UNIT 1

RESEARCH

“Research is the systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc, in order to establish
facts and reach new conclusions.
It is an endeavour to discover new or collate old facts etc by the scientific study of a subject or by a
course of critical investigation.”
Oxford Concise Dictionary

Research is a diligent enquiry and careful investigation for new knowledge through systematic,
scientific and analytical approach.

Research is an inquiry or an investigation with a specific purpose to fulfill, it helps in clearing the
various doubtful concepts and tries to solve or explain the various unexplained procedures or
phenomenon.

“Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its development.”
Kothari
It is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
Redman and Mory
ESSENTIAL QUALITY OF RESEARCH
A good research must meet the validity and reliability that are most important in evaluating a
measurement tool of a research.

Validity
It can be stated that a research has highly validity if the study only contains what one wants to study
and nothing else. Validity refers to how well the data collection and data analysis of the research
captures the reality being studied.

Reliability
Supposes that if other person were to repeat a specific research study, he should be able to capture
the same results. Reliability demonstrates that the operation of a study, such as the data collection
procedures, can be repeated with the same outcome. The objective is to ensure that if a later
researcher followed exactly the same procedures as described by an earlier research and conducted
the same case study all over again; the later researcher should arrive at the same.

For the test to be reliable, it also needs to be valid. A valid instrument is always

reliable. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. Empirical- Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.

2. Logical- Research is based on valid procedures and principles.

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3. Cyclical- Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a problem.
4. Analytical- Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether historical,
descriptive, experimental and case study.
5. Critical- Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
6. Methodical- Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic method
and procedures.
7. Replicability- The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable the
researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Field Research
 Here, research is conducted in a natural setting.
Laboratory Research
 The research is conducted in artificial or controlled conditions by isolating the study in a
thoroughly specified and equipped area.
 The purposes are: (1) to test hypotheses derived from theory, (2) to control variance under
research conditions, and (3) to discover the relations between the dependent and the
independent.
Exploratory research
 Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher
has little or no knowledge.
 It is similar to a doctor’s initial investigation of a patient suffering from unfamiliar malady for
getting some clues for identifying it.
 It is ill‐ structured and much focused on the predetermined objectives .
 It is usually takes the form of a pilot study.

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  It is the separate type of research , it is appropriate to consider or contributes a three stage
process of exploration , description and experimentation.
The purpose of an exploratory study may be:
 To generate new ideas.
 To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem.
 To gather information for clarifying concepts.
An exploratory research does not aim at testing hypothesis but it just attempt s to see what is there
rather than to predict the relationships that will be founded.
Descriptive Research
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
 The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present.
 In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies.
 The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables;
he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
 For example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto
studies also
 The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds
Analytical Research
 Analytical study is the system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative
data.
 The researchers has to use facts or information already available and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the materials or topic.
 It may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to
numerical data. This is also known as ‘statistical research or method’.
 This study aims at testing hypothesis and specifying, interpreting relationships.
 It is used or concentrates on analyzing data in depth and examining relationship from various
angles by bringing in as many relevant variables as possible in the analysis plan.
Applied Research
 Also Known as can action research
 Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization,
Fundamental Research
 Also known as basic or pure research.
 Research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.
 For example Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics
are examples of fundamental research.
Quantitative research

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  Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
 It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research
 Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind.
 For example when we are interested in investigating the the various factors which motivate
people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing.
 Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.
Conceptual research
 Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
Empirical research
 Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment.
 Also known as Experimental type of research.
 Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way.
One-time Research/Cross Sectional Research
 In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period
Longitudinal research
 The research is carried on over several time-periods.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and
inquiry leads to invention”

1. Increased amounts of research make progress possible. Research inculcates scientific and inductive
thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organisation.

2. The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or
to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex
nature of business and government has focused attention on the use of research in solving
operational problems.

3. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both for government
and business.

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4. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For
instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people and
on the availability of revenues to meet these needs.

5. Through research we can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of
each of these alternatives.

6. Research provides you with all necessary information in field of your work, study or operation
before you begin working on it. For example, most companies do research before beginning a
project in order to get a basic idea about the things they will need to do for the project.

7. Research can bring new inventions and discoveries come into life. It was C.V Raman’s research that
prompted invention of radio communication. Imagine how you would have communicated had
Graham Bell not come out with the first ever practical telephone. And with the world facing more and
crisis each day, researchers need to find new solutions to tackle them.

8. Research has made ground breaking discoveries and development in the field of health, nutrition,
food technology and medicine. These things have improved the life expectancy and health conditions
of human race in all parts of the world and helped eradicate diseases like polio, smallpox completely.

9. Research about our planets history and human history has enabled us to learn and understand
more about our forefathers and helped us learn from their mistakes and absorb good things from
their life. Research about the planet’s history and existence has told us a lot about how things will
shape up in years to come and how we need to respect our planet and work closely together to
stop global warming and other scenarios of destruction.

Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source of
providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems.

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design
and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the
data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to

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 those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

RESEARCH APPLICATIONS IN FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF BUSINESS

Management research
Management research includes various functions of management such as planning, organizing,
staffing, communicating, coordinating, motivating, controlling. Various motivational theories are the
result of research. Production (also called manufacturing) research focuses more on materials and
equipment rather than on human aspects. It covers various aspects such as new and better ways of
producing goods, inventing new technologies, reducing costs, improving product quality.

Personnel Management
Personnel Management may range from very simple problems to highly complex problems of all types.
It is primarily concerned with the human aspects of the business such as personnel policies, job
requirements, job evaluation, recruitment, selection, placement, training and development, promotion
and transfer, morale and attitudes, wage and salary administration, industrial relations. Basic research
in this field would be valuable as human behaviour affects organizational behaviour and productivity.

Financial Management
Financial Management includes financial institutions, financing instruments (egs. shares, debentures),
financial markets (capital market, money market, primary market, secondary market), financial services
(egs. merchant banking, discounting, factoring), financial analysis (e.g. investment analysis, ratio
analysis, funds flow / cash flow analysis) etc.,
•Accounting research though narrow in its scope, but is a highly significant area of business
management. Accounting information is used as a basis for reports to the management, shareholders,
investors, tax authorities, regulatory bodies and other interested parties. Areas for accounting research
include inventory valuation, depreciation accounting, generally accepted accounting principles,
accounting standards, corporate reporting etc.

Marketing Management
Marketing research deals with product development and distribution problems, marketing institutions,
marketing policies and practices, consumer behaviour, advertising and sales promotion, sales
management and after sales service etc. Marketing research is one of the very popular areas and also a
well established one. Marketing research includes market potentials, sales forecasting, product testing,
sales analysis, market surveys, test marketing, consumer behaviour studies, marketing information
system etc.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Scientific research may be defined as a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among observed phenomena. This
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definition contains the basic terms necessary in defining the method of scientific research, and
describes a procedure that has been accepted for centuries.

 A scientific research begins with a single carefully observed event and progresses ultimately to
the formulation of theories and laws.
 A theory is a set of related propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by
specifying relationships among concepts.
 Researchers develop theories by searching for patterns of uniformity to explain their data.
When relationships among variables are invariant under given conditions, researchers may
formulate a law.
 A law is a statement of fact meant to explain, in concise terms, an action or set of actions that is
generally accepted to be true and universal.
 Both theories and laws help researchers search for and explain consistency in behavior,
situations, and phenomena.

Characteristics of scientific method

1. Scientific research is public. Advances in science require freely available information. Researchers
cannot plead private knowledge, methods, or data in arguing for the accuracy of their findings;
scientific research information must be freely communicated from one researcher to another.
Researchers therefore must take great care in their published reports to include information on
sampling methods, measurements, and data-gathering procedures. This process of replication allows
for correction and verification of previous research findings.

2. Science is objective. Science tries to rule out eccentricities (weirdness) of judgment by researchers.
When a study is conducted, explicit rules and procedures are developed and the researcher is bound to
follow them.

Objectivity also requires that scientific research deal with facts rather than interpretations of facts.

3. Science is empirical. Researchers are concerned with a world that is knowable and potentially
measurable. (Empiricism comes from the Greek word for "experience.") . Researchers must be able to
perceive and classify what they study and reject. Scientists must link abstract concepts to the empirical
world through observations, which may be made either directly or indirectly via various measurement
instruments.

Typically, this linkage is accomplished by framing an operational definition.

Operational definitions are important in science, and a brief introduction requires some backtracking.
There are two basic kinds of definitions.

A constitutive definition defines a word by substituting other words or concepts for it..

In contrast, an operational definition specifies procedures that allow one to experience or measure a
concept.

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4. Science is systematic and cumulative. No single research study stands alone, nor does it rise or fall
by itself. A smart researchers always use previous studies as building blocks for their own work. One of
the first steps in conducting research is to review the available scientific literature on the topic so that
the current study will draw on the heritage of past research. This review is valuable.

5. Science is predictive. Science is concerned with relating the present to the future. In fact, scientists
strive to develop theories because, among other reasons, they are useful in predicting behavior.

A theory's adequacy lies in its ability to predict a phenomenon or event successfully.

A theory that offers predictions that are not borne out by data analysis must be carefully reexamined
and perhaps discarded.

Conversely, a theory that generates predictions that are supported by the data can be used to make
predictions in other situations.

RESEARCH PROCESS

“Well begun is half done”.

1. Formulating the research problem:

There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which
relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the
problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-
matter that he would like to inquire into
Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
a)Understanding the problem thoroughly, and

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b)Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those
having some expertise in the matter.
2. Extensive literature survey:
At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the
problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government
reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.

3. Development of Working Hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in
clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made
in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
Research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for
research.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be
tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to
keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important
facets of the problem.
4. Preparing the research design:
The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research
would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the
collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
5. Determining sample design:
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability
samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability
samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.
6. Collecting the data:
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey Data can be collected by
any one or more of the following ways:
 By observation
 Through personal interview
 Through telephone interview
 By mailing of questionnaires
 Through schedules
The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration the
nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, finanical resources, available time and the
desired degree of accuracy.
7. Analysis of data:
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them.

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Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed
into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready
for tabulation.
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables.
8. Hypothesis-testing:
After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any,
he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is
the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi
square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. Hypothesis-testing will
result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
9. Generalisations and interpretation:
The real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known
as interpretation.
10. Preparation of the report:
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by
him. The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) the preliminary pages;
 title
 acknowledgements and foreword.
 table of contents
 list of tables and list of graphs and charts,
(ii) the main text
 Introduction
 Summary of findings
 Main report
 Conclusion
(iii) the end matter.
 Bibliography
 Index should also be given specially in a published research report.

RESEARCH PROBLEM

The Research Problem This is an area of conflict, concern, or controversy (a gap between what is
wanted and what is observed). Include the most relevant reference that supports the claim.

A research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given
problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in the
context of a given environment.
There are several factors which may result in making the problem complicated. For instance, the
environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the courses of action or the values of the
outcomes; the number of alternative courses of action may be very large; persons not involved in

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making the decision may be affected by it and react to it favourably or unfavourably, and similar other
factors. All such elements (or at least the important ones) may be thought of in context of a research
problem.

We can, thus, state the components of a research problem as under:

a. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
b. There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a
problem.
c. There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one
wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for
if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
d. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
e. There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

Example of the Flow of Ideas in the Problem Statement

Selecting the Problem

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The following points may be
observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for research:

(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw any
new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research
material or sources of research are within one’s reach. Even then it is quite difficult to supply
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 definitive ideas concerning how a researcher should obtain ideas for his research. For this purpose,
a researcher should contact an expert or a professor in the University who is already engaged in
research. He may as well read articles published in current literature available on the subject and
may think how the techniques and ideas discussed therein might be applied to the solution of other
problems. He may discuss with others what he has in mind concerning a problem. In this way he
should make all possible efforts in selecting a problem.
(v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs
involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem.
In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a researcher must ask himself the
following questions:

(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?

(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?

(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate in
research as subjects?

If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one may become sure so far as the
practicability of the study is concerned.

(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be necessary
when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that has already been
done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have available a set of well
developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always be undertaken.

Technique Involved In Defining A Problem

Defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study
the problem with a pre-determined objective in view. How to define a research problem is
undoubtedly a herculean task.

(i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a broad
general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual
interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter
concerning which he wishes to pose a problem
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to understand
its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those
who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what
objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again
all those points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem. For a
better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with
those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The
researcher should also keep in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied
and understood.

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(iii) Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand must
necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given. This
means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and
records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of
research already undertaken on related problems.
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful
information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher
must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same
area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People
with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his
proposed study and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher.
(v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research
problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood,
the environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions
over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined,
rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through
rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may
become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses.

In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while defining a
research problem:

(a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem,
should be clearly defined.

(b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly stated.

(c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the selection of
the problem) should be provided.

(d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the
researcher in defining the problem.

(e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be
mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

Differences among the Topic, Problem, Purpose, and Questions

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For Example:

Let us suppose that a research problem in a broad general way is as follows:

“Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in India”?

In this form the question has a number of ambiguities such as:

What sort of productivity is being referred to? With what industries the same is related? With what
period of time the productivity is being talked about? In view of all such ambiguities the given
statement or the question is much too general to be amenable to analysis.

Rethinking and discussions about the problem may result in narrowing down the question to: “What
factors were responsible for the higher labour productivity of Japan’s manufacturing industries during
the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to India’s manufacturing industries?” This latter version of the
problem is definitely an improvement over its earlier version for the various ambiguities have been
removed to the extent possible.

Further rethinking and rephrasing might place the problem on a still better operational basis as shown
below: “To what extent did labour productivity in 1971 to 1980 in Japan exceed that of India in respect
of 15 selected manufacturing industries? What factors were responsible for the productivity
differentials between the two countries by industries?”

RESEARCH QUESTION

A research question is the fundamental core of a research project, study, or review of literature. It
focuses the study, determines the methodology, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and
reporting.

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 The research question begins with a research problem, an issue someone would like to know more
about or a situation that needs to be changed or addressed, such as:
 Areas of concern
 Conditions that could be improved
 Difficulties that need to be eliminated
 Questions seeking answers
A research problem leads to a hypothesis (H) and/or research question (RQ)
Questions should in some way. . .
 Be worth investigating
 Contribute knowledge & value to the field
 Improve educational practice
 Improve the human condition
Characteristics of a good research question:
 The question is feasible.
 The question is clear.
 The question is significant.
 The question is ethical.
The Management-Research Question Hierarchy

Management dilemma—the problem or opportunity that requires a business decision.

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The management dilemma is usually a symptom of an actual problem, such as:

 Rising costs.
 The discovery of an expensive chemical compound that would increase the usefulness of
a drug.
 Increasing tenant move-outs from an apartment complex.
 Declining sales.
 A larger number of product defects during the manufacture of an automobile.
 An increasing number of letters and phone complaints about postpurchase.

Management question—the management dilemma restated in question format.

Research question(s)—the hypothesis that best states the objective of the research; the question(s)
that focuses the researcher’s attention.

Investigative questions— The investigative question determines the specific alternative option
managers could take to help solve the problem.

The measurement question turns the problem into a measurement. For a problem with slow
deliveries, the appropriate questions relate to which companies have the best delivery times in the
area.

The management decision is the final step, and the decision should provide a solution to the problem.

ILLUSTRATION

Develop the management-research question hierarchy citing management dilemma, management

question, and research question(s) for each of the following:
a. The production manager of a shoe factory.
b. The president of a home health care services firm.
c. The vice president of labor relations for an auto manufacturer.
d. The retail advertising manager of a major metropolitan newspaper.
e. The chief of police in a major city.

a. The production manager of a shoe factory

Management Dilemma: There is a decline in plant productivity.
Management Question: How do we increase plant productivity, to bring it back to its former level?
Research Questions:
(1) What are the factors impacting productivity and how important is each factor?
(2) Which are the factors to be focused on to increase productivity?
(3) How does productivity in this factory compare to industry norms, considering labor and capital
productivity?

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b. The president of a home healthcare services firm
Management Dilemma: The firm is experiencing an increasing number of complaints regarding health
care service quality.
Management Problem: What can be done to improve service quality?
Research Questions:
(1) Is there a real problem in the quality of service or is the ‘perceived’ quality of the service poor?
(2) Which categories of health care services are generating the major portion of complaints?
(3) What specific improvements can improve these services?
(4) What may be expected as an outcome of the improvements?

c. The vice president of labor relations for an auto manufacturer

Management Dilemma: Low productivity and high absenteeism at the manufacturing plant.
Management Question: What are the causes for low productivity and high absenteeism?
Research Questions:
(1) What are the causes of low productivity that relate to personnel issues?
(2) What are the causes of low productivity that relate to technology, or the manufacturing plant?
(3) What are the causes of absenteeism?
(4) Is there an employee morale problem in the plant, and if so, what are its major dimensions?

d. The retail advertising manager of a major metropolitan newspaper

Management Dilemma: Should advertising rates be revised?
Management Question: Should the advertising rates be revised, by how much, and what gains are
expected from the revision?
Research Questions:
(1) What are the rates of competing publications?
(2) What should the differentials between rates for different ‘positions’ be?
(3) What impact will a rate increase have on the demand for advertising? (4) What should the revised
advertising tariff structure be?

e. The chief of police in a major city

Management Dilemma: A need for more efficient dispatching of police officers?
Management Question: Which are the systems that have a more efficient dispatch of officers, and
what are the associated implementation costs?
Research Questions:
(1) Which dispatch systems are in use in other places, what are their costs, and how is their
efficiency?
(2) What are the steps and costs associated with the introduction of the three most
efficient alternatives?

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

 A research proposal is a concise and coherent summary of the proposed research.

 It sets out the central issues or questions that researcher intend to address.

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  It outlines the general area of study within which research falls, referring to the current state of
knowledge and any recent debates on the topic.
 It also demonstrates the originality of the proposed research.
 The proposal is the most important document that the researcher submits as part of the
application process.
 It gives him an opportunity to demonstrate that he have the aptitude for graduate level
research, for example, by demonstrating that he have the ability to communicate complex
ideas clearly, concisely and critically.
Elements of a Research Proposal
The elements of a research proposal are highlighted below:
1. Title: It should be concise and descriptive. It must be informative and catchy. An effective title not
only prick’s the readers interest, but also predisposes him/her favorably towards the proposal. Often
titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles clearly indicate the
independent and dependent variables.
2. Abstract: It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the main research
question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any) and the method. Descriptions of the
method may include the design, procedures, the sample and any instruments that will be used.
3. Introduction: The introduction provides the readers with the background information. Its purpose is
to establish a framework for the research, so that readers can understand how it relates to other
research. It should answer the question of why the research needs to be done and what will be its
relevance. It puts the proposal in context.
The introduction typically begins with a statement of the research problem in precise and clear terms.
The importance of the statement of the research problem. The statement of the problem is the
essential basis for the construction of a research proposal (research objectives, hypotheses,
methodology, work plan and budget etc). It is an integral part of selecting a research topic. It will guide
and put into sharper focus the research design being considered for solving the problem. It allows the
investigator to describe the problem systematically, to reflect on its importance, its priority in the
country and region and to point out why the proposed research on the problem should be undertaken.
It also facilitates peer review of the research proposal by the funding agencies.
Then it is necessary to provide the context and set the stage for the research question in such a way as
to show its necessity and importance.This step is necessary for the investigators to familiarize
themselves with existing knowledge about the research problem and to find out whether or not others
have investigated the same or similar problems.
4. Literature Review
This step is accomplished by a thorough and critical review of the literature and by personal
communication with experts. It helps further understanding of the problem proposed for research and
may lead to refining the statement of the problem, to identify the study variables and conceptualize

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their relationships, and in formulation and selection of a research hypothesis. It ensures that you are
not "re-inventing the wheel" and demonstrates your understanding of the research problem. It gives
due credit to those who have laid the groundwork for your proposed research. In a proposal, the
literature review is generally brief and to the point. The literature selected should be pertinent and
relevant
5. Objectives: Research objectives are the goals to be achieved by conducting the research. They may
be stated as ‘general’ and ‘specific’.
The general objective of the research is what is to be accomplished by the research project, for
example, to determine whether or not a new vaccine should be incorporated in a public health
program.
The specific objectives relate to the specific research questions the investigator wants to answer
through the proposed study and may be presented as primary and secondary objectives, for example,
primary: To determine the degree of protection that is attributable to the new vaccine in a study
population by comparing the vaccinated and unvaccinated groups. Secondary: To study the cost-
effectiveness of this programme.
6. Methodology:
This section should include:
Research design: The selection of the research strategy is the core of research design and is probably
the single most important decision the investigator has to make. The choice of the strategy, whether
descriptive, analytical, experimental, operational or a combination of these depend on a number of
considerations, but this choice must be explained in relation to the study objectives.
 Sample size: The proposal should provide information and justification (basis on which the
sample size is calculated) about sample size in the methodology section. Calculation of sample
size has been made easy by computer software programmes, but the principles underlying the
estimation should be well understood.
 Research setting: The research setting includes all the pertinent facets of the study, such as the
population to be studied (sampling frame), the place and time of study.
 Study instruments: Instruments are the tools by which the data are collected. For validated
questionnaires/interview schedules, reference to published work should be given and the
instrument appended to the proposal.
 Data analysis: The description should include the design of the analysis form, plans for
processing and coding the data and the choice of the statistical method to be applied to each
data. What will be the procedures for accounting for missing, unused or spurious data?
 Gantt chart: A Gantt chart is an overview of tasks/proposed activities and a time frame for the
same. You put weeks, days or months at one side, and the tasks at the other. You draw fat lines
to indicate the period the task will be performed to give a timeline for your research study (take
help of tutorial on youtube).
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  Significance of the study: Indicate how your research will refine, revise or extend existing
knowledge in the area under investigation. How will it benefit the concerned stakeholders?
What could be the larger implications of your research study?
 Dissemination of the study results: How do you propose to share the findings of your study with
professional peers, practitioners, participants and the funding agency?
7. Budget: A proposal budget with item wise/activity wise breakdown and justification for the same.
Indicate how will the study be financed.
8. Time Table: The time schedule of the research must be mentioned .
9. Qualification of the Researcher
10. References: The proposal should end with relevant references on the subject.
11. Appendixes: Include the appropriate appendixes in the proposal. For example: Interview protocols,
sample of informed consent forms, cover letters sent to appropriate stakeholders, official letters for
permission to conduct research.
EVALUATING A RESEARCH PROPOSALS

(This checklist incorporates the items used by government funding bodies in their evaluation of
research proposals.)
1. Problem identification
1.1 Is the problem/line of enquiry clearly defined?
1.2 Is the basic research problem well formulated, or is it poorly and vaguely structured?
1.3 Is it briefly and concisely stated?
2. Background to the research problem
2.1 Has there been an adequate description of the background to the problem either under a
separate heading or as part of the literature?
2.2 Has the area of concern regarding the problem been identified, i.e., has the need that exists to
research the problem been clarified?
3. Literature review
3.1 Is there clear evidence of a thorough review of the literature?
3.2 Is there a theoretical engagement with the relevant literature?
3.3 Does the literature review provide an adequate theoretical framework for the study?
3.4 Has appropriate literature been examined in order to provide the background and rationale to
the problem and its formulation?
3.5 Have relevant sources been used to identify the problem?
3.6 Are the cited references acceptable?
3.7 Are textual references and bibliographic citation correct?
4. Conceptual framework

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4.1 To what extent are the conceptual framework and theoretical assumptions clearly stated?
4.2 Has a suitable hypothesis (or hypotheses) been formulated, or has a suitable research question
(or research questions) been stated?
5. Objectives
5.1 Have the objectives been stated clearly?
5.2 If there are more than three objectives, have they been divided into main and
subsidiary objectives?
6. Research design
6.1 Is the project and research design well structured and outlined, or is it poorly articulated?
6.2 Has the research methodology been articulated clearly?
6.3 Is there a clear correspondence between the stated aims of the research and the chosen
methodology?
6.4 Is there a mere statement of the qualitative or quantitative research methods to be used, or is
there justification for their use?
6.5 Have the sampling methodology and data collection been adequately clarified?
6.6 Is the analysis appropriate to the aims of the research?
7. Significance
7.1 To what extent will the research make an original and creative contribution to knowledge ?
7.2 Why is it important to undertake this
research? Whom will it benefit or to whom will it be
important?
7.3 Is the proposed research likely to promote further investigation within and/or across
disciplines and fields?
7.4 Has the expected outcome (or outcomes) of the research been clearly identified?
8. Feasibility
8.1 Is the problem researchable and is it feasible? Do the preliminary data and available
resources support its feasibility?
8.2 Does the candidate’s academic profile or potential support his/her ability to
accomplish the project?
9. Other general comments
Is the proposal well structured or poorly compiled? If the latter, what should be done to make it a
well-structured proposal?
10. Language
Has the research proposal been proofread and edited?

SAMPLE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

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