POWER GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION
typical use, so distribution transformers further
 Electricity is primarily produced at utility-owned
power stations.
 A power station is an industrial facility housing
equipment for generating electrical energy.
 A generator converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
 A generator rotates an armature (shaft with
conductor windings) through a stationary
magnetic field to produce current flow.
 A turbine, connected to the generator, drives the
rotation of the armature shaft.
 Steam is produced by heating water by burning
coal, oil, or natural gas, or with heat created by
a nuclear reaction.
 In a hydroelectric plant, falling water strikes
turbine blades, causing rotation of the turbine
shaft.
 Fossil-fuel plants have about 40% efficiency in
converting heat to mechanical energy, while
nuclear plants have about 30%.
 Large power stations produce over 1000
megawatts (MW) of electrical power.
 1 megawatt equals 1,000,000 watts.
 A city with a population of 1,000,000 requires
about 3000 to 4000 MW of power in the United
States.
 Electricity travels through overhead metal
cables supported by tall towers in a
transmission system.
 Public utility companies and many small power
producers are part of a power grid.
 Companies within the grid buy and sell
electricity from each other and from small
producers.
 The most cost-effective power stations in the
grid usually generate power consistently, except
for maintenance or repairs.
 During times of high demand, less-efficient
power stations are activated.
 If one power station goes offline or
malfunctions, another is activated to handle the
load.
 Electricity is generated at power stations
typically between 2.4 kV to 13.2 kV.
 For efficient transmission over long distances, a
step-up transformer boosts the voltage to above
39 kV, usually between 115 kV to 765 kV.
 Ultrahigh-voltage transmission, up to 1100 kV, is
being explored.
 High-voltage transmission requires lower
amperage, reducing power losses in the lines.
 Power substations near populated areas step
down transmission voltages for safety.
 Substations contain transformers, switches, and
other equipment to reduce voltages to safer
distribution levels.
 Distribution line voltages are typically 4160 V,
4800 V, 6900 V, or 13,200 V, though higher
voltages are available for large loads.
 Overhead, underground, and underwater
distribution lines transport electrical power from
substations to transformers near buildings.
 Distribution line voltages are initially too high for
reduce the voltage.
 Voltage levels are adjusted to safe and usable
levels for residential, commercial, and industrial
applications.
 Common voltage levels in the US and Canada
include 120/240 V single-phase and 120/208 V
or 480 Y/277 V three-phase.
 In Europe, voltages like 400 Y/230 V are
standard for both residential and industrial
loads.
 Power utilities typically generate, transmit, and
distribute three-phase AC power.
 Single-phase AC power is derived from one
phase of a three-phase system.
 Utilities opt for the highest transmission and
distribution voltages that are safe and
economical.
 High voltage transmission is cost-effective due
to smaller conductors required, but safety
clearance issues restrict its use in populated
areas.
 Higher voltages result in lower current
(amperage), reducing the need for larger power
lines.
 Table 18.1 illustrates the relationship between
generated and transmitted voltages and
associated current for a 2000 kVA load,
highlighting the benefits of higher voltages in
reducing current and thus the size of power
lines needed.
BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE EQUIPMENT
Service Entrance Conductors
 Service entrance conductors, whether
underground or overhead, carry power from the
transformer to the building's service
disconnects.
 Overhead wires from pole-mounted
transformers to buildings are called the service
drop; underground conductors are called the
service lateral.
 Overhead service entrance conductors are
insulated except for the neutral wire, which may
be bare.
 Single-phase service drops have 2 or 3 wires,
while three-phase service drops have 3 or 4
wires.
 Utility companies usually provide service
entrance conductors and adhere to standards
regarding wire size and minimum clearances.
Service Entrance
 The service entrance connects utility-supplied
wiring to the service disconnect, excluding the
utility's metering equipment.
 Service entrance equipment includes metering
equipment, a main disconnect or switch gear,
and overcurrent protection devices.
 Overcurrent protection devices, like circuit
breakers or fuses, safeguard the service
entrance conductors.
 The electric meter measures and records
electrical energy consumed by a building.
 For services up to about 400 A, a feed-through
meter is used, which operates like a small
electric motor.
 Current-transformer (C/T) devices are used for
services above 400 A, measuring amperage
through each hot conductor.
 C/T metering devices are housed in a C/T
cabinet as part of the service entrance
equipment.
 A service disconnect is a required component
allowing the utility company to switch off
electrical service to the building.
 It consists of fuses or a circuit breaker to protect
the service entrance conductors.
Switchboards
 A switchboard is a large cabinet or assembly of
metal cabinets.
 It houses disconnecting switches, overcurrent
protection devices (like fuses or circuit
breakers), other protective devices, and
instruments.
 Switchboards divide large amounts of electrical
current into smaller amounts for electrical
equipment.
 They have devices for manual and automatic
circuit disconnection from the power source.
 Switchboards are the highest capacity
components in building distribution and
protection.
 They are typically floor-mounted and rated for
current levels of 1200 to 6000 amperes (A) and
voltages below 600 volts (V).
 Access to a switchboard is usually from the
front and rear of the cabinet.
Panelboards
 A panelboard is a metal cabinet or cabinets
serving as a single unit.
 It includes buses (conductors), automatic
overcurrent protection devices (like fuses or
circuit breakers), and switches for controlling
circuits.
 Panelboards can be equipped with or without
switches for controlling light, heat, and power
circuits.
 They are placed in or against a wall or partition
and are accessible from the front.
 Panelboards may also be called power panels,
load centers, distribution centers, or main power
panels.
 A load center specifically refers to a panelboard
containing a preassembled setup.
 A panelboard comprises a sheet metal box
(cabinet) and a cover.
 The cover conceals the interior to limit access
to power distribution components.
 Inside, there are vertical buses for distributing
power.
 Overcurrent protection devices (like circuit
breakers or fuses) safeguard and feed branch
circuits to outlets.
 Termination buses are provided for neutral and
grounding connections for the branch circuits.
Building Transformers
 Transformers transmit and distribute power
from power plants to substations.
 Large commercial installations depend on
power distribution, which relies on transformers
to adjust voltage, current, and phase.
 Building transformers are rated in kVA (kilovolt-
amperes) and come in various sizes.
 Each transformer has a nameplate specifying
rated kVA, primary and secondary voltage,
impedance (if 25 kVA or larger), and required
clearances.
 Step-down transformers lower voltage, while
step-up transformers increase it.
 Step-down transformers are commonly used in
buildings to reduce voltages to usable levels.
 Transformers can deteriorate prematurely from
excessive heat, caused by loading, high
ambient temperature, and solar radiation.
 Small transformers are air-cooled, while larger
ones are liquid-cooled.
 Dry-type transformers have core and coils in a
dry compound and are typically found indoors in
commercial/industrial facilities.
 Liquid-immersion transformers have core and
coils submerged in insulating liquid.
 Transformers in buildings can be single-phase
or three-phase.
Single-Phase Transformer
 A single-phase transformer has one primary
winding and one secondary winding.
 The 7200/240/120 V AC, single-phase, three-
wire transformer is common in residential and
small commercial applications.
 It transforms 7200 V, two-wire power to a
120/240 V AC, three-wire system.
 This transformer provides both 120 V and 240 V
outputs, necessary for various applications in
homes and small businesses.
Three-Phase Transformers
 A three-phase transformer has three primary
and three secondary windings.
 In the US and Canada, the main types of three-
phase transformers are delta and wye.
 Delta-connected power is not commonly used in
Europe; wye-connected power is preferred.
 A delta-connected transformer has windings
connected in a triangle (Δ), with no single
common point to all phases.
 It provides only phase-to-phase voltages, with
other voltages obtained via step-up or step-
down transformers.
 A wye-connected transformer (Y) has windings
connected at a common point called a neutral
or star point.
 The angular displacement between windings is
120°, forming a Y configuration.
 Wye-connected systems provide voltages like
480 Y/277 V, indicating a wye (Y) winding
configuration.
 A delta-wye (Δ-Y) transformer converts three-
phase power without a neutral wire into three-
phase power with a neutral wire.
 Other transformer combinations include wye-
wye (Y-Y), delta-delta (Δ-Δ), and wye-delta (Y-
Δ).
 Historically, standardized voltages for delta
transformers were multiples of 120 V, while
voltages with 1.732 as a multiplier are wye
connections.
 New distribution transformers are highly
efficient, with losses of less than 0.25% in large
units and efficiencies of 98% or above in
smaller units.
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION: FUSES AND
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
 An overcurrent protection (OCP) device guards
against excessive current flows in a building
service or circuit. It prevents circuit components
from overheating by opening the circuit when
current reaches a dangerous level.
 Fuses and circuit breakers are automatic OCP
devices designed to open a circuit if current
exceeds their rating.
 Most OCP devices respond to short-circuit,
ground-fault, and overload conditions.
 Types of overcurrent protection devices are
further discussed in subsequent sections.
Circuit Breakers
Circuit Breaker Functionality
 Acts as a switch operable both manually and
automatically.
 Automatically trips off when current exceeds
circuit rating, interrupting current flow
instantaneously.
 Can be reset and allows electricity flow if
current remains within rating.
Types of Circuit Breakers
 Thermal-Magnetic Circuit Breaker: Most popular
type.
 Contains a bimetallic strip that bends when
heated by power loss.
 Trips release to open contacts and interrupt
current flow when excessive current flows.
 Magnetic device can also trip release instantly
in case of short circuits.
Characteristics
 Can carry load above rating for short intervals
without tripping.
 Current-limiting feature trips instantly at its
rating.
 100% rated feature limits continuous load to
80% after 3 hours.
Classification:
 Classified by voltage rating (V) and current-
carrying capacity (A).
 Higher voltage rating requires larger clearance
to prevent arcing.
 Standard ratings for alternating current include
120 V, 120/240 V, 277 V, 277/480 V, 480 V, and
600 V.
 Direct current ratings include 125 V, 250 V, and
600 V.
Protection and Configuration
 Protects ungrounded conductors in a circuit.
 Identified as single pole (SP), two pole (2P), or
three pole (3P) depending on the number of
ungrounded conductors protected.
Fuses
Fuse Functionality:
 Consists of a metal strip with a low melting
temperature.
 Allows electricity flow under normal conditions.
 Melts and opens the circuit when current
exceeds its rating, interrupting current flow (fuse
"blows").
 Blown fuse must be replaced with one of the
same rating.
Types:
 Plug Fuses: Screw into sockets, rated from 5 A
to 30 A.
 Edison-base plug fuses are unsafe due to
interchangeability.
 Type S plug fuses match base size to rating for
safety.
 Cartridge Fuses: Cylindrical shape, available in
ferrule-contact and knifeblade types, rated up to
60 A.
 Time Delay Fuses: Can handle overload for
fraction of a second without blowing, suitable for
circuits serving electric motors.
Comparison with Circuit Breakers:
 Circuit breakers are more convenient as they
can be reset rather than replaced.
 However, they deteriorate with age and may
lose sensitivity after tripping.
Installation and Safety:
 Overcurrent protection typically installed in
enclosures like switchboards, panelboards, or
motor control centers.
 Essential for safeguarding conductors and
equipment from overheating and fire.
 Does not protect against electrical shock,
making additional safety measures necessary.
OCP Device Ratings
Overcurrent Rating:
 Highest amperage an OCP device can carry
continuously without overheating.
 Exceeded current setting causes the device to
open, listed in amperes (e.g., 15 A, 20 A, 30 A).
 Circuit or system current must not surpass the
maximum current rating of the OCP device.
Interrupting Rating:
 OCP devices must handle maximum possible
fault current (short-circuit).
 Insufficient interrupting rating can lead to
explosion or serious damage to downstream
equipment.
 Circuit breakers have an amperes interruption
current (AIC) rating of 5000 A, and fuses have
10,000 A.
Safety Concerns:
 Male connecting device with two or more
prongs inserted into a receptacle to connect
to an electrical circuit.
 Typically attached to a flexible cord
connected to a portable appliance, light, or
equipment.
Functionality:

 Inadequate interrupting rating poses hazards to
occupants and property.
 Ensuring OCP devices are rated to handle fault
current prevents potential explosions and
equipment damage.
UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES
Utilization Equipment:
 Broad category of electrical or electronic
machines or instruments utilizing electrical
energy.
 Perform various functions like mechanical,
chemical, heating, or lighting.
 Includes electric motors, air conditioning
units, refrigeration units, industrial
machinery, signs, cranes, hoists, elevators,
and escalators.
 Receptacles and plugs facilitate easy
attachment or detachment of appliances or
equipment to/from electrical outlets.
NEMA Designation:
 Different receptacles and plugs identified by
specific NEMA designations tied to voltage,
amperage, and slot configuration.
 Example: 5-15R (receptacle) and 5-15P
(plug) are rated at 15 amperes and 125 V,
with equipment-grounding capability.
Applications:
 Specific receptacle/plug combinations tied
to particular applications (e.g., 5-15R for
portable lights and small appliances, 14-
50R for kitchen ranges).
Screw Terminal Coding:

Appliances:  Brass-colored screws: Connection to

ungrounded conductor.
 End-use utilization equipment designed for
 Silver-colored screws: Connection to
specific functions like cooking, cleaning,
grounded or neutral conductor.
cooling, or heating.
 Green-colored screws: Connection to
 Examples include electric ranges,
equipment grounding conductor.
refrigerators, clothes washers and dryers,
 Receptacle Markings:
freezers, blenders, toasters, and hair dryers.
 "CO/ALR": Connectable to copper,
 Classified as fixed, stationary, or portable
aluminum, or copper-clad aluminum
based on attachment and mobility.
conductors.
Fixed Appliances:  "CU/AL": Formerly for copper or aluminum
conductors, now only for copper conductors,
 Permanently attached installations like built- not suitable for aluminum conductors.
in electric cooktops or ovens.
Stationary Appliances:

 Situated at a specific location but movable

to another outlet.
 Examples include refrigerators, clothes
washers, and clothes dryers.
Portable Appliances:

 Easily carried or moved, such as hair dryers

or toasters.
Electrical Devices:

 Components in electrical systems designed

to carry electricity but not consume it.
 Examples include switches, receptacles,
and relays.
Outlets, Receptacles, and Plugs

 Outlet: Location in a branch circuit where

electricity is utilized (e.g., lighting outlet).
 Receptacle: Female connecting device with
slotted contacts installed at an outlet or on
equipment.
Plug Description: