒋
4. Cartesian vector notation: {⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 = −𝐹2𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐹2𝑦 𝒋
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹3 = 𝐹3𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐹3𝑦 𝒋

- Vector resultant is therefore 𝑭𝑹 = 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 + 𝑭𝟑 = (𝐹𝑅𝑥 )𝒊 + (𝐹𝑅𝑦 )𝒋

- If scalar notation are used
𝐹𝑅𝑥 = 𝐹1𝑥 − 𝐹2𝑥 + 𝐹3𝑥
𝐹𝑅𝑦 = 𝐹1𝑦 + 𝐹2𝑦 − 𝐹3𝑦

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 - In all cases, 𝐹𝑅𝑥 = ∑ 𝐹𝑥 ; 𝐹𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝐹𝑦
- Magnitude of FR can be found by Pythagorean Theorem
2 2 𝐹𝑅𝑦
- 𝐹𝑅 = √𝐹𝑅𝑥 + 𝐹𝑅𝑦 and 𝜃 = tan−1 |𝐹 |
𝑅𝑥

Example:
Determine x and y components of F1 and F2 acting on the boom. Express each force as
a Cartesian vector.

Solution:
Scalar Notation 𝐹1𝑥 = −200 sin 30° N = −100N = 100N ←
𝐹1𝑦 = 200 cos 30° N = 173N = 173N ↑

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 12 5
By similar triangles, 𝐹2𝑥 = 260 (13) = 240N; 𝐹2𝑦 = 260 (13) = 100N

Scalar notation: 𝐹2𝑥 = 240N →

𝐹2𝑦 = −100N = 100N ↓
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 = {−100𝒊 + 173𝒋}N
Cartesian Vector Notation: 𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 = {240𝒊 − 100𝒋}N

Example:
The link is subjected to two forces F1 and F2. Determine the magnitude and orientation
of the resultant force.

Solution:
𝐹𝑅𝑥 = ∑ 𝐹𝑥 : 𝐹𝑅𝑥 = 600 cos 30° N − 400 sin 45° N = 236.8N →
𝐹𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝐹𝑦 : 𝐹𝑅𝑦 = 600 sin 30° N + 400 cos 45° N = 582.8N ↑
Resultant force: 𝐹𝑅 = √236.82 + 582.82 = 629N
582.8N
From vector addition, direction angle θ is 𝜃 = tan−1 (236.8N) = 67.9°

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Cartesian Vector Notation
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 = {600 cos 30° 𝒊 + 600 sin 30° 𝒋}N
𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 = {−400 sin 45° 𝒊 + 400 cos 45° 𝒋}N
𝐹
Thus, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑅 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 = (600 cos 30° − 400 sin 45° )𝒊 + (600 sin 30° + 400 cos 45° )𝒋
𝐹1 + 𝐹
= 236.8𝒊 + 582.8𝒋
The magnitude and direction of FR are determined in the same manner as before.

Exercise:
Determine the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the pin and its direction
measured clockwise from the positive x axis.

2.5 Cartesian Vectors

⚫ Right-Handed Coordinate System
A rectangular or Cartesian coordinate system is said to be right-handed provided:
- Thumb of right hand points in the direction of the positive z axis when the right-
hand fingers are curled about this axis and directed from the positive x towards
the positive y axis.
- z-axis for the 2D problem would be perpendicular, directed out of the page.
⚫ Rectangular Components of a Vector
- A vector A may have one, two or three rectangular components along the x, y
and z axes, depending on orientation
- By two successive application of the parallelogram law
𝐀 = 𝑨′ + 𝑨𝒛

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 𝑨′ = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑨𝒚
- Combing the equations, A can be expressed as 𝐀 = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑨𝒚 + 𝑨𝒛

⚫ Unit Vector
- Direction of A can be specified using a unit vector.
- Unit vector has a magnitude of 1.
- If A is a vector having a magnitude of A ≠ 0, unit vector having the same
𝑨
direction as A is expressed by 𝒖𝑨 = 𝐴, so that 𝐀 = A𝒖𝑨

⚫ Cartesian Vector Representations

- 3 components of A act in the positive i, j and k directions,
𝑨 = 𝐴𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒌
*Note the magnitude and direction of each components are separated, easing
vector algebraic operations.

⚫ Magnitude of a Cartesian Vector

- From the colored triangle, A = √𝐴′ 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2

- From the shaded triangle, 𝐴′ = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2

- Combining the equations gives magnitude of A, 𝐴 = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2

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⚫ Direction of a Cartesian Vector
- Orientation of A is defined as the coordinate direction angles α, β and γ
measured between the tail of A and the positive x, y and z axes, 0° ≤
𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 ≤ 180°
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
- The direction cosines of A is cos 𝛼 = ; cos 𝛽 = ; cos 𝛾 =
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

- Angles α, β and γ can be determined by the inverse cosines

Given: 𝐀 = 𝐴𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒌
𝑨 𝐴 𝐴𝑦 𝐴
then, 𝒖𝑨 = 𝐴 = ( 𝑨𝑥 ) 𝒊 + ( 𝑨 ) 𝒋 + ( 𝑨𝑧 ) 𝒌

where 𝐴 = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2

- uA can also be expressed as 𝒖𝑨 = cos 𝛼 𝒊 + cos 𝛽 𝒋 + cos 𝛾 𝒌

- Since 𝐴 = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2 and uA = 1, cos2 𝛼 + cos2 𝛽 + cos2 𝛾 = 1

- A as expressed in Cartesian vector form is 𝑨 = 𝐴𝒖𝑨 = 𝐴 cos 𝛼 𝒊 +

𝐴 cos 𝛽 𝒋 + 𝐴 cos 𝛾 𝒌 = 𝐴𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒌

2.6 Addition and Subtraction of Cartesian Vectors

⚫ Concurrent Force Systems
Force resultant is the vector sum of all the forces in the system,

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𝑭𝑹 = ∑ 𝑭 = ∑ 𝐹𝑥 𝒊 + ∑ 𝐹𝑦 𝒋 + ∑ 𝐹𝑧 𝒌

Example:
Express the force F as Cartesian vector.

Solution:
Since two angles are specified, the third angle is found by
cos2 𝛼 + cos 2 𝛽 + cos 2 𝛾 = 1
cos2 𝛼 + cos2 60° + cos 2 45° = 1
cos 𝛼 = √1 − 0.52 − 0.7072 = ±0.5
Two possibilities exist, namely 𝛼 = cos−1 (0.5) = 60° and
𝛼 = cos −1 (−0.5) = 120°
By inspection, 𝛼 = 60° since Fx is in the +ve x-direction,
Given F = 200N, 𝐅 = F cos 𝛼 𝒊 + F cos 𝛽 𝒋 + F cos 𝛾 𝒌
𝐅 = (200 cos 60° )𝒊 + (200 cos 60° )𝒋 + (200 cos 45° )𝒌
𝐅 = 100𝒊 + 100𝒋 + 141.4𝒌

Checking: 𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2 + 𝐹𝑧 2 = √1002 + 1002 + 141.42 = 200N

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Example:
Determine the magnitude and the coordinate direction angles of the resultant force
acting on the ring.

Solution:
Since each force is represented in Cartesian vector form, the resultant force is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑅 = ∑ 𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = (60𝒋 + 80𝒌) + (50𝒊 − 100𝒋 + 100𝒌)
The magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑅 is 𝐹𝑅 = √502 + (−40)2 + 1802 = 191kN

The coordinate direction angles α, β, γ are determined from the components of

the unit vector acting in the direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑅 .
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑅 50 40 180
𝑢𝐹𝑅 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒊− 𝒋+ 𝒌 = 0.2617𝒊 − 0.2094𝒋 + 0.9422𝒌
𝐹𝑅 191.0 191.0 191.0
So that, cos 𝛼 = 0.2617; 𝛼 = 74.8°
cos 𝛽 = −0.2094; 𝛽 = 102°
cos 𝛾 = 0.9422; 𝛾 = 19.6°

Example:
Express the for F shown as a Cartesian vector.

Solution:

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The angles of 60∘and 45∘defining the direction of F are not coordinate direction
angles. Two successive applications of the parallelogram law are needed to resolve F
into its x, y, z components. First 𝑭 = 𝑭′ + 𝑭𝒛 , then 𝑭′ = 𝑭𝒙 + 𝑭𝒚 . By trigonometry,
the magnitudes of the components are
𝐹𝑧 = 100 sin 60° kN = 86.6kN
𝐹 ′ = 100 cos 60° kN = 50kN
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 ′ cos 45° = 50 cos 45° kN = 35.4kN
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 ′ sin 45° = 50 sin 45° kN = 35.4kN
Realizing that Fy has a direction defined by –j, 𝑭 = (35.4𝒊 − 35.4𝒋 + 86.6𝒌)kN

To show that the magnitude of this vector is indeed 100kN,

𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2 + 𝐹𝑧 2 = √35.42 + (−35.4)2 + 86.62 = 100kN

If needed, the coordinate direction angles of F can be determined from the components
of the unit vector acting in the direction of F. Hence,
𝐹⃗ 𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧 35.4 35.4 86.6
⃗⃗ =
u = 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌= 𝒊− 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 100 100 100
So that, 𝛼 = cos −1 0.354 = 69.3°
𝛽 = cos−1 (−0.354) = 111°
𝛾 = cos −1 0.866 = 30.0°

Exercise:
a) Determine the coordinate angle γ for F2 and then express each force acting on the
bracket as a Cartesian vector.
b) Determine the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of the resultant force acting
on the bracket.

2.7 Position Vectors

⚫ x, y, z Coordinates

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 - Right-handed coordinate system
- Positive z axis points upwards, measuring the height of an object or the altitude
of a point.
- Points are measured relative to the origin, O.

⚫ Position Vector
- Position vector r is defined as a fixed vector which locates a point in space
relative to another point.
- E.g. 𝒓 = 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝑧𝒌

- Vector addition gives 𝒓𝑨 + 𝒓 = 𝒓𝑩

- Solving 𝒓 = 𝒓𝑩 − 𝒓𝑨 = (𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 )𝒊 + (𝑦𝐵 − 𝑦𝐴 )𝒋 + (𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴 )𝒌

• Length and direction of cable AB can be found by measuring A and B using the
x, y, z axes.
• Position vector r can be established.
• Magnitude r represent the length of cable.
• Angles, α, β and γ represent the direction of the cable.

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 𝑟⃗
• Unit vector, 𝑢
⃗⃗ = 𝑟

Example:
An elastic rubber band is attached to points A and B. Determine its length and its
direction measured from A towards B.

Solution:
Position vector, 𝒓 = −3𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 6𝒌
Magnitude = length of the rubber band,
𝑟 = √(−3)2 + 22 + 62 = 7m
𝑟⃗ 3 2 6
Unit vector in the direction of r, 𝑢
⃗⃗ = 𝑟 = − 7 𝒊 + 7 𝒋 + 7 𝒌

3
𝛼 = cos −1 (− 7) = 115°

2
𝛽 = cos −1 ( ) = 73.4°
7
6
𝛾 = cos −1 ( ) = 31.0°
7

2.8 Force Vector Directed along a Line

⚫ In 3D problems, direction of F is specified by 2 points, through which its line of
action lies.
𝑟⃗
⚫ F can be formulated as a Cartesian vector, 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹𝑢
⃗⃗ = 𝐹 (𝑟)

⚫ Note that F has units of forces (N) unlike r, with units of length (m)

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⚫ Force F acting along the chain can be presented as a Cartesian vector by
- Establish x, y, z axes
- Form a position vector r along length of chain
𝑟⃗
⚫ ⃗⃗ = 𝑟 that defines the direction of both the chain and the force, 𝐹⃗ =
Unit vector, 𝑢

𝐹𝑢⃗⃗
Example:
The man pulls on the cord with a force of 350N. Represent this force acting on the
support A, as a Cartesian vector and determine its direction.

Solution:
End points of the cord are A (0m, 0m, 7.5m) and B (3m, -2m, 1.5m).
⃗⃗
𝑟⃗ = 3𝑖⃗ − 2𝑗⃗ − 6𝑘
Magnitude = length of cord AB
𝑟 = √32 + (−2)2 + (−6)2 = 7m
𝑟⃗ 3 2 6
Unit vector, 𝑢
⃗⃗ = 𝑟 = 7 𝒊 − 7 𝒋 − 7 𝒌

Force F has a magnitude of 350N, direction specified by u.

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 3 2 6
𝐹⃗ = 𝐹𝑢
⃗⃗ = 350 ( 𝒊 − 𝒋 − 𝒌) = (150𝒊 − 100𝒋 − 300𝒌)N
7 7 7
3
𝛼 = cos −1 (7) = 64.6°

2
𝛽 = cos −1 (− ) = 107°
7
6
𝛾 = cos −1 (− ) = 149°
7

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Example:
If the cables exert forces 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 100N and 𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 120N on the wall hook at A,
determine the resultant force acting at A. Express the result as a Cartesian vector.

Exercise:
Determine the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of the resultant force acting
at A.

2.9 Dot product

⚫ Dot product of vectors A and B is written as A·B (Read A dot B)
⚫ Define the magnitudes of A and B and the angle between their tails,
𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 where 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°
⚫ Referred to as scalar product of vectors as result is a scalar.

⚫ Laws of Operation
1. Commutative law: A·B = B·A
2. Multiplication by a scalar: a(A·B) = (aA)·B = A·(aB) = (A·B)a
3. Distribution law: A·(B + D) = (A·B) + (A·D)

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⚫ Cartesian Vector Formulation
- Dot product of Cartesian unit vectors
𝒊 ∙ 𝒊 = (1)(1) cos 0° = 1
𝒊 ∙ 𝒋 = (1)(1) cos 90° = 0
- Similarly, 𝒊 ∙ 𝒊 = 1; 𝒋 ∙ 𝒋 = 1; 𝒌 ∙ 𝒌 = 1
𝒊 ∙ 𝒋 = 0; 𝒊 ∙ 𝒌 = 0; 𝒋 ∙ 𝒌 = 0
- Dot product of 2 vectors A and B, 𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
- Applications
(1) The angle formed between two vectors or intersecting lines.

𝜃 = cos −1[𝑨 ∙ 𝑩⁄𝐴𝐵 ]; 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°

(2) The components of a vector parallel and perpendicular to a line.

𝐴𝑎 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝑨 ∙ 𝒖

Example:
The frame is subjected to a horizontal force F = {300j} N. Determine the components
of this force parallel and perpendicular to the member AB.

Solution:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟 ⃗⃗
2𝑖⃗+6𝑗⃗+3𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵
𝑢𝐵 = |𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √22 ⃗⃗
= 0.286𝑖⃗ + 0.857𝑗⃗ + 0.429𝑘
𝐵 +62 +32

|𝐹⃗𝐴𝐵 | = |𝐹⃗ | cos 𝜃 = 𝐹⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ) = 257.1N

𝑢𝐵 = (300𝑗⃗) ∙ (0.286𝑖⃗ + 0.857𝑗⃗ + 0.429𝑘

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Since result is a positive scalar, FAB has the same sense of direction as uB. Express in
Cartesian form.
𝐹⃗𝐴𝐵 = |𝐹⃗𝐴𝐵 |𝑢 ⃗⃗ )
⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 = (257.1N)(0.286𝑖⃗ + 0.857𝑗⃗ + 0.429𝑘
= (73.5𝑖⃗ + 220𝑗⃗ + 110𝑘 ⃗⃗ )N
Perpendicular component,
⃗⃗ ) = (−73.5𝑖⃗ + 80𝑗⃗ − 110𝑘
𝐹⃗┴ = 𝐹⃗ − 𝐹⃗𝐴𝐵 = 300𝑗⃗ − (73.5𝑖⃗ + 220𝑗⃗ + 110𝑘 ⃗⃗ )N

Magnitude can be determined from 𝐹⃗┴ or from Pythagorean Theorem,

2 2
|𝐹⃗┴ | = √|𝐹⃗ | − |𝐹⃗𝐴𝐵 | = √3002 − 257.12 = 155N

Exercise:
Determine the magnitudes of the components of force F = 56N acting along and
perpendicular to line AO.

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