SCIENCE REVIEWER  Exosphere

 Weather – conditions present at a specific

(GENERAL SCIENCE)
time and place.
 Climate – average weather in a certain area
or region and usually much longer in term.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. Make an observation or ask a question
2. Research OVERVIEW ON GEOLOGY
3. Form hypothesis
 Botany – the study of plants.
4. Test the hypothesis by making/including
experiments  Zoology – study of animals.
5. Analyze then draw conclusion/s  Geology – study of Earth.
6. Communicate the results  Eon, Era, Period, Epoch, Ages
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

MEASUREMENTS PRECAMBRIAN

 Mass, kilogram (kg)  "Age of Early Life.”

 Time, second (s)  Continents formed and our modern
atmosphere developed, while early life
 Electric Current, ampere (A)
evolved and flourished. Soft-bodied
 Luminous Intensity, candela (cd)
creatures like worms and jellyfish lived in
 Temperature, kelvin (K)
the world's oceans, but the land remained
 Amount of substance, mole (mol)
barren.
 Length, meter (m)

OVERVIEW ON LIGHT
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Ranging Martians Invade Venus
Using X-Ray Guns that stands for
Radiowave, Microwave, Infrared,
Visible Light, Ultraviolet, X-ray,
Gamma Rays. This ranges from
longest to shortest wavelength and
from lowest to highest frequency.
 Shorter wavelength, higher frequency,
EDIACARAN IMPRESSIONS
higher energy as well.
 Derived from soft-bodied organisms
similar to modern-day jellyfish, lichen,
OVERVIEW ON METEOROLOGY soft corals, sea anemones, sea pens,
annelid worms, and seaweed, as well as
 The layers of Earth’s Atmosphere are the ff: some organisms unlike any that are known
(from the ground to higher) today.
 Troposphere
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
EDIACARAN PERIOD was collected into the southern
supercontinent Gondwana.
 Interval of geological time ranging 635 to
541 million years ago. It was a time of
immense geological and biological change,
and records the transition from a planet
largely dominated by microscopic
organisms, to a Cambrian world swarming
with animals.

SILURIAN PERIOD
 (443.7 to 416.0 million years ago) was a
time when the Earth underwent
considerable changes that had important
repercussions for the environment and life
PALEOZOIC
within it. One result of these changes was
 (541-252 million years ago) means 'ancient the melting of large glacial formations.
life. ' The oldest animals on Earth
appeared just before the start of this era in
the Ediacaran Period, but scientists had not
yet discovered them when the geologic
timescale was made.

MESOZOIC ERA
 (251.9 to 66.0 million years ago) was the
"Age of Reptiles." / THE MIDDLE AGE
During the Mesozoic, Pangaea began
ORDOVICIAN PERIOD separating into the modern continents,
and the modern Rocky Mountains rose.
 Lasted almost 45 million years, beginning Dinosaurs, crocodiles, and pterosaurs
488.3 million years ago and ending 443.7 ruled the land and air.
million years ago. During this period, the
area north of the tropics was almost
entirely ocean, and most of the world's land
JURASSIC PERIOD
 A golden time for dinosaurs, which
flourished for 180 million years. During
this. New oceans flooded the spaces in
between. Mountains rose on the seafloor,
pushing sea levels higher and onto the
continents.
CENOZOIC
 (66 million years ago until today) means
‘recent life.’ During this era, plants and
animals look most like those on Earth
today. Periods of the Cenozoic Era are split
into even smaller parts known as Epochs,
so you will see even more signposts in this
Era. Cenozoic signposts are colored yellow.
ALL ABOUT EARTH SCIENCE
 4.6 billion years
 Earth Major Spheres:
 Hydrosphere – all about water/ocean
that is the most dominant feature of
Earth with 71% of its surface.
 Cryosphere – Earth’s Frozen Sphere
 Atmosphere – blanket of air, only 3.5
miles thick.
 Biosphere – includes all life.
 Geosphere – includes crust, mantle,
and core (both outer and inner)
 Latitude – distance north or south
 Longitude – distance east or west
 Hypothesis is tentative or untested but
researched whist
 Theory is tested, confirmed, and supported
by the majority.
BASIC BIOLOGY
CELLS
 Primary building blocks of life.
 Come in all shapes and sizes.
  Some are small and can only be observed
under a microscope.
 Some are large enough to be held, like eggs. Cell
PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC
Indicators
Larger;
Smaller;
Size Unicellular &
The Cell Theory (Traditional) Unicellular
Multicellular
1. All organisms are made up of cells. Protista, Fungi,
Archaea,
2. All life functions of an organism happen Kingdom Plants &
Bacteria
Animals
within the cell.
Nucleus Absent Present
3. All cells come from other cells that are
Other
already existing. Absent Present
Organelles
Present,
Found only in
Cell Wall Chemically
The Cell Theory (Modern) plants; Simple
Complex
None; DNA
4. Cells contain heredity information in their Sexual
transfer thru Meiosis
DNA. This information is passed to new Reproduction
conjugation
cells by cell division. Cell Division Binary Fission Mitosis
5. All cells have the same basic chemical DNA
composition. Circular; Haploid Linear; Diploid
Structure
6. Energy flow (Metabolism and Biochemistry)
occurs within cells. 1. Cytoplasm
 Gel-like matrix composed of water
along with dissolved salts and
 Unicellular has one cell while Multicellular minerals.
has multiple cells.  Contains a circular (sometimes
linear) auxiliary DNA molecule
called a plasmid.
Prokaryotes 2. Ribosomes
 Granular structures found scattered
 microscopic single-celled organism that has unevenly throughout the cytoplasm,
neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane which helps bacteria to synthesize
nor other specialized organelles. proteins.
 From Greek words “pro”, which means
‘before’, and “karyon”, which means ‘nut
or kernel’ 1. Nucleus
 Known to be the earliest on earth.  “Control center of the cell”
 Contains genetic (hereditary)
information in the form of DNA.
Eukaryotes  Storage of DNA, RNA, and
 Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells have ribosomes.
a nucleus and other organelles enclosed by a  Regulation of the transcription of the
plasma membrane. mRNA to protein.
 It came from the Greek words “eu”, which  Production of ribosomes.
means ‘true’, and “karyon”, which means
‘nut or kernel’.
2. Cytoplasm
Both Unicellular and Multicellular
  The whole region within the cell
membrane is the cytoplasm.
 Jelly-like substance called cytosol.
 Provides structure to the cell.
 The liquid portion of the cell
containing small organs which are
the “Organelles”.
3. Cell Membrane
 Plasma membrane – encloses the
organelles.
 Cell Membrane – encloses the entire
cell.
 It separates the internal contents of
the cell from its environment.
1. Ribosomes
 Sites of protein synthesis.
 The coded message from DNA as to
what kind of protein is to be
synthesized is carried by the mRNA
from the nucleus to the ribosome.
2. Golgi Apparatus
 “Packaging center of the cell”
 Modifies, sorts, tags, packages, and
distributes macromolecules (lipids &
proteins) for secretion or for
transport to other organelles.
3. Mitochondria
 “Powerhouse” of the animal cell.
 Responsible for protein synthesis of
itself.
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) –
main source of energy in the body
produced by cell respiration.
4. Vacuole
 Single membrane for storage and
transport of macromolecules.
 Large storage sacs that help maintain
water balance in animal cells.
 Smaller ones are called vesicles.
 Some are for storage of water &
food, while others are for excretion
of waste materials.
5. Lysosome
 “Digestive system or sacs of the
cell”
 Contains numerous hydrolytic or
digestive enzymes for the breakdown
of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
within the cell.
 Destruction or recycling of defective
organelles.
6. Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Modifies proteins and synthesize
carbohydrates & lipids.
 Smooth ER – manufactures lipds,
contains enzymes that detoxify
certain poisons, transports
carbohydrates, lipids, and other non-
proteins.
 Rough ER – synthesize proteins that
are destined to be secreted out of the
cell.
CELL DIVISION
 Cell division happens when a parent cell divides
into two or more cells called daughter cells. Cell
division usually occurs as part of a larger cell
cycle. All cells reproduce by splitting into two,
where each parental cell gives rise to two
daughter cells.
 ANAPHASE

PROPHASE

TELOPHASE

PROMETAPHASE

INTRODUCTION TO TAXONOMY

METAPHASE WHAT IS TAXONOMY?

  Naming, describing, and classifying
organisms and includes all plants, animals,
and microorganisms of the world.
PHYLOGENETIC TREE (TREE OF LIFE)
DOMAIN
 The highest taxonomic rank, consisting of
three domains based on molecular studies.
 Archaea: Prokaryotic organisms often found
in extreme environments.
 Bacteria: Prokaryotic organisms with
diverse habitats.
 Eukarya: Organisms with eukaryotic cells,
including protists, fungi, plants, and animals.
 Under this are bacteria and archaea (which
was soon called as monera, since they are
one, both prokaryote that means it have
nucleus), and eukarya.
KINGDOM (under domain eukarya)
 Broad groups of organisms based on shared
characteristics.
 Protista – autotrophs and heterotrophs;
Mostly unicellular eukaryotes, including various
algae and protozoans.
 Fungi – heterotrophs (mushrooms, smuts,
puffballs, truffles, molds, yeasts); Non-
photosynthetic organisms with cell walls made
of chitin, often involved in decomposition.
 Plantae – autotrophs (they can feed
theirselves); Multicellular, photosynthetic
organisms that typically have cell walls made of
cellulose.
 Animalia – Multicellular, heterotrophic
organisms that lack cell walls and generally
exhibit mobility.
PHYLUM
 Major groups within each kingdom based on
anatomical and developmental features.
 Arthropoda - pointed appendages and
exoskeleton (e.g., insects, spiders).
 Chordata - Animals with a notochord (e.g.,
vertebrates).
 Mollusca - Soft-bodied with a muscular foot
and often a shell (e.g., snails, octopuses).
 Angiosperms - Flowering plants that produce
seeds within a fruit (e.g., roses, oak trees).
CLASS
 Further subdivisions within each phylum
based on more specific characteristics.
 Mammalia – Animals that nourish their young
with milk (e.g., humans, dogs).
 Reptilia – Cold-blooded animals with scales or
plates (e.g., snakes, turtles).
 Insecta – Six-legged, often winged animals
(e.g., butterflies, ants).
ORDER
 Groupings within each class based on
anatomical and physiological similarities.
 Carnivora: Predatory mammals with canine
teeth (e.g., lions, wolves).
 Coleoptera: Insects with hardened front
wings forming a protective covering (e.g.,
beetles).
 Primates: Mammals with binocular vision
and opposable thumbs (e.g., humans,
monkeys).
FAMILY
  Smaller groups within each order sharing
more detailed similarities.
 Felidae: Family of cats characterized by
retractable claws and carnivorous habits
(e.g., lions, domestic cats).
 Canidae: Family of dogs characterized by
long snouts and non-retractable claws (e.g.,
wolves, foxes).
GENUS
 Groups of closely related species sharing
common ancestry and characteristics.
 Homo: Genus including modern humans
(Homo sapiens) and extinct human ancestors
(e.g., Homo habilis, Homo
neanderthalensis).
 Canis: Genus including wolves (Canis
lupus) and domestic dogs (Canis familiaris).
SPECIES
 Smallest taxonomic unit, consisting of
individuals that can interbreed and produce
fertile offspring.
 Homo: Genus including modern humans
(Homo sapiens) and extinct human ancestors
(e.g., Homo habilis, Homo
neanderthalensis).
 Canis: Genus including wolves (Canis
lupus) and domestic dogs (Canis familiaris).
KINGDOM PLANTAE
 Kingdom Plantae includes all the plants. They are
eukaryotic, multicellular and autotrophic
organisms. The plant cell contains a rigid cell wall.
Plants have chloroplast and chlorophyll pigment,
which is required for photosynthesis.
CHARACTERISTICS OF KINGDOM PLANTAE
1. They are non-motile.
2. They make their own food and hence are called
autotrophs.
3. They reproduce asexually by vegetative
propagation or sexually.
4. These are multicellular eukaryotes. The plant cell
contains the outer cell wall and a large central
vacuole.
5. Plants contain photosynthetic pigments called
chlorophyll present in the plastids.
6. They have different organelles for anchorage,
reproduction, support and photosynthesis.
CLASSIFICATION OF KINGDOM PLANTAE
 A plant kingdom is further classified into
subgroups. Classification is based on the following
criteria:
1. Plant body: Presence or absence of a well-
differentiated plant body. E.g. Root, Stem and
Leaves.
2. Vascular system: Presence or absence of a
vascular system for the transportation of water and
other substances. E.g. Phloem and Xylem.
3. Seed formation: Presence or absence of flowers
and seeds and if the seeds are naked or enclosed in
a fruit.
THALLOPHYTA
 lack a well-differentiated body structure and the
plant body is thallus like.
BRYOPHYTA
 do not have a vascular tissue. The plant body
has root-like, stem-like, and leaf-like
structures.
 Known as “amphibians of the plant
kingdom” as they require water for sexual
reproduction.
 Present in moist and shady places.
 The plant kingdom is also classified into two
groups:
 Cryptogams – Non-flowering and non-seed
PTERIDOPHYTA bearing plants. E.g. Thallophyta, Bryophyta,
Pteridophyta
 have a well-differentiated plant body into root,
stem and leaves. They have a vascular system for  Phanerogams – Flowering and seed-bearing plants.
the conduction of water and other substances. E.g. Gymnosperms, Angiosperms
Some of the common examples are Selaginella,
Equisetum, Pteris, etc.

SOMETHING

1. Endergonic Process:
o Definition: Requires an input of
GYMNOSPERMS energy to proceed.
o Energy Change (ΔG\Delta GΔG):
 have a well-differentiated plant body into root, Positive (ΔG>0\Delta G > 0ΔG>0).
stem and leaves. They have a vascular system for o Example: Photosynthesis in plants,
the conduction of water and other substances. where energy from sunlight is
Some of the common examples are Selaginella, absorbed to convert carbon dioxide
Equisetum, Pteris, etc. and water into glucose and oxygen.
2. Exergonic Process:
o Definition: Releases energy as it
proceeds.
o Energy Change (ΔG\Delta GΔG):
Negative (ΔG<0\Delta G < 0ΔG<0).
o Example: Cellular respiration, where
glucose is broken down to release
energy in the form of ATP.
3. Endothermic Process:
o Definition: Absorbs heat (energy)
ANGIOSPERMS from the surroundings.
o Heat Change (ΔH\Delta HΔH):
 seed-bearing vascular plants with a well- Positive (ΔH>0\Delta H > 0ΔH>0).
differentiated plant body. The seeds of
o Example: Melting ice into water,
angiosperms are enclosed within the fruits.
where heat is absorbed to break the
bonds between ice molecules.
4. Exothermic Process:
o Definition: Releases heat (energy)
into the surroundings.
o Heat Change (ΔH\Delta HΔH):
Negative (ΔH<0\Delta H < 0ΔH<0).
 o Example: Burning wood, where heat
and light are released as the wood
undergoes combustion.
Key Differences:
 Endergonic vs Exergonic:
o Endergonic processes require energy
input and have a positive change in
Gibbs free energy (ΔG>0\Delta G >
0ΔG>0).
o Exergonic processes release energy
and have a negative change in Gibbs
free energy (ΔG<0\Delta G <
0ΔG<0).
 Endothermic vs Exothermic:
o Endothermic processes absorb heat
from the surroundings (ΔH>0\Delta
H > 0ΔH>0), whereas exothermic
processes release heat into the
surroundings (ΔH<0\Delta H <
0ΔH<0).
o Note that not all endergonic
processes are endothermic, and not
all exergonic processes are
exothermic. The terms refer to
different aspects of energy changes
(Gibbs free energy for
endergonic/exergonic and heat
content for endothermic/exothermic).
 Constitutional Isomers:
 Definition: Constitutional isomers are
compounds that have the same molecular
formula (same number of atoms of each
element) but differ in the connectivity or
arrangement of atoms.
 Example: For example, butane (C4H10) has
two constitutional isomers: n-butane and
isobutane. They have the same number of
carbon and hydrogen atoms but different
structures.
 Isotopic:
 Definition: Isotopic refers to atoms of the
same element that have the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons.
These different forms of the same element
are called isotopes.
 Example: Carbon-12 (12C) and Carbon-14
(14C) are isotopes of carbon. Carbon-12 has
6 protons and 6 neutrons, while Carbon-14
has 6 protons and 8 neutrons.
he octet rule is a principle in chemistry that states
that atoms tend to combine in such a way as to have
a full outer shell of electrons, typically eight
electrons. This rule applies primarily to main group
elements (groups 1, 2, 13-18) in the periodic table.
Key points about the octet rule:
1. Stable Electron Configuration: Atoms are
most stable when their outer electron shell is
filled with eight electrons (or two electrons
for hydrogen and helium, which have only
one shell).
2. Formation of Chemical Bonds: Atoms
achieve a full outer shell by forming
chemical bonds with other atoms. This can
involve gaining, losing, or sharing electrons.
3. Types of Bonds:
o Ionic Bonds: One atom transfers
electrons to another atom to achieve
a full outer shell.
o Covalent Bonds: Atoms share
electrons to achieve a full outer shell.
o Metallic Bonds: Electrons are
delocalized among a lattice of metal
atoms.
4. Exceptions: There are some exceptions to
the octet rule, such as:
o Incomplete Octet: Some atoms have
stable configurations with fewer than
eight electrons in their outer shell,
like hydrogen (2 electrons) and
helium (2 electrons).
o Expanded Octet: Atoms in the third
period and beyond (starting with
phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine) can
accommodate more than eight
electrons in their outer shell due to
the availability of d orbitals.
Newton's First Law states that an object at rest will
remain at rest, and an object in motion will remain in
motion at a constant velocity unless acted upon by a net
external force.
Newton's Second Law of Motion states that the
acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the
net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its
mass.

Newton's Third Law of Motion states that for every

action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. In
other words:
PLATYHELMINTHES
 When one object exerts a force on a second
object, the second object exerts a force of  flatworms
equal magnitude in the opposite direction on
the first object.
 These forces always occur in pairs and act
on different objects.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA

PORIFERA

 Porifera means organisms with holes. They are

commonly known as Sponges.

NEMATODA

 consists of nematodes or roundworms

COELENTERATA (CNIDARIA)

 derived from the Greek word “kilos” which means

hollow bellied.

ANNELIDA

 segmented or ringed worms

 ECHINODERMATA

 Greek words, echinos meaning hedgehog

and derma meaning skin.

ARTHROPODA

 jointed legs. Animals which have jointed

appendages belong to this phylum. This is the
largest phylum in the animal kingdom.

VIRUSES

LYTIC CYCLE

 Happens when a virus enters a living host

then it lyses, making it viral and might infect
other people.
MOLLUSCA

 large group of animals

LYSOGENIC CYCLE

 A virus infects a host then it became quiet

not replicating other viruses for a long time
unlike in lytic cycle. Then later, something
will trigger the virus to switch to the lytic
cycle.

ECOLOGY

 This describes how organisms interact with

each other and their environments.

BIOTIC FACTORS
 Living things. Biotic factors refer to the
factors (such as plants, animals, bacteria,
protists, and fungi) that affect an organism
or anything that you are observing.
ABIOTIC FACTORS
 Non-living things like water, air, soil,
sunlight.
MENDELIAN INHERITANCE/GENETICS
GREGOR MENDEL
 Observe about gene/inheritance through pea
plant in the 19th century.
LAW OF SEGREGATION
 The Law of Segregation states that during the
formation of gametes (sex cells, like sperm and
egg) the two alleles (variants of a gene) for a
trait separate from each other, so that each
gamete carries only one allele for each trait.
 Consider a pea plant that has two alleles for
flower color: one allele for purple flowers (P)
and one allele for white flowers (p). According
to the Law of Segregation, when this plant
produces gametes, each gamete will receive
either the P allele or the p allele. Thus, the
gametes will be either P or p, but not both.
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
 The Law of Independent Assortment states that
alleles of different genes assort independently of
each other during gamete formation, provided
that the genes are on different chromosomes or
far apart on the same chromosome.
 Mendel studied pea plants with two traits: flower
color (purple vs. white) and seed texture
(smooth vs. wrinkled). The genes controlling
these traits are on different chromosomes.
According to the Law of Independent
Assortment, the allele that determines flower
color segregates independently of the allele that
determines seed texture during gamete
formation.
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
 Incomplete Dominance:
 In incomplete dominance, neither allele is
completely dominant over the other. Instead,
the heterozygous phenotype is an
intermediate blend of the two homozygous
phenotypes.
 For example, in snapdragon plants, red (RR)
and white (rr) flower colors blend to produce
pink flowers in the heterozygous condition
(Rr).
 Codominance:
 In codominance, both alleles for a gene are
fully expressed in the heterozygous
condition, resulting in a phenotype that
shows both traits simultaneously.
 An example is the ABO blood group system
in humans, where the AB blood type results
from the codominant expression of A and B
alleles.
 Multiple Alleles:
 Some traits are controlled by multiple
alleles, rather than just two (as in Mendelian
inheritance). However, each individual still
carries only two alleles for a specific gene.
 A classic example is the ABO blood group
system, which involves three alleles: IA
(producing A antigen), IB (producing B
antigen), and i (producing no antigen).
 Polygenic Inheritance:
 Polygenic inheritance occurs when a trait is
controlled by multiple genes, each
contributing to the phenotype in additive and
quantitative ways.
  Traits such as height, skin color, and eye
color in humans are influenced by polygenic
inheritance.

 Epistasis:

 Epistasis occurs when the expression of one

gene masks or modifies the expression of
another gene.
 For example, in Labrador retrievers, coat
color depends on two genes: one gene
determines pigment (B/b), and another gene
determines deposition of pigment (E/e). The
interaction between these genes determines
coat color.