States of matter

CHAPTER 5
States of matter -1-
 Q1
States of matter -2-

 The state of a substance at RTP depends on its structure and

bonding. 5 types of structure are found in elements and
compounds:
➢ simple atomic
➢ simple molecular
➢ giant ionic
➢ giant metallic
➢ giant molecular
 Q2
The kinetic theory of gases
 The idea that molecules in gases are in constant movement is called the
kinetic theory of gases. This theory makes certain assumptions:
1) the gas molecules move rapidly and randomly
2) the distance between the gas molecules is much greater than the
diameter of the molecules so the volume of the molecules is negligible
3) there are no forces of attraction or repulsion between the molecules
4) all collisions between particles are elastic
5) the temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of
the molecules.
 A theoretical gas that fits this description is called an ideal gas. The gases we
encounter are called real gases.
Ideal gases

 The volume that a gas occupies depends on:

➢ its pressure in pascals, Pa
➢ its temperature in kelvin, K.

 An ideal gas will have a volume that varies exactly in proportion to its
temperature and exactly in inverse proportion to its pressure.

Q 3&4
Limitations of the ideal gas laws

 Real gases do not always obey the kinetic theory in two ways:
➢ there is not zero attraction between the molecules
➢ we cannot ignore the volume of the molecules themselves

Q5
The general gas equation

pV = nRT

 p is the pressure in pascals, Pa

 V is the volume of gas in cubic metres, m3 (1 m3 = 1000 dm3)
𝑚
 n is the number of moles of gas ( n = )
𝑀𝑟

 R is the gas constant, which has a value of 8.31 J K–1 mol–1

 T is the temperature in kelvin, K.

Q6
Calculating relative molecular masses

 An accurate method of finding the relative molecular mass of a

substance is to use a mass spectrometer (see Chapter 1).

 A less accurate method, but one that is suitable for a school

laboratory, is to use the general gas equation to find the mass of gas
in a large flask.

Q 7&8
The behaviour of liquids
 When we heat a solid:
➢ the energy transferred to the solid makes the particles vibrate more
vigorously
➢ the forces of attraction between the particles weaken
➢ the solid changes to a liquid when its temperature is sufficiently high.

 When we cool a liquid, the particles:

➢ lose kinetic energy so they do not move around so readily
➢ experience increasing forces of attraction
➢ stop sliding past each other when the temperature is sufficiently low; the
liquid solidifies.
Vaporisation and vapour pressure -1-
 When we heat a liquid:
1) the energy transferred to the liquid makes the particles move faster
2) the forces of attraction between the particles weaken
3) the particles with most energy are the first to escape from the forces
holding them together in the liquid
4) the liquid evaporates
5) the forces weaken enough for all the particles to become completely free
from each other; they move fast and randomly and they spread out
6) the liquid boils.
This change from the liquid state to the gas state is called vaporization.
Vaporisation and vapour pressure -2-
 When we cool a vapour, the particles:
1) lose kinetic energy so the molecules move around less quickly
2) experience increasing forces of attraction
3) move more slowly and become closer together when the temperature is
sufficiently low; the gas liquefies.
 Q9
Vaporisation and vapour pressure -3-
 In this situation the pressure exerted by a vapour in equilibrium with its liquid
is called its vapour pressure.

 The vapour pressure is caused by the gas particles hitting the walls of the
container. Vapour pressure will increase when the temperature increases
because:
➢ the gas particles have more kinetic energy
➢ the gas particles move faster, so are able to overcome intermolecular
forces of attraction more easily.

 The temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric

pressure is the boiling point of the liquid.
Ionic lattices
 Ionic lattices have a 3D arrangement of alternating + and - ions.
 Compounds with ionic lattices are sometimes called giant ionic structures.
 The type of lattice formed depends on the relative sizes of the ions present.
Metallic lattices
 In Chapter 4, we learnt that a metallic lattice consists of ions surrounded by
a sea of electrons. The ions are often packed in hexagonal layers or in a
cubic arrangement.
Alloys and their properties
 An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or a metal with a non-metal. The
metal added to create the alloy becomes part of the crystal lattice of the
other metal.

Q 10
Simple molecular lattices Q 11

 Substances with a simple molecular structure, such as iodine, can also form
crystals (Figure 5.11). This reflects the regular packing of the molecules in a
lattice structure.

 The distance between the nuclei of neighbouring iodine molecules is

greater than the distance between the nuclei within the iodine molecule.
Giant molecular structures
 Some covalently bonded structures have a 3D network of covalent bonds
throughout the whole structure. We call these structures giant molecular
structures or giant covalent structures.

 Carbon and graphite are different forms of the same element.

 Different crystalline or molecular forms of the same element are called

allotropes.
Graphite
 Carbon atoms are arranged in planar layers. Within the layers, the carbon
atoms are arranged in hexagons.
 Each carbon atom is joined to three other carbon atoms by strong covalent
bonds. The fourth electron of each carbon atom occupies a p orbital.
 These p orbitals on every carbon atom in each planar layer overlap
sideways. A cloud of delocalised electrons is formed above and below the
plane of the carbon rings.
Diamond
 Each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with other carbon atoms.
 The carbon atoms are tetrahedrally arranged around each other.
 The network of carbon atoms extends almost unbroken throughout the
whole structure.
 The regular arrangement of the atoms gives diamond a crystalline structure.
 Q 12-14
Silicon(IV) oxide
 There are several forms of silicon(IV) oxide. The silicon(IV) oxide found in the
mineral quartz has a structure similar to diamond.
Fullerenes
 Graphite and diamond are not the only allotropes of carbon. In recent
years, substances called fullerenes have been made.

 The structure of many fullerenes is based on rings of carbon atoms, as is the

structure of graphite. But many fullerenes exhibit properties unlike those of
graphite.

 The individual particles in fullerenes may have one of their dimensions

between 0.1 and 100 nanometers (1 nanometre = 10–9 m).
Buckminsterfullerene -1-
 The first fullerene discovered was called buckminsterfullerene, C60.
 Buckminsterfullerene is a simple molecular structure. The C60 molecule has
the shape of a football (soccer ball).
 The carbon atoms are arranged at the corners of 20 hexagons and 12
pentagons. The bonds where two hexagons join are shorter than the bonds
between the hexagons and the pentagons.
 As in graphite, some of the electrons in C60 are delocalised, but to a lesser
extent than in graphite.
Buckminsterfullerene -2-
 The properties of buckminsterfullerene are significantly different from those
of graphite and diamond.
• It has a relatively low sublimation point.
• It is relatively soft.
• It is a poor conductor of electricity compared with graphite
• It is slightly soluble in solvents such as carbon disulfide and
methylbenzene.
• It is more reactive than graphite or diamond.
Nanotubes -1-
 A second type of fullerene is a class of molecules described as nanotubes.

 Nanotubes are fullerenes of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms like a

single layer of graphite bent into the form of a cylinder.
Nanotubes -2-
 Nanotubes have characteristic properties:
• They have high electrical conductivity along the long axis of the cylinder.
• They have a very high tensile strength when a force is applied along the
long axis of the cylinder.
• They have very high melting points (typically about 3500 °C).
Graphene -1- Q 15

 Graphene is a single isolated layer of graphite. The hexagonally arranged

sheet of carbon atoms is not completely rigid and it can be distorted.
 Graphene has some of the properties of graphite, but they are more
exaggerated. For example:
• Graphene is the most chemically reactive form of carbon.
• Single sheets of graphene burn at very low temperatures and are much
more reactive than graphite.
• Graphene is extremely strong for its mass.
• For a given amount of material, graphene conducts electricity and heat
much better than graphite.
Graphene -2-