[ ]

LV. h'i~letics of a System qt" Particle.~ illustratil~g the Line

and the Band Spectru~n and tile Pltenomena of Radioactivity.
I?,y H. NAGAOKA,l%ofesso~"of Pl~jsics, [mpe~'ial Unive~'slty,
T~ky5 ~.
l i C E the discovery of the regularity of spectral lines, the
Svibrations
kinetics of a material system giving rise to spectral
has been a favourite subject of discussion among
physicists. The method of enquiry has been generally to find
a system which will give rise to vibrations conformable to
the formulm given by Bahner, by Kavser :rod Ruuge, and by
t{ydberg. The characteristic [tiffel:encc between the line-
and the band-spectrum in the magnetic field has scarcely
been touched upon in these theoreticalinvestigations. Instead
of seeking to find a system whose modes of vibration are
brought into complete harmony with the regularity observed
in spectral lines, inasmuch as the empirical formulae are still
a matter of dispute, I propose to discuss a system whose
small oscillations accord qualitatively with the regularity
observed in the spectra of different elements and by which
the influence of the magnetic field on band- and line-spectra
is easily explicable. The system here considered is quasi-
stable, and will at the same time serve to illustrate a dynamical
analogy of radioactivity, showing that the singular property
is markedly inherent in elements with high atomm weights.
It must, however, be borne in mind that out of the manifold
structure of systems that may exist enjoying the said properties,
the one here presented is perhaps the most easily conceivable,
although the actual arrangement in a chemical atom may
present complexities which are far beyond the reach of mathe-
matical treatment.
The system, which I am going to discuss, consists of a
large number of particles of equal mass arranged in a circle
at equal angular intervals and repelling each other with forces
inversely proportional to the square of distance; at the
centre of the circle, place a particle of large muss attracting the
other particles according to the same law of force. If these
repelling particles be revolving with nearly the same velocity
about the attracting centre, the system will generally remain
stable, for small disturbances, provided the attracting force
be sufficiently great. The system differs from the Saturnian
syste,n considered by Maxwell in having repelling particles
instead of attracting satellites. The present case will
evidently be a2proximate~y ,'ealized if' we replace these satel-
lites by negative electrons and the attracting centre by a
* Read before the Physieo-Mathematical Society, T5kyS, Dec. 5th,
1903. Cmnmunicatedby the Author.
446 Profi t{. ~Nagaoka : Kinetics of a 5~stem of
positively charged particle. The investigations on cathode
rays and radioactivity have shown that such a system is con-
eeivable as an ideal atom. In his lectures on electrons, Sir
Oliver Lodge calls attention to a Saturnian system which
probably will be of the same arrangement as that above
spoken of. The objection to such a system of eleetrons is that
the system must ultimately come to rest., in consequence of
the exhaustion of energx: t)y radiation, i f the loss be not
properly compensated.
To begin with, it is necessary to show that the system
is stable. Denoting the distance of particle k from the
centre of mass by Rk, the total energy of the system by U,
and the potential energy by V, we can easily prove that
d ~ ,~ ~ , . . . .
~ ,-~mRZ.= 4U -- 2V~
dt (1)*

for the law of force varying as the inverse square of distance.

In order that EmR~ may remain finite, it is necessary that
2 U - - V should neither be always positive nor always neg~ative~
but assume oscillating values. Let the distance between the
particles k and t be r~z, the rel)ulsion between them e- , the
? 'kl
radius vector of the disturbed circular orbit r~, and the
Ee
attraction between k and the central particle , the angular
rk
velocity about the centre ~ , then approximately
e~ - E Z e

Remembering that m~0~r~--~/k represents angular mo-

mentum, which renmins constant, we obtain
~2
2"-r= ~i':+ . "g'~'~ ~ k l
. . . . Jean., ~]," . . . (2)

Thus 2 U - - V will assume oscillating values, when rk aud

'ral are subject to small disturbances, provided the qmmtities
e, E, and oak~/1,and the mean values of ~, rk, are such tba~
2U ~ V assumes oscillating values, sometimes exceeding anti
sometimes falling short of zero. We notice at once tl~at E
must be very large compared to e.
The small oscillations of a particle may be radial or normal
to the plane of the orbit, and those corresponding to the dis-
tnrbance of rkz will give rise to condensation and rarefaction
of the particles arranged in a ring. The oscillations of
* aacobi, Vorlesungeniiber .Dynamik, IVerke, Supplementba~d, p, 29.
 Particles ill,tstratinq the Line and Band Spectrum. 417
mutually attracting p,~rticles have already engaged the atten-
tion of Maxwell in his discussion of Saturn's rings; the
equations here to be considered are nearly of the same form
as those given by Maxwell, but they can be eonve.iently
deduced by means of Lagrange's equation.
Let the radius of the undisturbed orbit be a and the
position of any two particles (1) and ('2) subtending an angle
20 at the centre be given by polar coordinates r, 6, z,
such that
P1 = a ( ] - - ] - P I ) , "2 = a ( l 3 1 - P 2 ) ,
dpl= s +colt+o] , d?2 = s +wt + ~ + 20,
z I = a ~, z~ = a~,2.
The radial and angular disturbances are given by p and
respectively, and the transversal displacement by.~.
The potential of particle (2) at point 'h, ~bl, zl is given by
g
,.:~ .v/r~ +d-'2,.i,,o cos (r + (:2-z,Y
Since

" I sin 20 + ~4 sin ~9

we find by expanding ~b
1 1 { P, +P~ + P~P2+ (P,--02) 2 g~ [
rl - - 2 a s i n ~ 1-- 2 ~(Pl+P'2):--~sin'~O- ~sin20j

x {1 (~ - ~ cot O+
2 8
( 1 + 2 eot~ O) } " "
(3)

By simple differentiation,
5V12 BVr, e f ]
--~-~h = - - -"~Pl -- 4a.2sin.2
- 0 -~ 1 ~ 2 t7 't

+ ~-2cot20(p,+p~) } [1

~V~ ~V12 ecosO ~ 1-- 3pt+p~2 [

9 Ot)
-- ~-~br -- a(1 + p,)~o-,-- 4a 2 si,f20 ] 2 ~ "

+~(tanO+2cotO)} ][

5V~2 bVl~ e(C2- ~) [

~)zl a~l -- ~a ~ sin ~' 0 j
neglecting small quantities of second order.
44 8 Prof. H. Nagaoka : Kinetics of a System of
Suppose that the disturbances are propagated round the
I1, tit o
ring in waves with velocity ~ for p, 0., and ), rot ~', and there-
fore given by

Pl A cos (nt + a + hs)

= P2 = A c e s (nt + a + 2hO+hs)
0 . t = B sin (nt + a + h s ) a 2 = B sill (nt +o~+ 2hO+l,s)
~', = C cos (~'t + Y + hs) ~2 ----C cos (nit + ~/+ 2hO + l,s)
where h----l, 3, 3, . . .
Putting for simplicity u = nt + ~ + hs, u' = n't +,y + hs, we
have
Pt --p2 = - - 2 A cos u sin s hO--A sin u sin 2hO,
0.t--~ = 2B sin u sin s hO--B cos u sin 2h0.
Denoting the nmnber of particles in a ring by v, let
~" 2~" 37r (v--1)~-
Y Y ' V '''" Y

IA = ~(-~ siu 0h 0s i ~nCOS

0 e~ hO)o

M ~ sin 2h(r cos O

//sin ~h0 cos ~0 [ sin ~

N=Z, s - ~ n ~ - + 2 s i - - - - ~ O) , (6)

J --l~ sin'-' hO
-- 3 sin '~0
1
K = E ~2sin 0 J
where the summation extends to all possible values of 0.
Suppressing the suffix in rl, ~bi, zl, we find

~ V = E DV12~r,.-- _e2a
~ {K + ( L A - - M B ) cos u} In

bV = ~bVm_ i a ( M A + N B ) sin u [ (7)

~V = E ~V,2 e__j eos ' ]
J
 Particles illustratinj the Line and B a n d ~peetr~.n. ~9
The kinet;e enevg'y of ~he particle ~t, point r, ~b, z is given
by
+ j"

B y Lagrange's equation

eE 3V

with similar expressions for r and z.

Thus, we obtain as the equations of motion
deP a . _ do- eE 2eE "l
,li~-~, -~o-p- 2~oU = .,..,-~+ ~-a :~p ]
e2 / K + ( L A - - M B ) cosu} I
9 (8)
d%" ~ e2 b
dt 2- +2{o = 2~d(MA+NB) sin u
I
I
d:~" eEl" ee I
~/t=2-- - - m j ~ + 2-~a3 J cos u' A
From the last of the e(luat~ons of motion (8), we find that
the frequency of transversal oscillation n' is given by
~ ' = _+ v / S ~ / ~ J , . . . . . . (9)
g2
where S stands t b r e E and ~ lbr - From the con-
m~---t{P 2 mcd "
dition of st~bility, we supi}ose that, N is very large compared
to e. When the number of' particles v is considerable, we
notice from (6) that J can be expanded in a series of the
form
J = A j h -~+ Bfl? + . . . .
Consequently,
+-n' =o~o'--(~h~ +/,jh~+ . . . . . . (10)
where %' is the principal constant term, and ay > 0 and he,My
proportional to ~ . lYor small values of h, ~dlie very near each
other, but as h increases, the intervM gra,lually becomes larger
and ultimately reaches a maximum. The interval between
successive fi'equeneies decreases as h is increased. Con-
strueting the frequency lines as ftmctions of h, we find a
Phil. Mh9. S. 6. Vol. 7. No. 41. May 1904. 2I
450 Prof. H. Nagaoka : Kinetics of a System of

close resemblance with the band-spectrum, as shown in the

figure. In fact, the above equation is bu~ an extension of
Deslandres' empirical fornmla in a slightly altered form*.
It shows that the edges may lie either in the region of high
or of low frequency. W e shall afterwards find that the
frequency is not affected by the external magnetic force, if
the particles are supposed to be negative electrons.
Fig. 1.

ltf/l Itli !t 'f

(

Fig. '2.

41 I
The remaining two equations of motion give the following
equations for determining the frequency and the angular
velocity ~o about the attracting centre : -
to~ - S - - t t K + (co~+ 2S + n : - - ~ L ) A cos u + (2con +/xM)B cos u = 0 ,
2tonA + n~B--/~(MA + N B ) = 0 .
These two equations show that
co~=S +/xK . . . . . . . (11)
n 4 - (3~ ~ - 2 S + ~(L + N ) ) n ~ - ~N (me + 2 S - - g L ) + g~M 2= 0. (12)
Solving for n2,-we find
q q2
~:=P+(P+~ - 8f +
9 (13)
For large values of h, it is convenient to count the lines from the
edge. For this purpose, put h = h o - - h ' , where he gives the line at the
edge ; then
n = a+bh':A-cl~'3+ . . . (h'=l~ 2, 3, . . .)
which is one of the empirical formulm used by Kayser and Runge in the
discussion of the cyanogen band (Berlin Abh. 1889).
 Particles illust,r(ding the Lb~e and B a n d Spectrum. 451
where
~(L +N +'2K)~
(13')
7=3to2{~N ~'[(L+2K)N+M] i"
36o 2 /

Remembering that L, N, and )tl are all expressible in a

series of the form
ao + alh ~ + aoh ~ 4- . . . ,
a,, being absent tbr the last two quantities, we find the value
of n for + sign in (13)
+ n = ~0 t Ah" T BI~.4+ 9 . 9 (14)
where A > 0 and B < 0 generally, and ~o is nearly equal to
to. The exl)resslon for n can also be put in the form

(14 / )
- v/a + bh ~ + ch ~+ . . .

where a is nearly equal to unity, and b < 0 and nearly pro-

p2
portional to ~ .
I/ere we no~ice that waves of frequency n travel round the
rino. in opposite senses, so long as the particles are not acted
on by extraneous forces. The fl'equency increases as h is
increased, and the nature of the series shows that the spectral
lines corresponding to these vibrations will gradually crowd
together when h is large. The qualitative coincidence of" the
above result wRh the line-spectrum is at once evident, if /t
be not small. Diagrammatically represented, the ~rrange-
ment of the lines w{ll be as in fig. i already given, with h
counted in the opposite sense.
An important difference between the present result and
the empirical t~orlnulse must not be forgotten. When h is
very great, the difference between successive lines begins to
diverge, but in the empirical formulae given by various
investigators in this field of research, the frequency ultimately
tends to a limitiug value. It seems doubtful it' very large
values of h will ever be observed.
In the present case, ~he particles must be very small com:
pared to the attracting centre, in order that the ring may
not collapse, when disturbances corresponding to large values
of h are propagated round the ring.
Let us now compare the line- and the band-spectrum of the
212
452 Prof. H. INagaoka : Kinetics of a System of
present system. The frequency n for the line-spectrum is
approximately given by
n~= co~+/L(L + 4N + 2K).
For tolerably large values of l~, 2 L ~ - N - - 2 J ; consequently
n 2-~o~ + 9tLJ.
For the frequency of the band-spectrum due to the same
particles

Thus the successive difference of frequency for the same

ring of' particles is about nine times greater in the line than
in the band-spectrum. The proximity of lines iu the band-
spectrum is well borne out by observation.
Observation shows that the Zeeman effect is only peculiar
to the line-spectrum, while the band-spectrum is not affected
by the magnetic force. If we suppose that the moving
})articles are electrons, then the force acting on any one of
them, when the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane
of the orbit, would be radial and equal to ella adt "~.eHa~o.
The equation of motion is therefore modified by the introduc-
tion of the new term eHaoJ ; consequently
~o~=S +/~K + eH
The waves travel round the ring with different velocities
eH \

. . . . 05)

All the line-spectra belonging to the same series appear

as doublets, which are circularly polarized in opposite sense.
The magnetic force perpendicular to the plane of the orbit
does not affect the transverse vibrations, but when the field t t
is parallel to the plane, the tbree
cos 4' a ~t~
normal to tim plane of the orbit will be operative. This
force is however oscillating, and its mean value is zero ; it
will therefore produce no sensible eft~et on the period of
transversal oscillation which gives rise to band-spectrum of
the present system.
 Particles illustrating tlte Line and Ba~d ~5~pectrum. 453
The refined apparatus recently introduced by Miehelson
and Lummer in spectrum analysis have revealed a complex
crowding of lines where formerly a single line was supposed
to exist. In the present system, we have supposed that
r-particles are arranged in a circle, hut in the actual case the
particles may be at slightly different distam'es from tlle
attracting centre, which was identified with a geometrical
point. The hypothesis of a point centre would only be a
rough approximation, and we have reason to belie(:c that
the complexity of the structure of si)ectral lines is a conse-
quence most likely to be expected.
Where there are many series of spectra, we have to con-
sider the same n u m b e r ' o f rings of particles, all of which
may or may not lie in the same plane. The occurrence of
doublets in elcments of the alkaline group may be attributed
to the separation due to magnetic force by other rings, but it
is extremely improbable that the field is so great as to cause
the observed separation. The mutual disturbances of the
rings will again result in intricacy in the structure o~' the
spectra. The two neighbouring rings will be so influ(,nced
as to give rise to forced waves, so that they pert'orm oscilla-
tions which are participated in bv other rings. Cases may
occur where the resonance due [o the oscillation of other
atoms makes the amplitude extremely large and ultimately
tears the ring. The most noteworthy is the influence ot' the
amplitude of oscillation of one ring on others, it affects
the period of the neighbouring ring to a slight extent and
may cause the flutings o[ the spectrum-lines. Of course this
may be looked upon as one cause of the broade,fing of lines,
wh{le various other causes tending towards the same efibct
will exist.
The admissible value of n is not confined to that already
discussed in connexion with the line-spectrum ; but taking
the -- sign in (13), we obtain

P ? { 4 N ( L + 2K + 3N) + MZ} nearly. (16)

= -- 3/~N + t~ 2

The principal term amounts to --3t~N. The disturbance is

then expressible in the form
p = (Ae'~t + A'e-~'#)cos no, )
w (17)
o-= ( B d ~r + B'e -~it) sin u0,
where m ~. V/3~ N-
454 Prof. ]t. ~agaoka : Kinetics of a ~System of
The motion of the ring will not be oscillating, but in course
of time, if the disturbance be persistent, will acquire such an
amplitude as to break the ring. In this case, the particles
will fly away with enormous velocities, and the central
particle will participate in the same motion, owing to the law
of conservation of the centre of mass. If the particles be
supposed to be negative electrons, they will disperse in
various directions with great velocities, and the positively
charged particle at the centre will also fly off. Here we have
arrived at a mechanical analogy, which explains the pro-
duction of a and fl rays by the disintegration of the ideal
atom. The results of calculation above expounded lead us to
the conclusion that the phenomenon of radioactivity is remark-
ably exhibited in elements with high atomic weights. When
h is small, ~q'--h~r~
9 ~ , consequently the disturbance of the ring
with u particles will be given by

P =Ae~tc~176 } . . . . . (17 I)
a = Be~tsin ~lo, '

after a certain time t, showing that the more massive the ring,
the greater the disturbance, which is proportional to eK~t. As
most of the eleme,Jts exhibit regular spectral lines, it appears
that such rings as above described are generally to be found.
It is more probable that massive rings will be found in
elements with high atomic weights, and if the high atomic
weight is accompanied by simple spectral lines, it needs no
proving that r in the rings must be greater than in elements
with complex spectral series. In that case, the instability of
the ring will immediately set in, and result in the expulsion
of the particles. Radium enjoys the said property, the high
atomic weight being accompanied by spectr~A lines which
are far simpler than in iron or mercury.
If the spectra of the elements be due to the motion of
electrons revolving in circular orbits, as above supposed,
several rings of electrons must exist where there are different
series of spectra, as in most of the elements. The resonance
due to forces, whose periods coincide with those of the rings,
will be most efficacious in causing the disturbance and also
in placing it~ in an unstable state. The destruction of the
rings will be easier if the innermost ring be torn asunder
than if the outside one is, and, moreover, if these electrons
are subject to electric ibrces, the dismembered electrons will
fly away with accelerated velocity. The modes of vibration
 Particles illustrating the Line and Band Spectrum. 455
which contribute to the instability of the system are those
associated with the higher harmonics. This evidently lles
in the re g ion of' small
,. 9 .
wave-length,
. .
and the
.
destruction of the
system will be castor for ultra-violet light to bring into effect,
if the system will resonate to these oscillations. The actino-
electric action may be the result of the destruction of atoms
under the combined action of eledtric force, which places the
electrons in a constrained state, and the resonance to ultra-
violet rays of the period participated in by the rings. The
dismemberment of the rings will result in the ionization of
gas in the neighbourhood of the illuminated surface.
The same course of reasoning with regard to resonance
seems to apply to the change of resistance often observed in
semi-insulators. Apply electromotive force to a semi-insulator
and pass the electromagnetic wave whose period coincides
with that of the constituent atoms, then it will set the electrons
in resonating vibration, break them t'rom the revolving system,
and thereby cause the flow of electrons and reduce the
resistance of the circuit. This perhaps explains in a simple
manner the change of resistance in selenium by exposure to
light ; that the green light is less effective than red or violet
seems to give strong evidence to the resonating action.
The metals have usually a large number of spectral lines,
extending from ultra-violet to the infra-red region. The
exposure of metallic filings to electric waves has the same
action as that of light in the case of selenium. Perhaps
the same reasoning as above applies to this case, as the Hertz
waves are more penetrating, and there will be a greater
number of resonating atoms than when illuminated with
visible light. The theory of the coherer is probably to be
based on the footing that electric current consists in the stream
of electrons set free by the incident electromagnetic wave.
As another example of forced oscillation I may mention
the fluorescence or phosphorescence of' certain substances,
the vibrations of particles being excited either by light or
byelectromagnetic pulses. In the former phenomenon the
action is apparently temporary, but remanent in the latter.
In fact, the theory of luminiscence will be capable of further
development on the line of reasoning here expounded.
There are various problems which will possibly be capable
of being attacked on the hypothesis of a Saturnian system,
such as chemical affinity and valency, electrolysis and many
other subjects connected with atoms and molecules. The
rough calculation and rather unpolished exposition of various
phenomena above sketched nlay serve as a hint to a more
complete solution of atomic structure.