Basavarajeshwari Group of Institution

SANJAY GANDHI POLYTECHNIC

"Vidya Soudha", Sanjay Gandhi Nagar,
Ballari - 583 104 (Karnataka)
Ph: 08392 – 266331 / 267833, e-mail: sgpbellary@gmail.com
Website: www.sgpbellary.com

Department of Mechanical Engineering

“AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING”

Course Code : 15ME63A

Unit No. Unit Name

1 AUTOMOBILE ENGINE SYSTEM
2 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
3 FUEL SYSTEMS & COOLING SYSTEM
4 CONTROL SYSTEM
5 SUSPENSION SYSTEMS, WHEELS & TYRES
6 AUTOMOBILE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
 1. AUTOM0BILE ENGINE SYSTEM
Automobile
An automobile is a self propelled vehicle which is used for the transportation of passengers
and goods upon the ground.
A self propelled is that in which power required for the propulsion is produced from within.
Ex: - locomotive car, bus, trucks, motorcycles, ships, aero plane, motor boat.
Automobiles Engineering
It is the branch of engineering in which we will study all about the automobiles and have
practice to propel them.
Types of automobiles
The automobile are classified on the following bases.
1. Purpose
a) Passenger vehicle – car, jeep, bus.
b) Goods vehicle – truck.
2) Capacity
a) Light motor vehicle – car, motorcycle, scooters.
b) Heavy motor vehicle – bus, truck, tractor.
3) Fuel used
a) Petrol vehicle – cars, jeep, motorcycles, scooter.
b) Diesel vehicle – truck, bus, tractor, bulldozer.
c) Electric cab – fork lift, battery truck.
d) Steam carriages – steam road rollers.
4) Number of wheel
a) Two wheels
b) Three wheel
c) Four wheels
d) Six wheel
5) Drive of the vehicle
a) Single wheel drive vehicle
b) Two wheel drive vehicle
c) Four wheel drive vehicle
d) Six wheel drive vehicle
Major components of automobiles
1) Basic structure: - an automobile is a unit on which all others automobile unit are attached.
2) Frame (chassis frame):- It supports all the unit of the vehicle.
3) Suspension system: - It is responsible for preventing the road shocks from being transmitted to the
vehicle. Safe guarding the passengers from road shocks.
4) Axles: - They are the control shafts connecting the wheels to the frame.
5) Wheels: - They are the one of the most important part of an automobile they carry the entire load
of the vehicle.
6) Engine or power plant: - Internal engine with petrol (or) diesel fuel is used to run the vehicle. It
converts chemical energy into mechanical energy.
7) Transmission system: - The gears that transmit power from an automobile engine via the drive
shafts (clutch, gear box, universal joint propeller shaft and differential) to the live axles.
8) Control system (braking system and steering system):- In a system that control the speed of the
motor vehicle.
9) Auxiliaries: - The lighting system of a motor vehicle consists of lightening and signalling devices
mounted to the front, rare, side and top.
MANUFACTURS OF MOTOR VEHICLES IN INDIA
1. Indian manufacturers of scooters
a) Scooters India - Vijay super – 150
b) Maharashtra scooters - Priya – 150
c) Bajaj auto - Bajaj – 150 CBU
2. Indian manufacturers of motorcycles
a) India Suzuki - AX 100
b) Enfield India - Bullet – 350
c) Escort - Rajdooth – 350
3. Indian manufacturers of mopeds
a) Mopeds India - Suvega
b) Kinetic Engg. - Luna spark
c) Majestic auto - Hero majestic
4. Indian manufacturers of car:-
a) Maurthi Udyog - Maurthi 800 cars
b) Hindustan motors - Ambassador
c) Premier automobiles Bombay - Premier Padmini
5. Indian manufacturers of jeep
a) Mahindra and Mahindra - Jeep Univ
6. Indian manufacturers of Buses
a) Ashok Leyland
b) Hindustan motor
c) Tata engineering and locomotives
d) Premier automobiles
7. Indian manufacturers of trucks
a) Ashok Leyland
b) Hindustan motor
c) Tata engineering and locomotives
d) Premier automobiles
8. Indian manufacturers of 3 wheelers
a) Auto Rickshaw
b) Bajaj auto
9. Indian manufacturers of tractors
a) HMT - Zetro tractors
b) Punjab tractors - Swaraj
c) Harsha tractors
d) Gujarat tractors company - Hindustan
History of automobiles
1) In 1769, a French engineer captain Nicholas Cugnot built the first road vehicle propelled by its
own power. It was a three wheeler fitted with a stem engine.
2) In 1880, German and French efforts develop an IC engine vehicle which was used to carry fruits.
3) In 1885, Benz in German build a tri – cycle propelled by an IC engine.
4) In 1895, Charles E Duryea and Elwood J Haynes in America developed experimental.
5) In 1895, Pan hard in France had engine placed in front of a chassis, hooked up to a sliding gear
transmission.
6) In 1900, the design of the automobile was so improved in the form of transportation.
7) In 1906, the production and sale of this vehicle become a business.
8) In 1908 ford started is model with an initial run of 20000 vehicles.
9) The first motor car appeared in India in 1898. The Bombay had the first motor taxi cab.
10) In 1935 late Bharat Ratna sir M. Vishweswaraya made an automobile industry in India.
Engine component
1. Cylinder block 8. Piston and piston ring and piston pin
2. Cylinder head 9. Connecting rod
3. Gasket 10. Crankshaft
4. Cylinder liners 11. Camshaft
5. Oil pan 12. Engine valve
6. Crank case 13. Flywheel and Governor
7. Manifolds

1. Cylinder block

Fig: Cylinder Block

1) The cylinder block is the basic frame work for the engine.
2) Cylinder head is attached at the top of the cylinder block.
3) Crank case is fixed to its bottom.
4) Time gear, water pump, ignition distributor, flywheel, fuel pump are attached at the side apart.
The Cylinder block consists
1) The cylinder in which the piston slides up & down.
2) The ports or openings for the valves.
3) The passages for the flow of cooling water.
4) It carries lubrication oil to various components through galleries.
Materials: Grey cast iron
2. Cylinder head
1. The top of the cylinder block is covered by a separate cast piece is known as cylinder head.
2. It consist combustion chamber, spark plug, valve seat, valve guides parts, coolant jackets
Materials: cast iron and aluminium alloy for cooling rate coppers alloys all used

Depending upon the valve and ports lay out the cylinder head may be classified
1. Loop flow types cylinder head

Fig 1.2.1: Loop flow type Cylinder Head

The inlet and the exhaust manifolds are placed in same side of the cylinder head. This facilitates pre
heating of the intake air
2. Offset cross flow type cylinder head

Fig 1.2.2: Offset cross flow type Cylinder Head

The inlet and exhaust manifolds are placed on the different sides of the cylinder head. In this lower
exhaust valve temperature
3. Inline cross flow type

The valve are positioned transversally (different slide) and usually inclined to each other. This
arrangement gives better performance, but it is costlier.
3. Gasket

Fig 1.3: Gaskets

Gasket is used to provide a tight fitting joint between surfaces to prevent leakage
Material: rubber, cork, asbestos
Ex: Joint between cylinder head and cylinder block
• Cylinder head gasket
• Oil pan gasket
• Manifold gasket
• Pump gasket

➢ Properties of gasket as follow

a. Conformity: The gasket must be confirm to the mating surface which may be roughness
b. Resistance: It should have resistance to high pressure, extreme temperature and vibration
c. Impermeability: The gasket must be impermeable to the fluid.
d. Resistances to chemical attack: The gasket should have resistant to the chemicals attack, such as
fuel products of combustion, coolant and engine oil.
e. Provision of apertures: The gasket must have apertures for any studs, bolts, opening etc.

Functions of Cylinder head gaskets

A cylinder head gasket is placed between the cylinder head and cylinder block and its important function
as follow
1. It ensures tight fit joint between the cylinder head and cylinder block.
2. It prevents the leakage between the cylinder head and cylinder block.
3. Cylinder head gaskets retain compression in the cylinder.
4. Cylinder liners
The problem of cylinder wear is considerable and this has been solved by the use of cylinder shaped
cylinder liners. These can be replaced after them warn – out.
Material: special alloy iron containing silicon, manganese, nickel and chromium.
Cylinder liners are two types
1. Dry liners
2. Wet liners
1. Dry liner
The liner is made in the shape of a cylinder with flange at the top which keeps it position. The liner
is not contact with the cooling water at the outer surface is called Dry liner. The entre outer surface bears
against the cylinder block casting and hence there are to be machined accurately at outer and inner
surfaces.
Too loose a liners will result in poor heat dissipation because of absences of a good contact with
the cylinder block. This will results in higher operating temperature.
Too tight a liner it produces distortion of cylinder block, liner cracking, hot spots and scuffing.
➢ Liner Thickness – 1.5 to 3 mm
2. Wet liners
This liners is in direct contact with the cooling water on the outside is called wet liners. The outer
surface of the liner does not require accurate machining. At the top of the liner is provided with a flange
which fits into the groove in the cylinder block and at the bottom provided with groove.
For wet liners aluminium is coated at their outer surfaces so that there it resists corrosion.

Fig 1.4: Liners

 Difference between Dry liner and Wet liner
Sl. No. Dry liner Wet liner
The coolant effect is better because the liner is
1 The coolant effect is not very good
contact with cooling water
The construction of cylinder block is very
2 The construction of cylinder block is simple
complicated
There is no such requirement of leak proof It has to provided a leak proof joint between
3
joint cylinder casting and liner
4 Accurate machine is required Accurate machining is not required
5 In this type it cannot finished before fitting In this type they can be finish before fitting

5. Piston
Piston is most important part in an engine. Piston is a cylinder plug that moves up and down in the
cylinder. It converts chemical energy into the mechanical energy.
Piston clearances
The gap between piston and cylinder wall is called piston clearness.
Piston clearness is 0.025 mm to 0.1mm
Function of piston
1. To transmit the power developed by fuel combustion to the crankshaft through connecting rod.
2. To form a seal so that high pressure combustion gases does not escape to the crank cases.
3. To serve as a support for the small end of the connecting rod.
4. To suck the input charge and pushes out the exhaust gases.
Constructional Features

Fig 1.5: Piston

The top of piston is called head or crown. Ring grooves are cut on the circumferences of the upper
portion of the piston. The parts below the ring grooves are called skirt. The portion of the piston that
separates the grooves is called lands. The skirt is provided with bosses on the inside to support the piston
pin. The distances between the axis of the piston pin and top of the piston crown is called compression
height.
Material: cast iron, aluminium, lo-ex alloy.

Piston pin

Fig 1.6: Piston pin

It is used for connecting the small end of the connecting rod and the piston. It is called as wrist or gudgeon
pin.
Material: hardened steel
Piston rings
Piston rings are fitted into the grooves of the piston to maintain good seal b/w the piston and the cylinder
wall

The number of piston rings

1) Compression ring (2 to 4)
2) Oil control rings (1 to 2)

1) Compression ring: The rings are effectively sealed the compression pressure and the leakage of the
combustion gases. These are fitted in the top grooves of the piston. These rings also transfer of heat from
the piston to the cylinder walls.
 Fig 1.7: Compression rings

2) Oil control rings: The main purpose of the oil rings to the scrape the excess oil from the liner and
returns it back to the oil sump through the drain holes during the downward and upward movement of the
piston. It prevents the oil from reaching to the combustion chamber.

Fig 1.8: Oil control rings

6. Connecting rod

Fig 1.9: Connecting rod

 • The main function of the connecting rod is to convert reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary
motion of the crankshaft.
• It is fitted in between piston and crank shaft. It must be light in weight and strong enough to
withstand stress and twisting forces.
• The small end of the connecting rod has either solid eye or spilt edge used to connect the piston by
piston pin.
• The big end of the connecting rod is always split is used to connects crank pin of the crankshaft.
Material: I – beam c/s – alloy steel or duralumin by drop forging.
7. Crankshaft

Fig 1.10: Crank shaft

The crankshaft is the first part in the power transmission system in which the reciprocating motion of
the piston is converted into the rotating motion with the help of connecting rod.
• A crankshaft consists of crank pin, webs, balancing weights, main journal and oil holes.
• A big end of the connecting rod is connected to the crankpin of the crankshaft.
• The one complete revolution of the crankshaft makes two strokes of the piston.
• The crankshaft has drilled oil passages through which oil flows from the main bearing to the
connecting rod bearing.
• The front end of the crankshaft carries camshaft, vibration damper to control torsion vibration and
the from belt pulley through gear drive.
• The rear end of the crankshaft carries flywheel.
Material: casting or forging of heat treatments alloy steel
8. Crank case
The oil pan and the lower part of the cylinder block together is called the crank case. It acts as the
base of the engine. The function of the crank case is to provide support for the main journal bearing of the
crankshaft.
Material: grey cast iron or aluminium.

Fig 1.11: Crank case

9. Oil pan or sump

Fig 1.12: Crank shaft

Oil pan or sump forms the bottom half of the crank case. At bottom of the oil sump a drain plug is
provided to drain out the dirty oil at the time of oil replacement. Baffle plate are used to reduce oil surging
running of the automobile.
Functions
• To store the oil for the engine lubricating system.
• To collect the return oil draining.
• To serve as a container for impurities or foreign matters.
• To provide for cooling of the hot oil in the sump.
10. Camshaft

Fig 1.13: Crank shaft

1. A cam shaft is simply a shaft on which cams are mounted.
2. A cam is a device that changes rotator motion of the camshaft into linear motion of the follower.
3. A cam shaft is responsible for opening of the valves.
4. A cam shaft has number of cams along the length, two cams for each cylinder.
5. The cam shaft is driven by the crankshaft.
6. The cam shaft gear has twice as many teeth as the gear on the gear on the crankshaft. The cam shaft
turns at half the speed of the crankshaft.

11. Flywheel

Fig 1.14: Fly wheel

• A flywheel is a heavy steel wheel attached to the rear end of the crankshaft. The size of the
flywheel depends upon the number of cylinder and construction of the engine.
 • During the power stroke the engine tends to speed up and during the other 3 strokes it tends to
slow down.
• The inertia of the fly wheel tends to keep running of the crankshaft at constant speed. Hence the
engine speed is maintained at constant.

ENGINE DISASSEMBLY
The few important sequence (or) steps of engine Disassembly (four stroke four cylinders petrol engine)
1) Remove the stator motor.
2) Disconnect the transmission from the cylinder block.
3) Remove the drain plug and drain out the engine oil.
4) Remove the clutch, cover and disk.
5) Remove the distributor assembly.
6) Remove the fuel pump.
7) Remove the alternator.
8) Remove the water pump pulley, cam shaft timing belt pulley, crank shaft timing belt pulley.
9) Remove inlet manifolds with the carburetor and exhaust manifolds.
10) Remove the oil fitter.
11) Remove the cylinder head.
12) Remove the fly wheel.
13) Remove the oil pan and oil pump strainer.
14) Remove the piston and connecting rod assembly.
15) De – carbon the top of the cylinder bore before removing the piston.
16) Remove the oil pump case and oil seal housing.
17) Remove the crank shaft bearing cop and take out the crank shaft.

ENGINE REASSEMBLY
Engine reassembly is the reverse process of engine disassembly.
1) Clean the engine parts thoroughly to remove any dust.
2) Crank shaft is thoroughly coated with the recommended lubricant and carefully placed.
3) The rare main oil seal is installed.
4) Timing gears, sprocket, chains etc. are aligned and installed.
5) The new oil seal and gasket is installed.
 6) Piston, connecting rod, assemblies are installed oil pan and oil pump is cleaned and lubricated
installed with new gasket.
7) Install the water pump, exhaust manifold and flywheel.
INSPECTION IF ENGINE COMPONENTS
1) Cylinder head: - check the cylinder head for the cracks in the combustion chamber, ports and head
surface.
2) Rocker arm: - Check the rocker arm spring for any breakage (or) weakening.
3) Cam shaft: - Check the deflection of cam shaft using dial gauge.
4) Valve: - Inspect the each valve for wear, burn (or) distortion at its face and steam.
5) Cylinder block: - Inspect the cylinder walls for the scratches and roughness.
6) Piston: - Check the piston diameter, clearance and cracks.
7) Piston rings: - Check the ring groove clearance using thickness gauge.
8) Connecting rod: - Check the connecting rod alignment.
9) Crank shaft: - Check the un-even crank shaft diameter due to warn out.
10) Fly wheel: - Check the flywheel fir damage, cranked and also check face run out with a dial gauge.

CAUSES OF RE BOARING
1) When the piston damage.
2) When the piston ring and cylinder are damaged.
3) After wear (or) tear of excessive usage continuous high speed use.
4) Usage without proper lubrication and cooling system.
5) When the cylinder levels is damaged.
Because of above reasons the engine can be rebored to a large size and large size pistons are used.
 2. TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Introduction
The mechanism that transmits the power developed by the engine of the automobile to the driving is called
transmission system or power train.
Functions of transmission system
1. To provide high torque at the time of starting the vehicle, hill climbing, accelerating and pulling a
loads
2. To run vehicle at different speeds.
3. To disconnect the engine from the road wheels whenever desired.
4. It enables the running engine to be connected to the driving wheel smoothly without shocks.
5. To turn the driven through 900
6. To obtain driven in the forward or reverse direction.

Component of transmission system (Layout)

Fig 2.1: Transmission Layout

Clutch
Clutch is devices used in the transmission system of a vehicle to engage and disengage the
transmission system from the engine. The clutch is located between the engine and the transmission
system.
When the clutch is engaged, power flows from the engine to the driving wheels through the
transmitted system and the vehicle moves. When the clutch is disengaged power is not transmitted to the
driving wheels and vehicle stops, while the engine is still running.In a vehicle the clutch is always
engaged position. The clutch is disengaged when starting the engine, when shifting gear, when stopping
the vehicle and when idling the engine.
Types of clutch
1) Friction clutch
a) Single plate clutch
b) Multi plate clutch
i) Wet
ii) Dry
c) Cone clutch
i) External
ii) Internal
2) Centrifugal clutch
3) Semi-centrifugal clutch
4) Conical spring clutch or diaphragm clutch
a) Tapered fingered type
b) Crown spring type
5) Positive clutch -dog and spring clutch
6) Hydraulic clutch
7) Electro-magnetic clutch
8) Vacuum clutch

Signal plate clutch

1. Signal plate clutch consist of only one clutch plate is mounted on the spline of the clutch shaft.
2. The flywheel is mounted on the engine crankshaft and rotates with it. The pressure plate is bolted
to the flywheel through clutch spring.
 3. Which provides axial forces to keep the clutch is engaged position and it is free to slide on the
clutch shaft.

Fig 2.2: Single plate clutch

4. When the clutch is engaged, the clutch plate is gripped between flywheel and the pressure plate.
5. The engine power is transmitted from crankshaft to the clutch shaft.
6. When the clutch is pedal is operated the pressure plate moves back against the spring force and the
clutch plate become free between the flywheel and the pressure plate.
7. Thus, the speed of the clutch shaft reduces slowly and finally it stops rotating.
Diaphragm spring type clutch
• It consists of a diaphragm on conical spring which produces pressure on the pressure plate for the
engaging the clutch.
• The spring is either tapered finger type or crown type is mounted on the pressure plate.
• When the clutch is engaged in the conical position of the spring is held in the clutch cover, so that
the outer ring contact with pressure plate.
• The clutch plate is gripped between the flywheel and the pressure plate.
 Fig 2.3: Diaphragm spring type clutch
• When the clutch pedal is pressed, throughout bearing moves towards the flywheel pressing the
centre portion of the spring.
• This causes the rim to move backward this removes pressure on the pressure plate and clutch is
disengaged.
Gear box (Transmission)
When a vehicle is starting from rest, hill climbing, accelerating and with other resistance high
torque is required at the driving wheels. This is obtained by a set of gears called transmission or gear set.
Function of gear box
• To make the vehicle to move forward and backward direction
• To change the speed of the vehicle in forward direction.
• To transmit motion from clutch to the differential.
• To bring the vehicle to neutral condition even when engine is running.
• To very torque on wheels to facilitate smoother vehicle movement from set.
➢ Gear ratio
The gear ratio is defined as the number of teeth on the driver gear to the number of teeth on the driving
gear
Types of gear box
1) Manually operated selective transmission
a) Sliding mesh gear box
b) Constant mesh gear box
c) Synchromesh gear box
2) Over drive or semi automatic type transmission
3) Automatic transmission
a) Hydromatic driven
b) Torque converter transmission

Sliding mesh gear box

It is the oldest and simplest form of sliding mesh gear box. The power comes the engine to the
clutch shaft and then to the clutch gear which is always in mesh with a gear on the lay shaft. All the gears
on the lay shaft are fixed and they are all time rotating.
When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged. Three different and one reverse speed are
obtained by moving the gears on the main shaft by means of shift lever mechanism. The various gears
position for different gears to obtain different speeds and torque on main shaft.

Fig 2.4: Sliding mesh gear box

Constant mesh gear box
In this type of gear box, all the gear of the main shaft is in constant mesh with the corresponding
gear of the lay shaft. Two dog clutches are provided on the main shaft is splined and all the gear are free
on it. Dog clutch can slide on the main shaft and rotates with it.
When the left hand dog clutch is made to slide to the left by means of the gear shift lever, it meshes
with the clutch gear and top speed gear is obtained, when dog clutch is slide to the right side second gear
is obtained.Similarly, by sliding the right hand dog clutch to the left and right, the first gear and reverse
gear obtained.

Fig 2.5: Constant mesh gear box

Synchromesh gear box

Fig 2.6: Synchromesh gear box

 In this type of gear in that all the gear on the main shaft are in constant mesh with corresponding
gear on the lay shaft. The gears on the lay shaft are fixed to it and the gears on the main shaft are free to
rotate with it.
It is used over constant type gear box because constant type suffers from the problem of dog clutch
due to large differences in speed of engaging gear. These devices which avoid the necessity of double de -
clutching and system to make smooth less noise and to make the gear shifting response.

Transmission devices
➢ Torque convertor
Its function is similar to the gear box. The oil pump keeps the torque converter full of oil under
pressure. When engine is started, the impeller starts rotating. The oil from the impeller is pushed into the
turbine because of higher centrifugal force. This flow of high energy oil provides the force that tends to
rotate the turbine. This force increases with the increase of engine speed and then vehicle moves.
When it comes out of the turbine at the centre and oil is re-directed to the impeller through the
stationary stator. Then again the impeller throws the oil back into the turbine at the outer edge this causes
the torque multiplication

Fig 2.7: Torque convertor

 ➢ Overdrive

Fig 2.8: Overdrive

Overdrive is a device interposed between the transmission and propeller shaft to permits the
propeller shaft to turn faster than the transmission main shaft. The overdrive permits the engine to operate
only about 70% of the propeller shaft speed. When the vehicle is operated in the high speed ranges, which
in turn extends the engine life improves the fuel consumption and reduces vibration and noise
The overdrive is essentially suited to high powered cars. Generally on overdrive is fitted to the top
gear only but some sports cars have an overdrive. Overdrive is usually employed to supplement
conventional transmission. It is bolted to rear of the transmission b/w the transmission and the propeller
shaft. A slight higher rear -axle gear ratio is employed with an overdrive.

Propeller shaft (Drive line shaft or Drive shaft)

The propeller shaft connected between the gear box and the differential with the universal joint at
each end. It consists of simple propeller shaft with two universal joints and a slip joint.The propeller shaft
has to withstand the torsion stresses hence it is made of strong steel tube or solid propeller shaft.
Functions
a) It transmits rotary motion of the gear box output shaft to the differential.
b) It transmits motion at angle which is varying frequently.
c) It helps in to accommodate changes in length between gear box and rear axle during the vehicle
moment.
 Fig 2.9: Propeller shaft

Universal joint (U- joint or Hook’s joint)

Fig 2.10: Universal joint

A universal joint is used where two shafts is connected at an angle to transmit torque. Propeller shaft
and the differential pinion shaft are not in one line and hence the connection between then are made by
universal joint.
Function of universal joint
a) It is used to connect two shafts, whose axial interest.
b) It permits the rotation of one shaft about its axis by another shaft which rotates about its own axis
c) Its permits the transmission of power not only at an angle, but also while this angle is being
changing constantly.
Differential
When taking turns, the outer wheel have to move a greater distance than the inner wheel, due to this, there
is tendency to skidding the wheels, rapid tyre wear, steering difficulties and poor road holding. To
overcome these difficulties, there must some device called Differential.

Fig 2.12: Differential

It consists of bevel pinion fixed to the propeller shaft. This pinion rotates the crown wheel. The
crown gear is attached to the cage so that the cage rotates with the crown gear. The cage supports two
planets pinions which mesh with two sun gears.
 When a car is running in a straight line the crown wheel, differential cage, planet pinion and sun
gear all turn as a unit without any relative motion. But when the car takes a turn, the planet pinions rotate
on their shaft to permit the outer rear wheel to turn more rapidly than the inner wheel.

Axle
Rear axle
The power is transmitted from the differential to the driving wheel through the rear axle. Rear axle on
trucks and many passenger cars is live axle, i.e., they include revolving shaft for driving the wheel.

Types of live axle

a) Semi floating axle
b) Full floating axle
c) Three quarter floating axle

a) Semi floating axle

Fig 2.13: Semi floating axle

• This type of axle takes all loads such as weight of the body, driving torque, torque reaction and the
side thrust is called semi floating axle
• The vehicle load is transmitted to each of the half shaft through the casing and the bearing. This
cases a bending load and tendency to shear at the point A which is shown in fig.

b) Full floating axle

• In the axle shaft carry only the driving torque. The weight of the vehicle and end thrust are not
carried by them. The weight is completely supported by the wheels and the axle casing.
 • As the shaft carry only the driving torque, their failure or remove does not affect the wheels.
• The flanges at the ends of axle shaft are connected to the wheel hubs by means of bolt and nuts.
• Thus the axle shaft can be taken out or replaced without jacking up the vehicle.

Fig 2.14: Full floating axle

c) Three quarter Floating axle

Fig 2.15: Three quarter Floating axle

 • The axle which can take the end loads and driving torque is called three quarter axle. It is used in
the medium load vehicles.
• In this type, bearing is located between the axle casing and the hub.
• The axle shafts do not carry any shearing or bending loads due to the weight of the vehicles.

Front axle

Fig 2.16: Front axle

• The front axle is used to the carry the weight of the front part of the vehicle and also to absorb
shocks due to road surfaces variations.
• It also carries the mechanism for steering the vehicle. It is made of I – section in the centre portion,
while the ends are made either circular or elliptical. It is usually made from steel drop forging.

Types of front axle

a) Live front axle
b) Dead front axle
a) Live front axle: It is front axle containing the different mechanism through which the engine power
flows towards the front wheel.
b) Dead front axle: It is just a dummy axle having no connection with the engine. It does not have
differential mechanism. These axles do not rotate with the engine. The wheels rotates independently on
this axle.

Automatic transmission system

• The transmission that functions purely automatically without any attention from the driver is
known as automatic transmission.
• In this there are only two pedals namely for breaking and for accelerating.
• An automatic transmission also called auto self – shifting transmission. In this type of motor
vehicle transmission that can automatically change the gear ratio between the engine and the drive
wheels to keep the engine operating in it most efficient rang by controlling vehicle speed and
engine load.
 3. FUEL SYSTEMS AND COOLING SYSTEM

Fuel System

Introduction
To run the automobile engine ,either in a diesel engine or petrol engine the fuel from the fuel tank
must reach to the engine cylinder is called fuel feed system.
Fuel supply system for petrol engine

Fig 3.1: Fuel supply system

• It consists of a fuel tank, fuel pump, filter, air cleaner, carburettor, fuel lines and inlet manifold.
• Fuel from the fuel tank is supplied to the fuel filter through the fuel pump.
• The pump is to increases the fuel pressure.
• Fuel filter, filters the dust particles, moisture from the fuel and sends to carburettor.
• The fuel now enters the engine cylinder through intake manifold and distributed to the cylinder
through fuel lines.

Carburetor
Carburetor is a device for atomizing and vaporizing the fuel and mixing it with the air in varying
proportions to suitable changing operating combustion in the engine cylinder. The process of breaking up
fuel and mixing it with air is called carburation.
 1. Atomisation
It’s the mechanical breaking up of the liquid fuel in to small particle for every particles, of the fuel
is surrounded by air.
2. Vaporisation
It is the change of state of fuel from liquid to vapor.

Functions of carburetor
1. To measure and supply proper quantity of air and fuel mixture under all conditions of loads and
speed to the engine cylinder.
2. To starts the engine easily from colds.
3. To supply minimum quantity of air fuel mixture for idle speeds.
4. To keep small reserve of fuel at a constant head.
5. To supply the mixture of air and fuel, even under vibrating and jerking road conditions.
6. To vaporize the fuel to prepare a homogeneous air and fuel mixture.

Air fuel mixture ratios

The air fuel mixture ratio is a very important factor in a petrol engine. This is controlled by the
carburetor system.
The air fuel ratio theoretically perfect mixture is the 15:1, i.e., 15 parts by weight of air to 1 part of
petrol. Under normal load the economical ratio is 16:1 to 17:1

Properties of Air fuel mixture

1. Air fuel ratio (15:1) is the chemical correct air fuel ratio is known as stoichiometric mixture.
2. The combustion quality of mixture is indicated by the rate of combustion.
3. Engine develops maximum power when the air fuel mixture is slightly rich.
4. Engine has maximum thermal efficiency when mixture contains about 120% air with respect to the
chemical correct mixture.
5. Equally distributed fuel and air throughout the volume.
6. Air should not be too hot initially else knocking may take place.
Simple Carburetor
Construction
• It consists of float chamber, fuel jet, venturi, choke valve, throttle valve and intake manifold.
• Float chamber with a needle valve is connected to the float to control the fuel entry into the float
chamber.
• The float chamber is connected to the fuel jet placed in the venturi.
• Venturi is a narrow passage whose function is to increase the velocity of air at the jet area.
• The intake manifold is connected to the engine inlet to throttle valve.
• A small vent hole is provided at the top of the float chamber to maintain the atmospheric
pressure in the float chamber.

Fig 3.2: Carburetor

Working
• When the suction stroke is performed by the piston in the cylinder, a difference of pressure
occurs between the cylinder and the air intake manifold.
• This causes the suction of a stream of air from the filter through the venture.
• The venture reduces the static pressure of the air stream and causes a suction effect which leads
to the spraying of fuel from the jet in the form of a fine spray.
• This mix with the air whose velocity increases at the venture. This leads to vaporization of the
fine spray of the fuel and the air fuel vapour mixture enters the inlet through throttle valve. The
throttle valve attached to the accelerating pedal linkage mechanism.
• A chock valve is providing before the venture which is useful in controlling the quantity of air
entering the engine cylinder.
Petrol fuel transfer Pumps
There is no need to have petrol fuel pump in two wheelers, but it is necessary in four wheeler
vehicle to pump the fuel to the carburetor.
Two types of petrol Pump
a) A C Mechanical Pump (Albert Champion)
b) S U Electrical Pump (Skinner Union)

a) A C Mechanical Pump
1. It consists of a diaphragm, a cylindrical chamber with inlet and outlet, strainer, suction and
delivery valve.
2. As the cam rotates, it operates the rocker arm to move up; it pulls the diaphragm down, causing a
vacuum in the chamber.
3. This makes the suction valve to open and the petrol enters the chamber, under suction the delivery
valve is kept closed.
4. When cam releases the rocker arm, the diaphragm moves up to its normal position under spring
pressure.
5. This creates a pressure in the fuel chamber and forces the fuel out through the delivery valve to
carburettor, under delivery the suction valve kept closed.

Fig 3.3: A C Mechanical pump

Advantage
1. It is simple in operation
2. Maintenances is easier
3. It is more reliable in operation.

Disadvantages
1. It starts functioning only when the engine starts running.
2. It is situation close to the engine for cam operation and hence it is exposed to engine heat. This
may cause vapour locking of the vapour system.

b) S U Electrical Pump

Fig 3.4: S U Electrical pump

• When the ignition switch ON, the electrically energy is supplied to the solenoid, which energies it
and induces magnetic flux in it.
• This pulls the armature up against the spring pressure and hence the diaphragm moves up creating
vacuum in the chamber due to the suction stroke valve opens and fuel enters the chamber through
inlet valve.
• As the armature moves up immediately it breaks the circuit at the breaker point and electrical
supply to the solenoid is disconnected. This de - energies the solenoid. The armature moves back
under spring pressure causing the diaphragm to create pressure in the fuel chamber.
• This causes the outlet valve to open and inlet valve to close and fuel is forced out to the through
the delivery valve to the carburettor through outlet valve.
• This cycle continuous till the supply is switched off.
Advantages
1. It is simply in construction and operation.
2. It starts functioning before starting the engine.
3. It can be located anywhere in the fuel supply.
Disadvantage
1. If there is battery fails the fuel supply system fails.
DTSI (Digital twin spark ignition system)

Fig 3.5 DTSI

1. Digital twin spark ignition engine has two spark plugs located at opposite ends of the combustion
chamber and hence fast and efficient combustion is obtained.
2. The benefits of this efficient combustion process can be felt in terms of better fuel efficiency and
lower emission.
3. The DTSI which is controlled by a electronic control unit (ECU).
4. The ECU sends the signals to the spark plug depending on the engine speed, load & temperature
and spark plug burns the combustion of the fuel.
5. It is mapped by integrated digital electronic control box which also handles fuel injection and
valve timing.

Fuel injection pump

1. It consists of a cylindrical plunger closely fitted into a barrel.
2. The plunger has a constant reciprocating motion.
3. A vertical groove in the plunger joins its top to a helical groove.
4. When the plunger moves up with the help of cam the inlet and by pass port are closed.
 Fig 3.6 Fuel injection pump
5. The upper edge of the plunger and the oil above it is compressed. The delivery valve is opened by
the high pressure fuel and it is delivered to the injector.
6. The pressure on the spring is released, the delivery valve closes. The fuel supply to the atomized is
stopped. Fuel in the barrel escapes through the spill or by bass port.
7. During downwards movements of plunger fuel is sucked is due to the suction above the plunger, is
rotated with helps of rack and it is operated by the governor.

Common rail direct ignition system – CRDI

Fig 3.7: CRDI

 1. CRDI supplies the fuel to the injectors through fuel distribution pipes.
2. In diesel engines refers to this technology as CRDI, in petrol engines Gasoline direct injection.
3. The CRDI technology works with the engine micro processor based on electronic control unit.
4. Which gets inputs from various sensors and it calculates the precise quantity of fuel and timing of
injection depending upon engine speed, load and temperature.

Components
a) High pressure fuel pump
b) Common fuel rail
c) Injectors
d) Engine control unit
Working
A high pressure pump supplies pressurized fuel of about 1000 bar and then supplies to the fuel rail
from the fuel rail distributes the fuel to individual injectors which then injects it into the combustion
chamber.

Engine Lubrication System

Necessity of lubrication system

In IC engine moving parts rub against each other causing frication. Due to frication heat is
generated and the engine parts wear easily, power loss increases in sound to avoid those problems
lubrication is introduced between the mating surfaces.
While lubricating it carries some heat from the moving parts and delivery it to the surrounding
through the engine crank case. It also provides cooling effect. It helps reduce the noise of the moving
parts.
Properties of lubricating oil
1. High viscosity index 7. Chemical stability
2. Thermal stability 8. Flash point
3. Corrosion prevention 9. Fire point
4. High resistance to oxidation 10. Cloud point
5. Oiliness 11. Pore point
6. Colour
Types of lubricant system
1. Petroil system
2. Splash system
3. Pressure system
4. Semi pressure system
5. Dry sump system
Petroil system
▪ This type of system is commonly used in the two stroke petrol engine like scooter, motor cycle
etc…
▪ In this about 3 to 6% of lubrication oil is added with petrol in the petrol tank.
▪ When the petrol mixture enters the crank case, the petrol evaporates due to high temperature,
when the engine is working.
▪ A thin film a lubricating oil is left on the parts of the engine such as piston, cylinder walls
connecting rod , crankshaft and bearing.
▪ The proportion should be proper when the added oil is less, there will be insufficient lubrication
and even result in seizes of the engine.
▪ If added oil is more, it will lead to excess exhaust smoke and carbon in the cylinder and spark
plugs and dark smoke.
High pressure lubrication system

Fig. 3.8: High pressure lubrication system

 1. In this system the lubricating oil is the forced on the pressure by a pump for effective lubrication.
2. It consist of oil pump is submerged in the oil and it is driven by the engine. The oil is drawn from
the sump by the pump and delivered to the main oil gallery at a pressure of 200 kpa to 400 kpa,
from the oil is distributed under pressure to the different parts in the engine through oil tubes
3. Separate oil tubes carry oil to the crank shaft bearing from the bearing the oil flows to the
connecting rod through the oil hole. Which lubrication then other parts of the engine.
4. This is most suitable for heavy duty and large size engine.

Engine cooling system

Necessities of engine cooling system.
The combustion of fuel inside a cylinder develops a very high 22500 C to 25000 C at this
temperature the engine parts will expand and size similarly the lubricating oil will lose its property.
Therefore it is necessary to keep the engine temperature to operating unity about 2000 C.
This is done by the cooling system
➢ Distributed of fuel energy for a engine
1. Useful work at crank shaft - 25%
2. Less to the cylinder walls - 30%
3. Loss in the exhaust gases - 35%
4. Loss in friction - 10%

Types of air cooling system

a) Air cooling system
b) Water cooling system

Air cooling (Direct cooling)

In air cooling engine the metal fins are provided on the head and cylinder. In this method air is
flowing continuously over the heated metal surfaces that are over fins from where the heat is removed. In
some engine fans are also used this system employed in two wheeler and small stationary engine
The amount of heat dissipated depends upon the following factors;
▪ Surfaces area of metal into contact with air.
▪ Rate of air flow.
▪ Temperature differences b/w the heated surfaces and the air.
▪ Conductivity of the metal
 Fig 3.9: Air cooling system
Advantage of air cooling
1. Air cooled engine are lighter, because there is no radiator, cooling jackets and coolant.
2. They can operate in cold climates.
3. Maintenances is easier because there no leakage.
4. Air freeze is not required.
5. The design is simply.
6. Air cooled engines gets warmed up earlier than water cooled engines.
Disadvantage of air cooling system
1. Heat transform is less, compared to the water cooling.
2. Air cooled engine are more noise, due to vibration of the fins.

Water cooling
In water cooling system the cooling medium used is water; in this the engine cylinders are
surrounded by water jackets through the cooling water flows. Heat flows from the cylinder wall into the
water which goes to the radiator where it dissipated heat to the air; usually some antifreeze is added to
their cooling water.
Water cooling systems are two types
a) Thermo syphon system
b) Pump circulation system
Thermo syphon system

Fig 3.10: Thermo syphon system

• In this system circulation water is obtained due to differences in hot and cold water.
• There is no pump to circulate the water, the hot water from the engine jackets is lighter, rises up in
the hose pipe and goes in the radiator from the top side.
• It is cooled in the radiator and hence goes down at the bottom side of the radiator, from where it
again goes in the engine jackets.
• Maintain minimum level of water, if the water levels falls down the circulation will stop.
• This system is simple but there rate of cooling in very slow.
Advantages
1. There is no pump, is needed for water circulation.
2. This system is very simple
3. Low initial cost
4. It is more reliable due to absences of moving parts
Disadvantage
1. The rate of cooling is slow.
2. It is not suitable in the modern car vehicles.
3. Maintain minimum level of water.
4. It takes more time for the engine to reach the operating temperature.
5. Radiator header tank is located on the top of the cylinder coolant jackets.
Pump circulation system

Fig 3.11: Pump circulation system

• It’s working similarly to thermo syphon system, but the circulation of water is obtained by a pump
• The pump is driven by means of a v-belt from a pulley on the engine crankshaft the system is more
effective
• The circulation of water becomes faster as the engine speed increase.
• There is no necessity of maintaining of water level.
• It is suitable for heavy vehicle like buses, trucks and cars etc.
Advantage
1. Circulation of the coolant is proportional to the both load and speed.
2. It’s more efficient.
3. The system can be more pressurized.
4. Radiator can be placed on the side or rear depending upon the design conditions.
Disadvantages
1. It is more costly than thermo syphon system.
2. A part of engine power is wasted to drive the pump.
3. This is more complicated.
Components of water cooling system
• Radiator
• Pressure cap and expansion reservoir
• Thermostat
• Pump
• Fan

Differences between water cooling and air cooling system

Sl.
Water cooling system Air cooling system
No.
1 Cooling is more effective Cooling is less effective
2 Water engine is heavier Air cooling engine is lesser
It needs radiator, coolant and cooling No need of radiator, coolant and cooling
3
jackets jackets
4 Maintenance is more Maintenance is less
5 There may be leakage problem No leakage problems
6 Anti freeze solutions is required Anti freeze solutions is not required

7 Less engine sound due to water jacket More engine sound due to vibration of fins

8 Design is complicated Simple in design

9 It requires more pace It requires less space
10 It is suitable for multi cylinder engine It suitable for single cylinder engine
 4. CONTROL SYSTEM
STEERING SYSTEM
Necessity of steering system
For effective control of vehicle throughout its speed range with safety and without much effort to
the driver on wide variety of load surfaces, proper steering is necessary and which provide directional
changes to the moving automobile and it should be perfect control of the driver.
Functions of steering system
1. To convert the rotary motion of the steering wheel into angular motion of the front wheels to take
turn.
2. To provide stability to the vehicle on road.
3. To minimize the tyre wear and tear.
4. To prevent road shocks reaching to the driver.
5. It provides self - righting effect after taking a turn.
6. It helps in turning the vehicle at the will of the driver.
7. To multiply the driver effort to turn the vehicle for easy operation.
Steering linkage

Fig 4.1: Steering system

When the steering wheel is rotated, the rotary motion is converted into oscillatory motion at the
steering gear box. This motion is transmitted to the link rod through the ball joint.
The liner movement of the link rod is transmitted to the steering arm through the ball joint. The
movement of the steering arm finally goes to stub axle, where the wheels are mounted with the help of
steering arm and tie rods turns the wheel.
Steering gear box
Steering gear is a device for converting the rotary motion of the steering wheel into straight line
motion of the linkage.
The steering gear are enclosed in a box is called steering gear box.
Type’s steering gear
1. Rack and Pinion steering gear.
2. Warm and Sector steering gear.
3. Warm and roller steering gear.
4. Warm and ball bearing nut steering gear.
5. Recirculation ball steering gear.
6. Cam and double lever steering gear.
7. Cam and roller steering gear.
8. Cam and peg steering gear.

Rack and Pinion steering gear

When the steering wheel rotated the rotary motion steering wheel is transmitted to the pinion of
steering gear through the joint. The pinion is in mesh with a rack. The circular motion of the pinion is
transferred into the linear rack moment, which is further transmitted to the ball joints and tie rods to the
stub axles to turn the wheels.

Fig 4.2: Rack and pinion Steering gear

Power steering
The purpose of power steering is to reduce the drive’s effort for steering, and useful when driving
at law speed on rough roads and when reversing the vehicles for parking purpose.

When the steering wheel is turned the worm turns the sector of worm wheel and the arm. If the
resistances offered to turn the wheels is too high and the effort applied by the driver to the steering wheel
is too work then the worm.
The axial movement of the distributor slide in the cylinder will admit oil into the booster cylinder
through the pipe line the piston in the booster cylinder will turn the road wheels via the gear rack, the
toothed worm sector and arm by means of a drag link.

Fig 4.3: Power steering

➢ Steering ratio
It the ratio of the angle turned by the steering wheel to the corresponding turning angles of the stub
axles.
The steering ratios generally in car’s is 12:1 and for heavy vehicles 35:1.
Front wheel alignment
For perfect steering and stability of vehicle, the front wheel alignment is essential.
Properly aligned front wheel results in
• Steering comfort.
• Uniform wear of tyres.
 • Minimum energy consumptions.
• Minimum vibration.
• Reduce the driver’s effort to turn the vehicle.
• No wheel wobbling.
• To achieve self cantering of the wheel after turning.
• To achieve directional stability of the vehicle while running.

Steering geometry
Camber angle (Wheel rake or Camber angle)

Fig 4.4: Camber Angle

Angle between the center line of the tyre and the vertical line when viewed from the front side of the
vehicle is known as camber angle.
When the wheels turned outward at the top is called positive camber. When the wheels are titled
inward at the top is called negative camber.
The Camber angle should not exceed 20
Caster
The king pin or steering axis may tilled forward or backward from the vertical line this is known as
caster. The caster angle is the angle formed by the forward or backward till of the steering axis from the
vertical, when viewed from the side of the wheel.
A backward tilt is known as positive (+ve) caster and a forward tilt is known as negative (–ve)
caster.
The caster angle in modern vehicles varies from 20 to 80
Purpose of caster:-
• To maintain directional stability and control.
• To increase steering stability.
• To reduce drivers effort to turn the vehicle.

Fig 4.5: Caster Angle

King Pin Inclination or Steering Axis Inclination or King Pin Rake Axis
The angle between the vertical line and centre of the king pin or steering axis when the viewed from
the front of the vehicle is known as king pin inclination.
The king pin inclination in modern cars varies 70 to 80
Functions:-
• Helps in self cantering of wheels after taking a turn.
• To provide directional stability.
• It reduces steering effort.

Fig 4.6: King Pin Inclination

 Toe - in

Fig 4.7: Toe - in

It is the amount by which the front wheels are set closer at the front than at the rear.
Different of the distance between the front wheel of the front side and at the rare side is called toe-in.
Toe-In = B – A, It does not exceed 3mm.

Toe – out

Fig 4.8: Toe - out

It is the amount by which the front wheels are set closer at the rear than at the front.
Different of the distance between the front wheel of the front side and at the rare side is called toe-out.
Toe-out = A – B, It does not exceed 3mm.
 BRAKER SYSTEM
Brakes are mechanical devices used for retarding the motion of a vehicle. Brakes are also used to
stop the vehicle quickly within a short distance.
Functions
1. To stop the vehicle.
2. To slow down the vehicle.
3. To hold the vehicle at rest on an inclined road against the pull of gravity.
4. To park the vehicle.

Classifications of Brakes
1. With respect to application.
a) Foot brake.
b) Hand brake.
2. With respect to the number of wheels
a) Two wheel brakes.
b) Four wheel brakes.
3. With respect to the method of braking contact.
a) Internal expanding brakes.
b) External contraction brakes.
4. With respect to the method of applying the braking force.
a) Single acting brakes.
b) Double acting brakes.
5. With respect to the nature of power employed.
a) Vacuum brakes.
b) Air brakes.
c) Electric brakes.
d) Hydraulic brakes.
6. With respect to brake gear.
a) Mechanical brakes
b) Power brakes
7. With respect to power transmission.
a) Direct acting brakes
b) Geared brakes
 8. With respect to power unit.
a) Cylinder brakes
b) Diaphragm brakes

Internal Expanding Brake (Mechanical drum brake)

Fig 4.9: Mechanical drum brake

It consists of two break shoes with the break lining, cam and tension spring. When the brake pedal
pressed, it actuates the cam. When the cam is operated, it pushes the shoes away, that is towards the brake
drum and the brake lining comes in contact with the interior surface of the brake drum and applies
frictional force to it and stops the motion of the drum.
When the brake pedal is released, the cam comes to its original position and the spring pulls the
brake lining back to their original position.

Internal Expanding Brake (Hydraulic drum brake)

It consists of two break shoes with the break lining, cylinder and tension spring. When the brake
pedal is pressed the fluid from master cylinder it actuates the piston under pressure in the cylinder. It
pushes the shoes away, that is towards the brake drum and the brake lining comes in contact with the
interior surface of the brake drum and applies frictional force to it and stops the motion of the drum.
When the brake pedal is released, the piston comes to its original position and the spring pulls the brake
lining back to their original position.
 Fig 4.10: Hydraulic drum brake

External contracting brake

• Disc brake

Fig 4.11: Disc brake

It consists of revolving disc, the caliper having piston and the frictional pads. The rigid metal disc
is mounted on the wheel hub and which it revolves between the jaws of the caliper unit.
When the driver presses the brake pedal the fluid under pressure it flows from the master cylinder
into the caliper unit. This will exerts equal and opposite presser on the frictional pads by forcing them
against the rotating disc. The friction between the pads and revolving disc then provides the braking
action. The wheel speed gets reduced and stops the rotating wheel.
Advantages
• Without dismantling the brake system, it is possible to check the condition of the pad wear.
• Renewal of the frictional pad is quick and easy.
• Frictional pad wear adjustment is automatic.
Disadvantages
• The hand brake mechanism is not much effective.
• Rate of frictional pad wear is greater.

Comparison between Disc brake and Drum brake

Sl. No. Disc Brake Drum Brake
Friction occurs on the internal
Friction surface directly exposed
1 surface from which heat dissipated
to cooling air.
only through drum
2 Uniform wear of friction pad. No uniform wear of friction lining
3 Easy to replace the friction pads. Difficult to replace brake lining
4 Simple design. Complicated in design.
5 More expensive. Less expensive.
6 Friction pads are flat Curved friction linings.
7 Disc brakes weight is less Its weight is more

Anti lock braking system (ABS)

Fig 4.12: Anti lock braking system

 Anti lock (or) anti skid brake system are designed to prevent the wheel from locking (or) skidding
during heavy braking. It is very difficult to maintain manually when the four tyres have different amount
of traction varies due to vehicle loading, sand, humps and weight transfer.
Electronic anti-skid system monitor and control the braking action at each wheel to prevent lock up.

The main parts of an anti-lock brake system are

➢ Wheel rotation contour.
➢ Logic contour.
➢ Actuator.
➢ Over ride system.
 1. SUSPENSION SYSTEMS, WHEELS AND TYRES
Introduction
All the parts which perform the function of isolating the automobile from the road shocks are
collectively called as Suspension system.
Function of suspension system
• To minimize the transfer of road shocks to the vehicle frame and other components and also to
the passengers
• To provided comfort to the driver and passenger from the road shocks
• To give cushioning effects to the passenger
• To maintain the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling which in motion.
• To provided good road holding while driving
• To maintain proper steering geometry.
Elements of a suspension system
1) Spring
2) Dampers
Spring: Spring acts as reservoirs of energy they store the energy due to sudden for as when vehicle across
the pump and this energy is released sub frequently with the action of dampers.
Types of spring
a) Leaf spring or laminated spring
b) Coil spring
c) Torsion spring

Leaf spring or laminated spring

Rear axle semi elliptical leaf spring used for suspension in light and heavy commercial vehicle. It
consists of a number of leaves called blades. The blades vary in length and lengthiest blade has eyes and
its ends is called master leaf remaining blades are bounded by means of steel straps.
The spring is supported on the axle, front or rear by means of a U-bolt. One end of the spring is
mounted on the frame with a simple pin, while on the other end; connection is made with a shackle. When
the vehicle comes across a projection on the road surfaces the wheel moves up, deflecting the spring. This
changes length between the spring eyes. If both the ends are fixed, the spring will not be able to
accommodate this change of length. This provided for by means of a shackle at and end which gives a
flexible connection.
 Fig 5.1: Leaf spring

Coil spring or laminated spring

A coil spring responds quickly to road shocks. It can store more energy than a leaf spring and it is
light in weight. The coil spring is made of a length of round spring steel rod wound in a coil. The coil
spring mainly used with independent suspension, however with improved design coil spring have been
used in line as well dead axle
The spring stored per unit volume almost double in the case of coil spring than the leaf spring

Fig 5.2: Coil spring

Types of suspension spring
1) Steel spring
a) Leaf springs
b) Tapered spring
c) Coil spring
d) Torsion spring
2) Rubber spring
a) Compression spring
b) Compression shears spring
c) Steel reinforced spring
d) Progressive spring
e) Face shear spring
f) Torsion shear spring
3) Plastic spring
4) Air spring
5) Hydraulic spring
Independent front wheel Suspension
In the independent type of front suspension, each front wheel is independently supported by a coil,
torsion bar or leaf spring.
Five types of independent suspension
1. Wishbone type or Parallel link type.
2. Mac Pherson strut type.
3. Vertical guide type.
4. Trailing link type.
5. Swinging half-axle type.

Wishbone type Independent Suspension

In the independent suspension system each front wheel is free to move up and down with
minimum effects on the other wheel. This system allows the more deflection of the front wheel without
any effects on the steering because of vibration damping and spring.
It consist of upper and lower wish bone arm pivoted to the frame member the spring is placed b/w
lower wish bone and the cross -one member. The vehicle weight is transmitted from the body to the lower
wish bone through the coil spring. A shocks absorber is placed inside coil spring it resists acceleration,
breaking and side forces.

Fig 5.3: Wishbone type Independent Suspension

MacPherson strut Suspension system

Fig 5.4: MacPherson strut Suspension system

The system is developed by Earle MacPherson, an engineer with ford USA. It mainly consists of
only lower wishbone stud axle strict containing shock absorber. The wheel is mounted on the stud axle.
The wishbone is hinged to the cross member which position the wheel and also resist breaking forces.
The hinged wish bone allows the wheel to move up and down independently while the shock
absorber and spring help in damping and cushioning the vibration. It gives self stabilizing steering comfort
and stabilizing. This is the most widely and front wheel suspension in case MARUTHI HONDA,
TOYOTA, cars
Advantage of independent front suspension over rigid axle type suspension
1) The independent front suspension provides more spaces for engine accommodation.
2) It gives softer suspension.
3) It reduces the tendency of lilting the vehicle to one side when the wheel is lifted or dropped due to
the road variations.
4) Wheel wobbling reduces to greater event.
5) Lighter spring can be used in independent suspension.
6) Softer spring can be used which improves ride comfort.
7) In independent suspension the engine position can be moved forward resulting in more spaces for
passengers.

Differences between Rigid and independent suspension

SL.
Rigid axle suspension system Independent suspension system
NO.

1 This is a simple arrangement This is complicated arrangement

2 Leaf spring are used Coil spring is used on each

Shocks are transmitted from one Shocks are not transmitted from one
3
wheel to the other wheel wheel to the other wheel

4 Spring weight is more Spring weight is less

5 Vibration damping is less effective vibration damping is more effective

6 Less maintenance More maintenance

Air Suspension Spring (Air Spring)

Air suspension system is generally used in some tourist buses to improve the riding comforts of the
passengers. It is used on the cars. In the air suspension, the four springs are replaced by four air bags. Each
air bag is fitted with compressed air which supports the weight of the vehicle.
The air gets further compressed and absorbs the shocks when the wheel comes under a bump on a
road. An air compressor supplies air to the system and it is driver with help of a belt from the engine the
passenger in the tyre is maintained at about 20 kg /cm2
 Fig 5.5: Air Suspension spring

Shocks absorbed
Purpose of shocks absorbed
When the wheel on a road or a stone gets below the wheel falls into a pit heavy shocks are
experienced. A bouncing of the vehicle and to avoid such bouncing of the wheel, a shocks absorbed is
provided.
The shocks absorbed gives comforts ride to the passenger and drivers.

Mainly the shocks absorbed are two types

1) Mechanical
2) Hydraulic
a) Van type
b) Piston type
i) Single acting
ii) Double acting
c) Telescope type
Hydraulic Telescope Shocks Absorber
Its lower eye is connected to the axle and the upper eye to the chassis frame the cylinder is fully
filled with hydraulic fluid.
When the vehicle come across a bump there the lower eye ‘F’ moves up by this the oil below ‘A’
through it but there will be resistances to the flow of oil through ‘A’ it exerts pressure on the valve B also
this the oil flows through ‘B’ also this primary of oil through ‘A’ and ‘B’ valve will be slow due to
resistances this gives damping effect that is lower eye moves original position.

Fig 5.6: Hydraulic Telescope Shocks Absorber

Wheels and Tyres

The main purpose of the power developed by the engine is to turn the wheel so that the vehicle
moves on the road wheel assembly mainly consist of hub disc or spokes, rim, tyre and tube

Essential requirements of the wheels

1) Strong enough withstand the weight of the vehicle.
2) Flexible to absorb the road shocks.
3) Able to grip the road surface.
4) Perfectly balanced dynamically and statically.
Types of Automobile wheel
1) Disc wheel
2) Wire wheel
3) Split wheel
4) Heavy vehicle wheel
5) Light alloy cost or forged wheel

Disc Wheel (Pressed Disc wheel)

Fig 5.7: Disc Wheel

It consists of steel rim and a planed steel disc. The rim is usually welded to the flange of the disc.
The disc performs the function of spokes wheel assembly is bolted to the brake drum. The hub cap or
cover is attached to the disc by spring clips.
There are few opening in rim which provides increased air circulation for brake cooling. A hole in
the rim in provided for the tube value. This type of wheel is simple, cheap. It is used in heavy motor
vehicle such as cars, buses, trucks, tractors.
Wire wheel

Fig 5.8: Wire Wheel

In this type of hub and rim are connected by a number of wire spokes. The headed inner end of the
spokes fit in hub holes and treaded outs end fit in the rim hole. All the spokes must be correct length and
at correct tension to hold rim around the hub. Alternatively spokes are to slope forward and back ward
towards the rim to absorb the breaking and driving torque respectively. Used in scooters, motors cycles,
racing, cars and bicycle wheel.

Tyres
A tyre is a cushion provided with an automobile used it consists of mainly the outer covers. The
tyres tube assembly is mounted over wheel rim. The air inside the tube that carries the enter load and
provides the cushion.
Material of tyres
• Rubber – for tread.
• Nylon /rayon – for cord.
• High tensile steel wire – for bead.
The important function of tyre is a follows
1) To carry the vehicle load.
2) To provided cushioning effect against road shocks.
3) To provided effective grip on the both wet and dry surfaces.
4) To provided more comport with a moving vehicle.
5) To provided smooth steering.
6) To transmit driving and braking forces to the road.
Types of tyres
1) Tube tyre
2) Tubeless tyre

Tube tyre

Fig 5.9: Tube Tyre

It is important used tyre. A tube is used inside the tyre and it is filled with air at a pressure
recommended by the manufacture. It provided cushioning the outer portion of the tyre which keeps
contact on the road is made of synthetic rubber. The portion is called thread steel bleeds are provided at
the inner edge.
A number of rayon cords are provided to give strength to the tyre. The breads and provided
strength to the tyre.

Tubeless tyre
As the name it indicates that it does not have tube. The air under pressure in filled in the tyre itself.
A non-return value is fitted to the rim through which the air is forced inside tyre. The tubeless tyres are
lighter and run cooler than the tube tyre.
 The main disadvantage of a tube can tyre is that , it can retain air for a longer period even after
punctured by nail, provide the nail remain in the tyre and also any hole in the tubeless tyre can be repaired
simply by rubber plugging ordinary puncture can be repaired without remaining the tyre from the wheel.

Fig 5.10: Tubeless Tyre

Types of specification
P205/75 R14
1) P means that the tyre is for a passenger car
2) Its section width is 205 mm
3) Aspect ratio is 75% (Ratio of cross section height to width)
4) Letter r means radial construction and is meant for rim of 14 inches diameter.

Tyre properties
1) Non – studding
2) Uni – form wear
3) Load carrying
4) Cushioning
 5) Noise
6) Balancing
7) Power consumption

Factors affecting tyre life

The following are the main factors which affect tyre performances and their life
1) Inflation
2) Vehicle maintenance
3) Manner driving
4) Miscellaneous factors

Wheel alignment
The properly aligned front wheel result is :
1) Steering comfort
2) Uniform wear of tyre
3) Minimum energy consumption
4) Maximum vibration
5) No wheel wobbling
6) Reduces the devices effort to turn the vehicle
7) To achieve self-cantering of the wheel after turning
8) To achieve directional stability of the vehicle while running

Wheel balances
• Wheel balances refers to the even distribution of weight around a revolving tyre and wheel
assembly
Unbalanced wheel produces the following effects.
1) Produces a vibration that is uncomfortable to drive the vehicle.
2) Steering components can be also damaged and all the part may fails in the extreme causes
3) Unbalanced wheel gives serve stress and strain on the wheel breaking 4 suspension
components
4) Unbalanced wheels return in wearing of suspension and steering components rotating parts
and tyres.
5) Unbalanced wheel increase fuel consumption.
 6. AUTOMOBILE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Introduction
The electrical system in automobile is also important in addition to mechanical system

Fig 6.1: Block Diagram of auto electrical system

It has five lines connected in parallel. The first line is taken to the stator motor, Ignition in the
second line, Dynamo for the charging in the third line, Lighting in the fourth line and Auxiliaries in fifth
line respectively. Fuse and ammeter are placed in the main circuit it protects the systems. Colour coding is
used for easy identification.

Major component of a Auto electrical system

1) Ignition System
2) Charging System
3) Starting System
4) Lighting system
5) Other accessories like Horn, Mobile charging system, etc.

1. Ignition system
Necessity
The necessity of ignition system is to produced high voltage spark and to deliver it to spark plugs
at regular intervals and at correct time with respect to the crank position to ignite the air fuel mixture in
the cylinder and to operate the engine as it minimum and maximum speed.
Requirement of an ignition system
1. The voltage across the spark plug electrodes should be sufficient large to produced an arc, required
the combustion.
2. The intensity of spark should lie in a specification limit, because too high intensity spark may burn
the electrodes and too low intensity of spark may not ignite the air fuel mixture properly.
3. The spark duration should be sufficient to established burning of the air fuel mixture under all
conditions.
4. The power consumed to produce spark should be minimum.
5. The system must be easy to maintain.
6. It should be light and compact.
Types of Ignition system
a) Battery ignition system or Coil ignition system.
b) Magneto ignition system.
c) Election ignition system.

a) Battery ignition system

Fig 6.2: Battery ignition system

Construction
• The battery ignition system for a four cylinder engine. A battery of 6 to 12 volts generally
employed. There are two basic in the system are primary and secondary circuits.
• The battery, condenser, contact breaker, cam and primary winding of the ignition coil forms
primary circuit.
• Spark plug, distributor, rotor arm, secondary winding of the ignition coil from secondary
circuit
• The purpose of condenser in to reduce arcing at the breaking point.
• The cam of the contact breaker has 4 lobes, it makes and breaks the contact of the primary
circuit for times in every revolution of the cam.
Working
• When the ignition switch is on, the current will flow from the battery through the primary
winding. It produces magnetic field in the coil.
• When contact points open, the magnetic field collapse and the movement of the magnetic field
induced high voltage in the secondary coil.
• This high voltage (10000 to 20000 Volts) then passes to distributor. It connects the spark plug
of the cylinder in rotation depending upon the firing order of the engine.
• It is used in cars, light trucks, bus etc

b) Magneto ignition system

Fig 6.3: Magneto ignition system

Construction
• The magneto ignition system for a four cylinder engine. It consists of either rotating magnetic in
fixed coil or rotating coil in fixed magnetic.
• The magnetic consists of fixed armature having primary and secondary winding and a rotating
magnetic assembly which is driven by the engine.
Working
When the magnetic rotates, current flows in the primary winding. It produces magnetic field in the
coil. When the contact points open, the magnetic field collapse and the movement of the magnetic field
induces high voltage (10000 to 20000 Volts) in the secondary winding coil. This voltage current passes to
a distributor, which connects the spark plug in rotating depending upon the firing order of the engines.
It is used in scooter, motor cycle, racing car, etc.

Comparison between Battery ignition and Magneto ignition system

Sl.
Battery ignition system Magneto ignition system
No.

1 Current is obtained from the battery Current is generated by the magneto

2 Sparking is a good even at low speed Poor sparking at low speed
If the battery is discharge, the engine
3 no such difficult in magneto ignition
Cannot run
4 Starting of engine is easy Difficult to start
Sparking intensity falls as the engine speed Spark intensity improves as the engine speed
5
rises rises
6 Less costly More costly
7 Occupies more space Occupies less space
8 Used in cars, buses, trucks Used in motor cycles, scooter, racing cars.

c) Electronic ignition system

In the electronic ignition system a timer is employed in the distributor. Timer sends the electrical
pulses to an electric control unit (ECU) which switch off the flow of current to primary winding. As a
result, a high voltage is induced in the secondary winding which is then distributed to the spark plugs.
This control unit later switches on the flow of the current to the primary circuit, so that the primary
circuit can be built for the next cycle. The timer may be Pulse generator or Hall Effect sensor.
 Fig 6.4: Electronics ignition system

2. Charging system

Fig 6.5: Charging System

The function of the charging system is an automobile is to generator, regulate and supply the
electrical energy for charging the battery.
The charging system consist of a generator for converting mechanical energy from the engine into
electrical energy, a regulator to control the electrical energy produced and ammeter to indicate whether the
system is operating or not .
In the modern cars, the charging system consists of an alternatively only.
3. Starting system
The starting system is used to start the engine when the starter switch is pressed or turned current
flows to the stator motor from the battery and the starter motor shaft to rotate. A driven pinion connected
to the stator motor shaft. The driven pinion turns the engine flywheel till the engine starts.
It consists of a plunger, contact disc; pull in winding, terminal and connecting cables. The switch is
connected between the starting and the battery

Fig 6.6: Starting system

When the switch is ON the current from the battery to the pull in winding. The electromagnetic
attracts the plunger against the spring, which causes the two terminals connected by the contact disc. This
makes the circuit complete between the battery and starting motor. Now the current flow to the starter
motor.
When the switch is off the circuits gets disconnected. The current flow stops and the spring move the
plunger and the contact disc back to the disconnected the starting motor from the battery.

4. Lighting system
Lights used in automobile
➢ Head lights: It is used during the nights, while during in highway to illuminate sufficiently for
safe night driving.
➢ Parking lights: It is used while the car is parking during the dark, the parking lights are kept ON
to provide signal for other moving vehicle and thus avoid the accidents.
 ➢ Directional light: It is used to indicate the direction in which the vehicle is to turn.
➢ Blinker light: It is used in the vehicle is stopped in highway due to the some problems. The
Blinker lights starts blinking giving indication to the other vehicle, that there is some problem in
the vehicle.
➢ Stop lights: It is provide at the back of the vehicle, and becomes ON when the brake is applied.
➢ Backup lights: It is used when the vehicle taking reverse and these lights get ON.
➢ Tail lights: It is provided in the back of the car, and it is kept ON all the time when the car is
running in the night, so that the other vehicle coming behind it is able to see it.
➢ Interior lights: These are lights present inside the lights car, such as warning indicator lights,
panel lights, clock lights, radio lights etc.,
➢ Dash board lights: These are the lights present in the dash board of the cars, such speedometer,
fuel indicator light etc.,
➢ Licences number plate light: These light present on the number plate of the vehicle and it ON
during the night during, so that the vehicle number can be easily seen during night .
Power door locks

KEY SWITCH
DOOR LOCK

WINDOW
SWITCH WINDOW
MOTOR
ECU
SUN ROOF
SWITCH SUN ROOF

INHIBITOR
SWITCH
ALARAM

IR KEY

Fig 6.7: Block diagram of power door locks

 Power door locks also knows as electric door locks or central locking allow the driver or front
passenger to simultaneously lock or unlock all the doors of an automobile by pressing a button.
Today many cars with power door locks also have a radio frequency remote through either a light
or a horn signal.
Keyless remotes contain a short range ratio transmitter and must be within a certain range usually
5-20 meters of the car to work. When the button is pressed it sends a coded signal by radio waves to a
receiver control unit (ECU) in the car, which locks or unlocks the door.

Smart wiper control system

Battery

Control
Rain Relay
Unit Wiper motor
sensor

Fig 6.8: Block diagram of smart wiper system

A wind screen wiper or wind shield wiper is a device used to remove rain, snow, and ice from a
wind shield. The manual adjustment of the wiper disturb the driver attention, which may causes accidents
to avoid this, the automatic wiper system is used.
Now a day’s automotive companies such as TOYOTA MOTORS, HONDA MOTORS, FORD
MOTORS, VOLKS WAGUN, has employed this system.
The rain sensor is fixed in the vehicle glass. The battery supplies the power to control unit. The
rain sensor sense the rain water and wiper motor is automatically ON during the time of rain fall

Air bag in automobile

The air bag supplementary restraint system helps and protects the driver head and chest against
injuries in the event of collusions due to accident. It is most effective protection device for the driver and
passenger who are properly belted by the seat belts.
It has a crash sensor, which senses the impact of collusion due to accident. The diagnosis unit
decides to inflate. Ignites the agent produce nitrogen gas which inflates the air bag quickly. The time taken
to inflate the air bag is about 40 to 45 milliseconds.
 Fig 6.9: Protection of driver by Air bag
Types of air bag
1) Frontal air bag
2) Side – impact air bags

Important of air bag in automobile

• Air bag serve as the most basic component is reducing injuries occupant during an accident.
• Air bags function as Supplementary restraint system (SRS)
• To the passengers, provide on additional level of protection in the event of a car accident.
• Reduce significantly the number of deaths due to auto accidents.
• Insurances rates are lower, for the cars that have air bag facilities.