AGPT04I-19 Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4I_Earthworks Materials

Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4I:
Earthworks Materials
Sydney 2009
Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4I: Earthworks Materials
Publisher
First edition project manager: Chris Mathias
Austroads Ltd.
Level 9, 287 Elizabeth Street
First edition prepared by: Geoff Jameson and Ryan de Carteret Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 8265 3300
Abstract
austroads@austroads.com.au
The target audience for the Guide to Pavement Technology includes all those www.austroads.com.au
involved with the management of roads, including industry, and students
seeking to learn more about the fundamental concepts, principles, issues and About Austroads
procedures associated with pavement technology.
Austroads is the peak organisation of Australasian
Part 4I: Earthworks Materials – provides advice on the general requirements road transport and traffic agencies.
for earthworks materials and the characteristics of material types used in a
range of specific applications. The advice has been generally developed from Austroads’ purpose is to support our member
the approaches followed by Austroads member authorities. However, as it organisations to deliver an improved Australasian
encompasses the wide range of materials and conditions found in Australia road transport network. To succeed in this task, we
and New Zealand, some parts are broadly based. Desirable properties, test undertake leading-edge road and transport
methods and test limits which could be included in an earthworks specification research which underpins our input to policy
are related to availability of materials and knowledge of their performance in development and published guidance on the
any particular locality. The Guide also discusses the suitability for design, construction and management of the road
stabilisation of earthworks materials and provides direction on borrow pit network and its associated infrastructure.
selection and design.
Austroads provides a collective approach that
delivers value for money, encourages shared
Keywords knowledge and drives consistency for road users.
earthworks, pavement materials, stabilisation Austroads is governed by a Board consisting of
senior executive representatives from each of its
eleven member organisations:
Edition 1.1 published August 2018 Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales
Table 5.2 replaced (Section 5.2 Cement and cementitious blends) Roads Corporation Victoria
Formatting updated Queensland Department of Transport and Main
Roads
Edition 1 published April 2009
Main Roads Western Australia
Department of Planning, Transport and
Infrastructure South Australia
ISBN 978-1-921551-27-7 Pages 41 Department of State Growth Tasmania
Austroads Project No. TP1565 Department of Infrastructure, Planning and
Logistics Northern Territory
Austroads Publication No. AGPT04I-09
Transport Canberra and City Services
Directorate, Australian Capital Territory
© Austroads Ltd 2009 Australian Government Department of
Infrastructure and Regional Development
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the
Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without Australian Local Government Association
the prior written permission of Austroads.
New Zealand Transport Agency.
This Guide is produced by Austroads as a general guide. Its application is discretionary. Road authorities may vary their practice
according to local circumstances and policies. Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not
accept responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should rely on their own skill and
judgement to apply information to particular issues.
Contents
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Guide to Pavement Technology ...............................................................................................................1
1.2 Scope of Part 4I of the Guide to Pavement Technology ..........................................................................2
2. Earthworks Components and their Function ......................................................................................3

2.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................3
2.2 General Requirements of Earthworks Materials ......................................................................................3
2.3 Roles and Functions of Fill Materials .......................................................................................................4
3. Required Attributes of Earthworks Materials ......................................................................................5

3.1 Economy...................................................................................................................................................5
3.2 Workability and Cohesion.........................................................................................................................5
3.3 Embankment Stability and Settlement .....................................................................................................5
3.4 Bearing Capacity ......................................................................................................................................6
3.5 Shrink/Swell Characteristics.....................................................................................................................7
3.6 Permeability............................................................................................................................................10
3.7 Chemical Reactivity and Contamination.................................................................................................11
3.8 Erosion Potential ....................................................................................................................................12
4. Materials for Specific Applications.....................................................................................................13

4.1 Select Fill Material (Capping, Selected or Structural Material) ..............................................................13
4.1.1 Stability ..................................................................................................................................... 14
4.1.2 Erodibility/Dispersion ................................................................................................................ 14
4.1.3 Shrinkage/Swelling ................................................................................................................... 15
4.1.4 Settlement/Collapse ................................................................................................................. 15
4.1.5 Material Size ............................................................................................................................. 16
4.1.6 Specification Guidelines for Select Fill Materials...................................................................... 16
4.2 Permeable Fill.........................................................................................................................................17
4.2.1 Specification Guidelines for Permeable Fill.............................................................................. 17
4.3 Reinforced Soil .......................................................................................................................................19
4.3.1 Specification Guidelines for Reinforced Soil ............................................................................ 20
4.4 Rock Fill..................................................................................................................................................21
4.4.1 Specification Guidelines for Rock Fill ....................................................................................... 22
5. Stabilisation of Earthworks Materials ................................................................................................24

5.1 Granular Stabilisation .............................................................................................................................25
5.2 Cement and Cementitious Blends..........................................................................................................26
5.3 Lime Stabilisation ...................................................................................................................................26
5.4 Bitumen Stabilisation ..............................................................................................................................27
5.5 Chemical Stabilisation ............................................................................................................................28
5.6 Drying-out ...............................................................................................................................................28
6. Borrow Pits ...........................................................................................................................................29

6.1 Site Selection and Investigation .............................................................................................................29
6.2 Ease of Excavation.................................................................................................................................31
6.3 Effect of Excavation on Soil and Rock Properties..................................................................................31
6.4 Risk of Exposure to Surface or Subsurface Seepage............................................................................31
6.5 Variability in Borrow Materials ................................................................................................................32
7. Material Properties – Assessment and Testing ................................................................................33

7.1 Soil and Rock Classification ...................................................................................................................33
7.2 In situ/Natural Moisture Content.............................................................................................................33
7.3 Particle Size Distribution (PSD) (Grading) .............................................................................................34
7.4 Plasticity Index (PI).................................................................................................................................34
Austroads 2009 | page i

7.5 Dry Density/Moisture Content Relation of a Soil ....................................................................................35

7.6 Bearing Capacity (CBR) .........................................................................................................................36
7.7 Swell .......................................................................................................................................................37
7.8 Permeability............................................................................................................................................37
7.9 Rock Durability Tests..............................................................................................................................38
7.10 Dispersion Tests.....................................................................................................................................38
7.11 Soil Strength Tests .................................................................................................................................38
7.12 Chemical Tests.......................................................................................................................................38
References ......................................................................................................................................................39
Tables
Table 2.1: Function of earthworks materials ..............................................................................................4
Table 3.1: Example CBR values for various soil materials ........................................................................7
Table 3.2: Guide to classification of expansive soils .................................................................................9
Table 4.1: Indicative dispersivity and erosion potential of soils ...............................................................15
Table 4.2: Example requirements for select fill material ..........................................................................17
Table 4.3: Example grading requirements for permeable fill ...................................................................18
Table 4.4: Example guidelines for the selection of reinforced soil backfill material.................................20
Table 4.5: Example requirements for chemical and electrical properties of material in
contact with galvanised steel components ............................................................................21
Table 4.6: Example grading of rock fill material prior to placement .........................................................22
Table 4.7: Example limits for placement of rock fill in embankments ......................................................23
Table 4.8: Example minimum cover requirements for rock fill .................................................................23
Table 5.1: Guide to selecting a method of stabilisation ...........................................................................25
Table 5.2: Typical cement contents for various soil types for pavement construction ............................26
Table 5.3: General guidelines for materials which respond to chemical stabilisation..............................28
Table 7.1: Fines binder properties ...........................................................................................................34
Figures
Figure 2.1: Terminology – formation construction and earthworks .............................................................4
Figure 3.1: Longitudinal cracking in bituminous surfacing due to volume change of
expansive clay subgrade ..........................................................................................................8
Figure 3.2: Permeability ranges of soils and construction materials.........................................................11
Figure 4.1: Select fill and verge material at completion of earthworks .....................................................13
Figure 4.2: Permeable sand fill placed behind the panels of a reinforced soil wall ..................................18
Figure 4.3: Typical reinforced soil application ...........................................................................................19
Figure 4.4: Typical rock fill application as a working platform...................................................................22
Figure 4.5: Example limits for placement of rock fill in embankments ......................................................23
Figure 5.1: Stabiliser mixing lime to clay subgrade material.....................................................................27
Figure 6.1: Investigation of borrow area using a backhoe ........................................................................30
Figure 6.2: Ripping of weathered rock in cutting.......................................................................................30
Figure 7.1: Typical moisture content/dry density relationship for a range of soils ....................................35
Figure 7.2: CBR test equipment ................................................................................................................36
Figure 7.3: Falling head permeability test apparatus ................................................................................37
Austroads 2009 | page ii

1. Introduction
The target audience for the Guide to Pavement Technology includes all those involved with the management
of roads, including industry, and students seeking to learn more about the fundamental concepts, principles,
issues and procedures associated with pavement technology.
The subject area is often considered part of the broader area of asset management, but for the purposes of
the Austroads publications library, a distinction has been made between pavement management at a
network level and project level pavement management. The reader is referred to the Austroads Guide to
Asset Management for information on network level pavement management.
1.1 Guide to Pavement Technology
This Part should be read in conjunction with the other parts of the Guide to Pavement Technology:
Part 1: Introduction to Pavement Technology
Part 2: Pavement Structural Design
Part 3: Pavement Surfacings
Part 4: Pavement Materials:
– Part 4A: Granular Base and Subbase Materials
– Part 4B: Asphalt
– Part 4C: Materials for Concrete Road Pavements
– Part 4D: Stabilised Materials
– Part 4E: Recycled Materials
– Part 4F: Bituminous Binders
– Part 4G: Geotextiles and Geogrids
– Part 4H: Test Methods
– Part 4I: Earthworks Materials
– Part 4J: Aggregate and Source Rock
– Part 4K: Seals
– Part 4L: Stabilising Binders
Part 5: Pavement Evaluation and Treatment Design
Part 6: Unsealed Pavements
Part 7: Pavement Maintenance
Part 8: Pavement Construction
Part 9: Pavement Work Practices
Part 10: Sub-surface Drainage.
It is emphasised that this document should be used only as a guide and not as a limiting or standard
specification. Considerable judgement is required to define the scope and nature of investigations and to
select the parameters for incorporation into both the evaluation and design processes. In addition, some
road agencies have published manuals or supplements that translate the guidance provided by Austroads
into practice reflecting local materials, environments, loadings and pavement performance.
Austroads 2009 | page 1

1.2 Scope of Part 4I of the Guide to Pavement Technology
The construction of a road to the alignments, gradients and crossfalls selected by the designer will almost
inevitably involve a considerable amount of earthworks. Earthworks operations are those construction
processes that involve the loosening, removing, depositing, shaping and compacting of soil and rock
materials and which precede the construction of the pavement. These operations include the modification of
natural ground levels, from the stripping of topsoil, to cut and fill operations and the final completion to
subgrade level, including the construction of verges. The soil and rock materials excavated to form cuttings
can generally be used to construct embankments, sometimes augmented by materials of higher quality
obtained from off-site borrow areas and other locally-available resources. The materials forming the upper
layer of the embankment, and the in-place materials in the floor of cuttings, provide the foundation for the
road pavement.
The primary purpose of earthworks materials is to provide a long-term stable platform of sufficient strength
onto which pavement layers can be compacted. It is essential that the materials, and the standards of
construction adopted, are sufficient to provide the level of performance required from the overlying pavement
structure. In construction situations where large volumes of material can be obtained from cut, there is
potential to select the better quality materials to provide material of the highest strength for use as select fill
or as structural material.
This Part of the Guide to Pavement Technology is intended to give the practitioner an overview of the issues
involved in the management of earthworks materials.
The Guide contains brief descriptions of the topics listed below:

earthworks components and their function
required attributes of earthworks materials
materials for specific applications
stabilisation of earthworks materials
assessment and testing of material properties.
Part 4I: Earthworks Materials – provides advice on the general requirements for earthworks materials and
the characteristics of material types used in a range of specific applications. The advice has been generally
developed from the approaches followed by Austroads member authorities. However, as it encompasses
the wide range of materials and conditions found in Australia and New Zealand, some parts are broadly
based. Desirable properties, test methods and test limits which could be included in an earthworks
specification are related to availability of materials and knowledge of their performance in any particular
locality. The Guide also discusses the suitability for stabilisation of earthworks materials and provides
direction on borrow pit selection and design.
Earthworks construction is covered in Part 8 of the Guide to Pavement Technology: Pavement Construction
(Austroads 2009a).

2. Earthworks Components and their Function
2.1 Introduction
The following definitions of key terms are in line with the Glossary of Austroads Terms (Austroads 2008a)
and repeated here for convenience.
Capping: A high quality select fill material layer of low permeability placed immediately below the pavement
subbase or selected material to maintain constant moisture content in the material below the capping layer.
Earthworks: All operations involved in loosening, removing, depositing, shaping and compacting soil or rock.
Earthworks include excavation, placement and compaction of topsoil, select and general fill materials,
permeable, and oversize and unsuitable materials, disposal of surplus materials, the trimming of batters,
surface drains and formation, and the preparation of a subgrade surface.
Fill: The compacted embankment placed above the natural surface level after removal of topsoil.
Fill material:
Select fill: a superior quality material, used principally as capping, selected material, structural material
and/or verge material and which is specified with a minimum California Bearing Ratio (CBR) value.
General fill: a medium quality material which does not meet the requirements of select fill, which is usually
specified with a minimum CBR value.
Non-structural fill: a lesser quality material which does not meet the requirements of select fill or general
fill material, and which may be used in non-structural zones of embankments.
Rock fill material: a material comprised of larger rock and rock fragments which may be used where
general and non-structural fills are unsuitable, commonly due to the low strength of in situ soils, hard rock
is in excess and rockfill is cheaper than processing or crushing the material or for high watertable areas.
Permeable fill material: a self-draining material, typically sand or aggregate used as a layer to drain water
from earthworks formations.
Formation: The surface of the finished earthworks, excluding cut or fill batters.
Structural material: Select fill material that is placed at a bridge or culvert structure or in other areas as
specified for the purpose of reinforcing or strengthening.
Subgrade: the section of formation on which the pavement, including the shoulders and verges, is
constructed.
2.2 General Requirements of Earthworks Materials
The general requirements of earthworks materials are as follows:

They should be capable of being raised, placed and compacted to meet the specified requirements.
They should be sufficiently stable, both dimensionally and chemically, to not shrink or swell, degrade, or
disintegrate significantly during construction and over the life of the embankment or structure.
They should have adequate shear strength and bearing capacity to be capable of maintaining stability
under the prevailing applied loads and environmental stresses without excessive deformation such that it
affects the riding quality or integrity of the pavement surface.

2.3 Roles and Functions of Fill Materials
The functions of fill materials in earthworks construction are listed in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Function of earthworks materials
Material type Function

Select fill material Provide an upper earthworks layer which will not undergo excessive shrinkage or swelling with
(capping, changing moisture content.
selected or Reduce stresses in the substrate so that the pavement surface does not deform excessively.
structural Provide an enhanced bearing capacity such that the pavement thickness can be optimised.
material)
In the case of capping material, provide a sufficiently impervious layer to either prevent ingress
of water into the overlying pavement (in the case of capillary rise from beneath) or into the
material below the capping (which may swell or weaken significantly if the moisture content
increases).
In the typical case of bridge approach embankments or as otherwise required, provide a
structural material of adequate shear strength, bearing capacity and volume stability to
maintain overall embankment stability when constructed at a relatively steep batter angle
(typically between 1.5:1 and 1:1 (H:V)).
In the case of verge material, to provide a material of sufficient cohesion and particle size
distribution (PSD) so that it can be cut at a vertical slope by a grader, and be of sufficient
bearing capacity to support vehicles which come to rest on the verge.
General fill Provide support to any overlying material and traffic loadings without initiating pavement
material surface deformation.
Provide a stable platform during construction so that select fill and pavement layers can be
satisfactorily placed.
Provide an elevated platform for a pavement such that adequate clearance is provided
between the groundwater table or inundation level and the bottom of the pavement, and to
protect the pavement from moisture infiltration.
Provide a more economical earthworks design than when using higher quality material for the
whole of the fill embankment.
Non-structural fill Lower-quality material available at a construction site that does not meet the requirements of
material select and general fill materials.
Used in zones of embankments which are outside the pavement structural zone of the
earthworks formation, i.e. batter flattening.
Source: Adapted from VicRoads (2008b)
The typical location of the different types of earthworks materials is shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Terminology – formation construction and earthworks
Source: ARRB

3. Required Attributes of Earthworks Materials
There are a number of fundamental attributes that earthworks materials must have and the degree to which
each material should exhibit these depends on the position it will occupy and its function in relation to the
pavement, the in situ natural subgrade soils, and ancillary structures such as bridges, culverts and retaining
walls. Since the intensity of stresses from traffic loads reduces significantly with increasing depth within the
pavement, the quality of earthworks materials in terms of bearing capacity can be significantly less than for
pavement materials.
While almost all types of soil and broken rock can be used in earthworks construction, the main limitations
are the ease with which the material can be raised, placed and compacted, the bearing capacity and volume
stability of the material in the presence of moisture and the chemical stability of the material in the
environment in which it will be used. The materials used in earthworks may therefore be selected for
economy, and optimising the utilisation of available on-site materials is usual. Some important material
requirements are discussed in the following sub-sections.
3.1 Economy
Achieving appropriate balances in earthworks materials on site can be an important factor in setting design
grade lines. For reasons of economy, it is usual to make use of the materials excavated from on-site cuttings
for the construction of earthworks embankments. This can generally be achieved in the case of general fill
material where, with the exception of highly moisture-sensitive silts, over-wet materials and material
containing a high proportion of oversize rock, most soil materials can be readily utilised for the purpose.
Where substantial cut-to-fill earthworks are being constructed, careful selection of materials for specified use
can result in significant economies. The use of higher-quality materials in the upper formation layers can
lead to a significant reduction in construction costs and reduce the need for the importation of better quality
materials from offsite.
3.2 Workability and Cohesion
Earthworks materials must be able to be easily placed and compacted to the required standard of density,
moisture content and shape. The attributes of workability and cohesion are related to the particle size
distribution (PSD), particle shape, plasticity and moisture content of the material, and the plant that is
available to place and compact the material. Materials which are highly moisture or density sensitive (e.g.
highly silty soils) are often difficult to place/compact and are best avoided if practicable. Alternatively,
specialised compaction equipment and techniques, or stabilisation, may be a viable option.
3.3 Embankment Stability and Settlement
The potential stability of a high (> 6 metres) embankment is generally evaluated by testing to determine the
appropriate cohesion (c) and angle of friction (Ø) parameters of the available construction materials. In
many cases, these parameters can be conservatively assumed. For many soil materials, the fines fraction
controls the mass strength and the testing of small specimens in direct shear can provide appropriate
strength parameters.
The stability of an embankment importantly relies on the bearing capacity and stability of the underlying
foundation soils and the nature and proximity of the ground watertable. Appropriate geotechnical
investigations must be carried out to assess the substrate conditions for the design of high embankments.
Areas upon which embankments are to be constructed, after stripping of topsoil or unsuitable material,
should be compacted to the specified density ratio and proof-rolled before placing any fill material. This
allows any unstable areas (which must be removed or re-prepared) within the embankment foundation to be
detected.

While most road embankments are specified with a conservative side batter slope, (generally 2H:1V or
flatter) some such as bridge spill-through embankments may be required to stand at 1.5H:1V or steeper. Fill
batters at the steeper angles are more vulnerable to flood inundation which can have two adverse effects,
particularly with silt and clay soils:
loss of strength due to a marked reduction in both the cohesion and, to some extent, the angle of friction,
with resultant scour or piping of the material
for less permeable materials that become saturated, rapid subsequent draw-down can leave excess pore
pressures within the fill, leading to partial embankment failure.
The duration of flood waters and likely draw-down times are therefore major influencing factors in the
selection of earthworks fill materials in areas likely to be subject to inundation. These include bridge
approach embankments and causeway embankments sited on flood plains.
Embankments settle during their construction and sometimes for a considerable time after construction
completion. Post-construction settlement gives rise to shape irregularities at the road surface. The amount
of settlement depends on the embankment height and subgrade stiffness, and even low embankments can
cause problems on very weak soils. Potential settlements should be identified and quantified during the site
investigation. Measures exist (e.g. surcharging) for reducing post-construction settlement to the point where
the surface shape loss is insignificant. Geotechnical engineering input should be sought at an early stage in
the road project to initially identify those sections of road embankment where settlement could result in
significant loss of shape, and then to provide mitigation treatments where needed.
3.4 Bearing Capacity
Bearing capacity is an important attribute of an earthworks material as it is a primary consideration in the

design of pavement: the higher the bearing capacity of a material below a pavement, the lower the pavement
design thickness required. The trafficability of an earthworks material during construction is also another
important consideration.
The long-term bearing capacity of earthworks materials is a function of the durability of its component
particles, the maximum size, the size distribution, the stability of the material, the plasticity of the fines, the
compacted density and the moisture content. The bearing capacity of an earthworks material is commonly
assessed using the CBR test.
CBR values that can be used as an initial guide for the assessment of materials present along a road
alignment are provided in Table 3.1. The values tabulated should only be used as a guide to likely
laboratory soaked CBR values.
With a large number of materials, the uniformity of the CBR value of a material can be ascertained by
undertaking soil classification tests, such as grading and plasticity index. If these classification properties
remain relatively constant for a given material, the CBR value will generally also remain similar.

Table 3.1: Example CBR values for various soil materials
Presumptive CBR
Description of soil
value*
Extremely poor soil conditions 2
saturated clay areas
clays of extremely high plasticity (PI > 50)
saturated alluvial areas
silty soils subject to saturation
Very poor soil conditions 2-3
clays of very high plasticity (PI: 35 – 50)
disturbed and re-compacted clays and sandy clays of high moisture content
clay areas in moist to wet but not saturated condition
Silty soils 4
well drained sandy silt and clayey silt soils
Silty clay soils 3-5
silty clay of very high plasticity
Plastic sandy clay soils 3-6

sandy clay of intermediate to high plasticity (PI 15 – 35) – well-drained situations
undisturbed Ordovician/Silurian clays
Low plasticity soils 6 - 10*
sandy clay of low to intermediate plasticity (PI 10 – 20)
well compacted silty sandy clay, sandy clay – well-drained situations
Sedimentary/metamorphic rock 6 - 10*
ripped, broken and re-compacted weathered mudstone/siltstone rock
* Lower end of each range is applicable to a poorly-drained situation.

Source: Adapted from VicRoads (2004)
3.5 Shrink/Swell Characteristics
Uniformity of compaction is of prime importance in preventing differential or uneven settlement of earthworks

embankments. Although some settlement can be tolerated, it is important that it is minimised, especially on
the approaches to bridges and culverts where the placement of volume-stable material and adequate
compaction is essential.
Particular care is required with the use of highly expansive soils as fill, particularly those containing smectite
clays. Pavement distress due to environmental influences (excessively dry periods, close proximity of trees,
etc.) which affect the materials below subgrade, can be much greater than that due to traffic loads and could
present as cracking, loss of shape and ride quality of the pavement structure.
Cracking of a pavement surfacing is often longitudinal, resulting from differential swelling or drying of a clay
material from the movement of moisture transversely below the formation (Figure 3.1). Meandering or
transverse cracking due to differential drying and shrinkage of the clay material also can occur. Loss of
shape of the pavement may be more of a concern than cracking as it directly affects the riding qualities of the
pavement and is more likely to impact road safety. Other consequences of loss of shape can be poor
surface drainage and system operation, leading to ponding of water on and adjacent to the pavement.
Unless properly managed, not only is the cost of remedial maintenance of pavements on expansive clays
high, but also there is the reduction in the life of the pavement with corresponding depreciation of the capital
asset.

Figure 3.1: Longitudinal cracking in bituminous surfacing due to volume change of expansive clay subgrade
Source: VicRoads (2008b)
These problems can be further exacerbated with high embankments, as the higher the embankment, the
greater the volume of clay that can be affected by moisture changes, and the greater the effect on exposed
fill batter slopes. With unsaturated soil, capillary forces within the soil control moisture movement, as distinct
from gravitational forces, which control moisture movement in saturated porous soils. However, moisture
content by itself is not a reliable guide for determining the direction of moisture movement, as it is dependent
on soil type.
A reliable indicator of potential moisture movement is the soil suction, or pF value, which is a measurement
of the negative pore pressure in the soil. The direction of moisture movement is along a gradient from low to
high soil suction. The soil suction is dependent upon the soil type, the level of compaction and the moisture
content of the soil. The potential for movement of moisture is dependent on the soil suction differential
between soils. A soil with high soil suction can take up moisture from a drier soil with lower soil suction.
As an example, for a site located on terrain underlain by basaltic clay, plots of soil suction versus depth
below the pavement surface showed:
Moisture content and soil suction values vary seasonally.
Seasonal variations mostly take place within 1.5 metres of the surface but are subject to climatic
conditions or regional differences.
Soil suction and moisture contents become more uniform with depth.
The presence of trees can increase the soil suction to at least a depth of 3 metres but this is dependent
on the size and proximity of the trees.
High swell potential can also be recorded for broken, highly weathered siltstones and mudstones; laboratory-
compacted samples of this material type can record swells in excess of 4%. Such materials would be
considered unsuitable for use as select fill material unless stabilised with lime or cement to reduce the swell
potential.
As a general guide, the criteria shown in Table 3.2 can be used to identify potentially expansive soils.

Table 3.2: Guide to classification of expansive soils
Expansive nature Liquid limit (%) Plasticity index PI x % < 0.425 mm Potential swell (%)*
Very high > 70 > 45 > 3200 > 5.0
High > 70 > 45 2200 3200 2.5 5.0
Moderate 50 70 25 45 1200 2200 0.5 2.5
Low < 50 < 25 < 1200 < 0.5
*Swell at OMC and 98% MDD using standard compactive effort; four-day soak. Based on 4.5 kg surcharge.
Source: Guide to Pavement Technology Part 2: Pavement Structural Design (Austroads 2008b)
Select fill materials are generally specified to have low to moderate expansive nature and may have a
specified limit of swell of 1.5% (max).
Changes in moisture content can lead to shrinkage and swelling of clayey soils; earthworks should be
designed to minimise subsequent changes in moisture content and consequent volume changes. Volume
changes in highly expansive soils can be minimised by the following:
Constructing at a time when the value of soil suction (the ability of a soil to attract moisture) for subgrade
or fill materials is likely to be near the long term equilibrium value.
Compacting the soil at Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) as described in this Guide. This value occurs
when a soil is at its equilibrium soil suction value and is dependent on material properties, climate and
drainage factors.
Maintenance of the ‘as constructed’ moisture content of each embankment material layer by the
application of water to the prepared surface or by covering the layer with a subsequent layer to minimise
moisture loss.
The provision of a low permeability (<5 x 10-9 m/s) lower subbase or capping layer above the expansive
soil which has, as a minimum thickness, the greater of 150 mm or two and a half times the maximum
particle size.
The provision of a minimum cover of material over the expansive soil for all pavement types. Fill material
used to provide this cover should have a maximum swell limit, typically 2.5% or less, and be placed at an
appropriate moisture content to remain within this limit. The cover increases with the traffic loading to
reflect the better ride quality required on higher traffic volume roads.
The provision of pavement drains either constructed wholly within the relatively impermeable capping
layer or insulated from the surrounding earthworks materials with an impermeable liner placed in the
drainage trench. In the former case, no part of the subsurface drainage trench is to be located within 150
mm of the expansive material as drains located within expansive soils cause fluctuations in the moisture
content of the soil. It may be necessary to increase the thickness of the capping layer in the vicinity of the
drain to ensure at least 150 mm depth below the drainage pipe and sufficient cover is provided to prevent
damage to the pipe during construction.
The installation of sub-surface or deep cut-off drains to intercept and divert groundwater. This technique
can be used to drain permeable fissured clays, and to intercept groundwater associated with underlying
jointed and fractured rock.
Restricting the planting of shrubs and trees close to the pavement (Barry 1986). In extreme cases, in an
effort to minimise progressive deterioration of pavement ride quality due to the proximity of trees,
impermeable vertical geotextile membranes have been placed along the shoulder or verge lines of
pavements to minimise significant environmental change in subgrade moisture content.
The appropriate design of the cross-section of the road, including the provision of sealed shoulders and
impermeable verge material. A seal width of 1 to 1.5 m is required outside the edge of the traffic lanes to
minimise subgrade moisture changes under the outer wheelpath. Ideally the seal should overlap 100 mm
onto the impermeable verge material.

The use of appropriate construction techniques in placing the expansive soil as outlined in Midgley
(1988).
The use of chemical stabilisation to reduce the plasticity and increase the volume stability of the upper
layer of expansive clay material. Where cementitious or chemical stabilisation of material is proposed, it
is important that sampling and testing of materials be carried out to assess and validate the efficacy of
reaction and to determine the optimum dosage rate of the proposed stabilising agent.
Constructing zoned fills which have highly expansive material enveloped within material of low moisture
sensitivity.
3.6 Permeability
The moisture regime associated with earthworks has a major influence on the bearing capacity and volume
stability of the subgrade materials; the stiffness, plastic deformation and swell characteristics are very
dependent on the moisture content and permeability of these materials.
The desirable relative permeability is dependent on the level a particular material assumes in the earthworks
and the nature of the underlying soils. It is generally desirable to have a relatively impermeable material
immediately below the pavement in order to minimise the capillary migration of water from below (in the case
of high groundwater table or frequent inundation of the adjacent ground), or to minimise the downward
percolation of water (in the case of an underlying highly expansive subgrade). In some cases, a highly
permeable drainage blanket layer is placed immediately below the pavement in order to capture and redirect
water rising from below. In other cases, a potentially expansive subgrade may be protected from the ingress
of downward percolating water by the specification of a capping layer and/or verge material of very low
permeability.
Laboratory permeability testing can provide a useful guide to changes in permeability with changes in density
and moisture content at the time of compaction. Experience has shown that the permeability of some natural
materials can be reduced significantly (perhaps 10-100 times) by an increase in relative compacted density
from 95% to 98% of the maximum dry density as determined by laboratory standard compactive effort. It is
therefore very important that materials be compacted to their specified density ratio, or higher, if low
permeability is a requirement of the earthworks layer 1.
Figure 3.2 outlines the permeability ranges for soils and construction materials likely to be encountered or
used during road construction. Guidelines for the limits of permeability to be specified for different select fill
materials are contained in Table 4.2.
1 For earthworks materials, the coefficient of permeability is determined using the Falling Head method
(AS 1289.6.7.2) for a test sample compacted at optimum moisture content and 98% of maximum dry density using Standard
compactive effort.

Figure 3.2: Permeability ranges of soils and construction materials
Source: Adapted from VicRoads (1998)
3.7 Chemical Reactivity and Contamination
For most construction purposes, earthworks materials are considered to be inert and no consideration is
given to any latent chemical reactivity. There are some applications, however, where potential chemical
reactivity must be assessed to minimise undesirable reaction with adjacent structural components to properly
allow for the design or specification of appropriate structural components which can resist or accommodate
such chemical reaction or to minimise potential environmental impacts.
Situations that require the assessment of potential chemical reactivity include:

soil materials and groundwater in contact with buried structural components such as steel and concrete
piles, steel or aluminium pipes, culverts or arches, and steel straps placed in reinforced earth structures
use of industrial waste, e.g. electric arc furnace slag, and recycled materials for earthworks
acid sulphate-bearing rock or soil materials which lead to volume change during crystallisation and
hydration processes; sulphide/sulphate mineralisation may be associated with altered rock types
acid sulphate-bearing rock or soil which allows leached products to run into catchment areas or water
courses causing undesirable damage to the ecosystem
contaminants associated with the natural mineralogy of rock and soil materials present in certain
environments or with by-products from mining or industrial activity.
Test procedures that can be used to quantify or estimate dissolved salt content and sulphur content of soil
and rock are listed in Section 7.12 of this Guide. Further guidance on the identification and proper
management of acid sulphate soils and rock is contained in EPA Victoria (1999).

3.8 Erosion Potential
For the maintenance of the surface stability of earthworks embankments, the materials must be of
acceptable erosion-resistant potential; otherwise erosion minimisation or remedial methods must be
employed to maintain surface stability. Soils and extremely weathered rocks of high erosion potential are
classed as dispersive and may also have the propensity to slake in the presence of water. Dispersive or
slaking soils exposed on cut and fill batter surfaces may be subject to scour due to rain and surface run-off,
and to piping or tunnelling of the more permeable and highly dispersive soil types. Erosion of soils has the
potential to cause turbidity of water in streams.
The presence of erosive and dispersive soils in earthworks can lead to:
significant scour and tunnelling of verge and fill batter slope materials
erosion of table drains
pollution and turbidity in surface run-off waters
slaking and collapse of unprotected cut batter slopes with consequent blockage of drainage paths and
culverts.
For unavoidable use of highly dispersive soils, the following construction procedures are appropriate:
identify the nature and location of potentially dispersible soils during pre-construction investigation
activities
minimise exposure of highly dispersible soils by limiting the area of stripping of topsoil
minimise exposure of the completed earthworks formation to impinging rainfall by topsoiling and
revegetating as soon as practical
provide settlement basins to catch turbid run-off waters.
The dispersivity potential of a soil is assessed using AS 1289.3.8.1 (refer to Section 4.1.2 and Emerson
1967).

4. Materials for Specific Applications
There are a number of earthworks applications where more stringent specification limits and construction
standards are applied to provide a structural component for which a higher performance standard is required.
Such applications are often listed in specifications and appropriate description, tests and test limits provided
for the materials required. The test limits specified may be different for different projects and are related to
the inherent properties of the materials that are considered to suit the purpose and are readily available
along or adjacent to the project alignment.
4.1 Select Fill Material (Capping, Selected or Structural Material)
Select fill materials are commonly specified for use in the construction of:
the earthworks layer immediately beneath the pavement layers
earthworks capping and verge layers
spill-through abutment fills and behind abutment areas of bridge approach embankments
reinforced soil embankments
fill placed adjacent to retaining walls
pipe and culvert backfill.
Figure 4.1 shows select fill and verge material at the completion of earthworks.
Figure 4.1: Select fill and verge material at completion of earthworks
These materials are generally specified in terms of minimum bearing capacity, maximum particle size and
PSD, and Plastic Limit range.
It is difficult to provide rigid guidelines or criteria for the selection and acceptance of material for each of
these structural material purposes as in many cases it is appropriate to use readily available local materials
derived from adjacent cut excavations, particularly ripped weathered rock. Suitability also depends on
environmental factors, e.g. likelihood of flooding or scouring.

The following provides guidance as to the factors that should be considered in evaluating potential select fill
structural materials.
4.1.1 Stability
Stability can be evaluated by laboratory testing to determine appropriate cohesion and angle of friction
parameters. In many cases these parameters can be conservatively assumed. For most natural materials
the fines fraction controls the mass strength and the testing of small direct shear specimens provides
appropriate strength parameters. Indicative minimum values for these parameters are:
50 kPa
25°
With weak cohesive materials, heavy compaction can produce large horizontal pressures that are capable of
deflecting abutment or retaining wall structures. This mechanism is particularly evident in materials which
undergo substantial property changes with small changes in moisture content (e.g. silt soils). These
materials should therefore be avoided particularly in those situations.
4.1.2 Erodibility/Dispersion
Cohesionless materials are generally more prone to erosion and scour. Such materials can be protected by
encapsulation, batter protection or geotextile fabric overlay treatments. Very fine dispersive soils (clay-sized
particles but of non-clay mineralogy) may require a filter barrier to prevent migration. Some silty soils, while
not being classified as highly dispersive, may slake readily and as such are susceptible to piping, tunnelling
and scouring erosional processes. Care must therefore be exercised when silty soils are present in
earthworks to ensure that a relatively impermeable soil cover of adequate thickness is provided to protect the
earthworks from impinging rainfall and/or surface run-off. The specification of a minimum plasticity index is
also useful in minimising the use of soils of low cohesion.
A measure of dispersion is the Emerson Class Number based on AS1289.3.8.1. This provides for eight
dispersion classes from E1 to E8, where E1 is the most dispersive and E8 the least dispersive. Table 4.1
provides guidelines as to the erosion potential of in situ soils and soil conservation earthworks materials
based on AS1289.3.8.1 – with a further subdivision of Classes 2 and 3 (after Loveday and Pyle 1973).
Ancillary works associated with road construction earthworks often require the construction of water retention
structures. In this case, the assessment of dispersivity is particularly important for soils used in the
construction of settling ponds, water-retaining dam walls, retarding basins as well as in applications where
piping or tunnelling could lead to leakage or even catastrophic failure of an earthen water-retaining structure.
Soils used in the construction of water retention structures should preferably be of two types:
For dam wall construction, soils of low dispersivity potential (i.e. Class numbers E3 to E8) should be used
to minimise erosion of spillway channels and piping and tunnelling of the wall structure.
For water-holding basins constructed on permeable soils or rock, and from which water loss by leakage
must be minimised, soils of high dispersion potential (i.e. Class numbers E1 and E2) should be used to
line the basin. Such materials readily slake and disperse and are able to infill cracks and open pores
which could otherwise lead to the formation of water leakage paths. In such cases, due consideration will
need to be given to the quality of the water, including dispersed particles, and further treatment of the
water may be required prior to discharge.

Table 4.1: Indicative dispersivity and erosion potential of soils
Emerson class Dispersivity Erosion potential/use in conservation earthworks

number by test
E1 Very high High tunnelling susceptibility – complete dispersion
E2 High Some degree of tunnelling susceptibility – partial dispersion
Subclass E2(1) Desirable for lining and sealing of water storage structures
(2) (3)
Subclass E2 & E2 Unstable
E3 Low to Generally stable, a more desirable material for soil conservation
moderate earthworks
Subclass E3(1) & E3(2) Most satisfactory materials within this class
Subclass E3(3) & E3(4) More subject to dispersion failure following construction and/or working at
high moisture content
E4 & E5 Low More highly aggregated materials less likely to hold water. High
compactive effort at optimum moisture content or wetter required when
E6 Very low
constructing a watertight structure
E7 & E8 Very low Soil aggregations do not slake. Class 7 aggregates swell but remain
coherent. Class 8 aggregates remain unchanged
The erosion potential of earthworks or an in situ material is usually assessed when environmental
management planning requires run-off catchment and stream turbidity factors to be taken into account.
These factors must also be taken into account for the selection of subsurface drain type as described in the
(forthcoming) Guide to Pavement Technology Part 10: Subsurface Drainage (Austroads 2009b).
4.1.3 Shrinkage/Swelling
Swelling soils can impose large horizontal pressures which, in the cases of bridge abutments and retaining
walls, can be destructive. The use of swelling soils for fill for these structures should be avoided if possible.
Behind-abutment drainage can be adequate to control moisture movement in the short term but often
drainage systems are not maintained or interrupted by later works that subsequently render them as
inadequate. The potential for swelling can be assessed directly by swell tests or indirectly by index test
information, e.g. Plasticity Index and Linear Shrinkage tests.
4.1.4 Settlement/Collapse
Embankment settlement can be exhibited by clayey materials primarily as a result of marked changes in the
moisture and density condition of the material in the post-compaction state. Settlement can occur as a result
of:
placement of material in an over-wet condition, resulting in initial low relative densities and subsequent
substantial consolidation settlement
the prevailing operating conditions such as extended dry conditions and invading tree roots; this problem
is generally only associated with high fills constructed with fine grained soils of high plasticity.
Embankment collapse generally occurs in materials which are cohesionless or of very low cohesion and can
be triggered by saturation followed by a rapid drawdown of the water level or when high plasticity clay is
placed in an over-wet condition, then dries, cracks and allows surface water into the embankment. The
collapse is water-induced and can occur if low relative densities result from inadequate compaction. These
materials have the capacity to saturate readily; they can slump if the drawdown occurs rapidly. Particularly
troublesome materials are slightly cohesive silts that are compacted dry of OMC and to a low relative
density, e.g. <90% of maximum dry density.

4.1.5 Material Size
Maximum material size is of concern for materials used as select fill in the following cases:
if large sizes are over-represented in structural material at bridge abutments, then inadequate compaction
may result
over-large materials are difficult to pre-bore prior to pile driving or simply to drive piles through; a
maximum nominal size for structural material for bridge approach embankments should be 75 mm
over-large material in verges can be difficult to trim and poses a risk to traffic if dislodged during roadside
maintenance or emergency use
the layer surface is not easy to prepare to provide a waterproof finish.
4.1.6 Specification Guidelines for Select Fill Materials
Table 4.2 provides an example of parameters specified for select fill material. Limits other than those
tabulated and further requirements, e.g. rock durability and/or hardness range, may be specified by a
different organisation or for particular applications. The limits specified may also have to be balanced with
the properties of those materials readily and economically available from earthworks along the project
alignment.

Table 4.2: Example requirements for select fill material
Limits of grading (% passing) after PI x %

Physical properties
compaction sieve size AS (mm) passing PI range
0.425 mm post-
Location Assigned Permeab
Swell post- compactio
and use of CBR ility
(max) 75.0 37.5 4.75 0.425 0.075 compactio n
select fill (min) (%) (max)
(%) (1) n (max)
material (1) (m/s) (2)
Capping
40 - 10 -
layer 6.0 <1.5 5 x 10-9 100 - - 1000 6 - 25
80 40
material
Verge 40 - 10 -
6.0 5 x 10-9 100 - - 1000 6 - 25
material 80 40
Selected 40 - 10 -
6.0 <1.5 - 100 - - 1000 6 - 25
material 80 40
Structural 40 - 10 -
6.0 <1.5 - 100 - - 1000 6 - 25
material 80 40
Other
40 - 10 -
select fill 6.0 <1.5 - 100 - - 1000 6 - 25
80 40
material
Notes:
(1) The Assigned CBR and percentage swell values are to be determined in accordance with VicRoads (2004) Code of
Practice RC 500.20. Sampling for CBR testing shall be undertaken after field compaction.
(2) The permeability value is to be determined on specimens manufactured from that fraction of material which passes a
19.0 mm AS sieve, compacted at OMC and 98% of MDD as determined by test using standard compactive effort for
CBR and swell.
Source: Adapted from VicRoads (2008a)
4.2 Permeable Fill
Permeable fill is generally used to provide a capillary break within a layered earthworks/pavement profile or
to provide a drainage medium to intercept and drain groundwater inflow. Permeable fill material is commonly
constructed using a no-fines crushed rock or natural gravel. The fill may also be cement stabilised (low-fines
concrete) if a firm stable platform over soft ground is required or for backfilling of low points or crevices in a
rock cut floor. As the operating environment for aggregates used in permeable fill will be subject to
inundation or cyclic wetting and drying, it is usual to specify source rock durability and hardness
requirements. This is to ensure that the aggregate does not degrade during the construction phase and the
service life of the structure. Otherwise the permeable properties of the layer will be compromised if
significant changes in the PSD (grading) occur.
Permeable fill used as a drainage blanket is typically comprised of a 150-300 mm thick layer. The
permeable fill layer is intended as a capillary break to minimise ingress of groundwater into the pavement
layers from below. To prevent the infiltration of fines into the drainage blanket, the permeable fill layer is
generally encapsulated in a suitable geotextile.
4.2.1 Specification Guidelines for Permeable Fill
Permeable fill is generally specified as a mixture of hard, durable, clean sand and gravel or crushed rock,
free from clay balls and perishable matter. Other requirements include durability and grading limits for
different applications, and perhaps maximum plasticity index to minimise the inclusion of plastic fine particles
in the product which otherwise might inhibit the free-draining nature of the material.
Table 4.3 provides an example of grading requirements for permeable fill.

Table 4.3: Example grading requirements for permeable fill
Material Limits of grading test value (% passing) sieve size AS (mm)

Location grade
(1)
37.5 19.0 13.2 9.5 6.7 4.75 2.36 0.425 0.075
A4 – 100 – 70-100 0- 50 – 0-3
Against
A5 100 90-100 70-100 – 28-100 0-28 – 0-3
structures
A6 100 85-100 – 65-100 – 45-82 30-60 – 0-3
Backfill for A4 100 – 70-100 0-50 – 0-3
open joint A5 100 90-100 70-100 – 28-100 0-28 – 0-3
pipes A6 100 85-100 – 65-100 – 45-82 30-60 – 0-3
– 100 100-90 50-70 15-35 5-15 0-5 – 0-3
Drainage – 100 85-100 – – – 20-50 15-30 5-20 0-3
blanket
material A6 100 85-100 – 65-100 – 45-82 30-60 – 0-3
B4 100 70-100 0-30 0-10 – – 0-5 – 0-3
Note:
(1) Material grade as specified in Section 702 of VicRoads Specification.
Permeable fill used for formation and pavement drainage systems is further discussed in the (forthcoming)
Guide to Pavement Technology: Part 10 – Subsurface Drainage (Austroads 2009b), where grading and
other requirements are included. Where coarse drainage blanket material is used it may be necessary to
provide a finer blinding material to the surface to prevent puncture of the geofabric surrounding the layer or
to select a more robust geofabric.
Figure 4.2 shows permeable sand fill placed behind the panels of a reinforced soil retaining wall.
Figure 4.2: Permeable sand fill placed behind the panels of a reinforced soil wall

4.3 Reinforced Soil
Reinforced soil is a composite material formed by the interaction of a non-cohesive granular soil with
corrosion resistant reinforcing strips or grids (Figure 4.3). The strength of the system is derived from the
friction resistance and adhesion between the soil and reinforcing which enables the reinforcement to carry
the tensile stresses within the mass. In this way, the soil mass tends to act as a cohesive, monolithic body,
supporting its own weight as well as the external loadings for which it has been designed. The reinforcing,
which is either horizontally-placed ribbed galvanised steel flats or a high tensile, low elongation geotextile
grid, is generally placed as specified in the backfill and bolted or clamped to an exterior skin of articulated or
flexible facing panels. The soil is generally a select granular (non-plastic) material which often has additional
chemical and electrical requirements. Such embankments are commonly constructed with side slopes
steeper than could be accommodated when using un-reinforced soil materials.
Factors which must be taken into account when selecting soil and other backfill materials for reinforced
embankment applications include:
cohesion and internal friction angle
soil/reinforcement interaction strength (bond strength)
chemical properties so as to minimise corrosion where galvanised steel reinforcement or attachments are
used.
Figure 4.3: Typical reinforced soil application
Permeable Fill
Low Permeability Soil
Cap Unit
Masonry Brick
Wall Unit
Unit Drainage Fill
20 mm Crushed Rock
Approximate
Limit of
Excavation REINFORCED SOIL
RETAINED SOIL
Grid Depth
Finished Grade
Perforated PVC
Drainage Pipe
Unreinforced Concrete
FOUNDATION SOIL or Crushed Rock
Levelling Pad
The specification of these properties may be by the application of appropriate laboratory or field testing, or by
indirect empirical methods such as the specification of grading and plasticity limits. Possible changes in soil
parameters which may occur over the life-time of the retaining structure must also be taken into
consideration. These include the following:

The frictional properties of the soil may change over time as a result of degradation of soil or rock
aggregates due to changing moisture regimes or environmental weathering of the material. Such
degradation may result in the release of clay from the aggregates with consequent increase in plasticity of
the material.
Grainsize changes due to disintegration and degradation of aggregates will also affect the soil cohesion
and frictional properties.
Chemical reactivity (corrosivity) of soils will affect the durability of steel components used as grids and
fastenings in the reinforced soil structure. Specifications usually provide limits for certain reactive
chemicals in soils to be used for such applications.
4.3.1 Specification Guidelines for Reinforced Soil
The design of reinforced soil structures (RSS) is generally based on the specification and test limit
requirements provided by the suppliers of proprietary reinforced soil systems. In general, suitable backfilling
material will be sand, gravel or crushed rock of properties similar to those shown in Table 4.4. A geotextile
separation layer may be required on the rear face of the structural panels to prevent loss of backfill fines
through the openings in the reinforced soil wall. Special drainage requirements for the reinforced soil backfill
may also need to be installed, particularly if the structure is partly below the flood level.
The characteristic value for angle of friction at constant volume Ø1 of reinforced fill material under effective
stress conditions must be determined by laboratory testing including pre-treating.
Table 4.4: Example guidelines for the selection of reinforced soil backfill material
Reinforced soil wall Limits of grading (% passing) after

backfill material compaction. Sieve size AS (mm)
Coefficient
Liquid Plasticity
of
Maximum size (mm) limit (%) index (%)
uniformity
prior to placement and 9.50 2.36 0.600 0.075
compaction
Steel
150
reinforcement
25-100 15-100 10-100 0-15
Geosynthetic
75
reinforcement
Notes:
(1) Test methods for grading, liquid limit, plasticity index and coefficient of uniformity must be as specified in AS 1289.
(2) For all soil reinforcement, maximum size of granular material must not be greater than 0.4 of the lift thickness.
(3) The Coefficient of uniformity = D60/D10, where D60 and D10 are the equivalent sieve sizes in millimetres as interpolated
from PSD curves and through which 60% and 10% of the reinforced fill material passes respectively.
(4) Material must be pre-treated:
a in accordance with Test Method RC 301.05 – pre-treatment of soils and pavement materials by repeated
compaction using three repeated compaction cycles; and then
b in accordance with RTA T103 by artificial weathering using five cycles of alternate wetting and drying.
After pre-treatment, the % passing the 0.075 mm (AS) sieve size must not exceed 15% and the PI must not exceed
12% unless otherwise approved by the superintendent.
(5) Material derived from argillaceous rock such as shales and claystones or other friable materials which are susceptible
to breakdown must not be used as reinforced fill material.
Backfill materials should comply with the requirements of the reinforced soil structure designer; the minimum
requirements are that they should:
consist of naturally-occurring or processed natural material which at the time of placing is capable of
being compacted in accordance with the specified requirements to form a stable mass of fill

be free from organic or other deleterious material

have a PSD, shear strength and coefficient of friction value to ensure the RSS design parameters are
achieved
where the fill is in contact with a galvanised steel component, have the chemical and electrical properties
shown in Table 4.5
have a pH in the range of 4 to 9 where polyester soil reinforcement is used and pH of 3 to 12 for HDPE
(high density polyethylene) soil reinforcements.
Pulverised fuel ash (PFA) should not be used as structural material.
Table 4.5: Example requirements for chemical and electrical properties of material in contact
with galvanised steel components
Resistivity Cl SO4
Site pH
(ohm.cm) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
> 5000 5-10 - -
Dry land
> 1000 5-10 < 200 < 200
Submerged (1) > 3000 5- 10 < 100 < 500
Notes:
(1) Submergence does not include marine environment, which is a case for special study. Submerged values must be
used where the structure is permanently or regularly submerged. Otherwise, dry land values must be used.
The structural backfill is placed in maximum compacted lifts of 150 to 200 mm or as otherwise specified. It is
necessary to ensure that heavy spreading or compaction equipment does not come into contact with the
reinforcing strips nor come within 1.5 metres of the face of the wall. Compaction closer to the wall is
generally achieved using hand-operated vibrating plates or small rollers. Compactive effort equivalent to or
exceeding 95% or 98% Standard is normally specified with the moisture content not to exceed the OMC.
4.4 Rock Fill
Rock fill is a special application and is commonly used in the following situations:
as an embankment construction method to utilise a readily-available material
on bunds or embankments in marine or riverine environments
as working platforms over unstable ground
as drainage layers in areas subject to inundation or groundwater inflows.
A typical rock fill application is shown in Figure 4.4.
Otherwise, rock fill is only used where it becomes necessary to utilise it from a cut. It is then usual to specify
the zone in which the rock fill is allowed and the minimum cover requirement of select and general fill
materials.

Figure 4.4: Typical rock fill application as a working platform
Source: RTA
4.4.1 Specification Guidelines for Rock Fill
Rock fill is comprised of larger fragments of durable rock containing only a small proportion of fine particles
which, when placed and compacted, produces an embankment deriving its stability from the mechanical
interlock of the coarser particles and not from the cohesion of finer material. To minimise breakdown during
handling and compaction processes, the durability of the larger rock is specified in terms of the Point Load
Strength Index (AS 4133.4.1). A maximum size and grading is typically specified and may change
depending on the depth of the rock fill below the pavement. An example grading of rock fill is shown in Table
4.6.
Table 4.6: Example grading of rock fill material prior to placement
AS sieve size Limits of grading

(mm) (% passing by mass)
400 100
26.5 0 – 40
1.18 0 - 10
Rock fill should not be placed in areas where earth fill has previously been constructed as this could allow
rain-water or surface runoff ingress into a potentially moisture sensitive embankment fill layer. Foundations
under rock fills should be stripped of topsoil and silt, and shaped to ensure that drainage is maintained and
treated to ensure that erosion of the foundation will not occur. A very robust geotextile fabric is often
specified to be laid as a separation layer prior to placement of the first layer of rock fill and as a separation
layer prior to placement of any other type of fill material over or adjacent to the rock fill.
The upper surface of rock fill should first be blinded with smaller particle rock fill prior to the placement of
select or general fill materials to provide a more compact and void-free surface. Alternatively a capping layer
of specified grading may be used immediately above rock fill embankments. Figure 4.5 and Table 4.7
provide an example of limits for the placement of rock fill in embankments whilst Table 4.8 provides example
minimum cover requirements for rock fill.

Figure 4.5: Example limits for placement of rock fill in embankments

Distance below surface
Level of Type B Fill
level of Type B fill
Type B Fill Geotextile Fabric (G> 3000)

0.4 to 1.0 m
Rock Fill (75 mmmax. size)
1.0 to 2.0 m
> 2.0 m
Geotextile Fabric (G> 3000)
Natural Surface
(or earth fill if
permitted)
Table 4.7: Example limits for placement of rock fill in embankments
Distance below surface level Maximum particle size (mm) Maximum layer depth (mm)
of select layer
0.4–1.0 m 75 200
1.0–2.0 m 150 300
>2.0 m 400 600
Table 4.8: Example minimum cover requirements for rock fill
Maximum thickness of cover layer (mm)

Maximum particle
size of rock fill to be Layer 1 Layer 2
covered (mm) Maximum particle dimension 150 Maximum particle dimension 75 Total
mm mm
400 200 100 300
150 Not required 100 100
75 Not required Not required nil
For rock materials to be used in marine and fresh-water environments, where the rock is to be subjected to
cycles of wetting and drying, appropriate expert opinion should be sought. Durability testing to determine the
mineralogical and slake durability of the source rock will be required to assist with the assessment of the
suitability of rock.

5. Stabilisation of Earthworks Materials
Stabilisation, by mechanical or chemical means, can often be used to enhance the bearing capacity and
volumetric stability of natural materials. Stabilisation of selected earthworks layers or components can
provide the following benefits:
reduction in pavement thickness, provided the stabilisation treatment ensure the stabilised design
properties are achieved in the long term (refer Austroads 2006)
economic use of available materials as an alternative to importing higher quality materials
a construction expedient, by improving the capacity of weak or loose material to carry construction traffic
and decreasing the moisture susceptibility of materials so there is less time lost through wet weather
if used at subgrade level, it provides a stronger and more uniform platform on which to construct the
pavement which significantly improves pavement life
reduction in erosion and environmental problems when used for dust suppression on unsurfaced haul-
roads and unsealed roads, thereby improving site safety.
Stabilisation treatments only affect the soil to the depth of that treatment and any lack of uniformity that may
exist below that level remains unaltered. Hence, any significant shrinkage of the untreated material due to
moisture changes may be reflected through the treated materials and into the overlying pavement materials.
To provide the desired stabilisation outcome it is imperative that sampling and testing of materials be carried
out to assess and validate the efficacy of reaction and determine the optimum dosage rate of the proposed
stabilising agent. The laboratory mixing and curing techniques need to be representative of the field
processes.
It is also important that the specified compaction and working time limits are adhered to for cement, lime,
bitumen and chemically stabilised materials otherwise the benefits of stabilisation are unlikely to be fully
achieved.
Table 5.1 provides general guidelines for chemical stabilisation based on soil properties.

Table 5.1: Guide to selecting a method of stabilisation
Particle size More than 25% passing 0.425 mm Less than 25% passing 0.425 mm
Plasticity index PI < 10 10 < PI <20 PI > 20 PI < 6 PI < 10 PI > 10

WPI < 60
Binder type
Cement and
cementitious
blends1
Lime
Bitumen
Bitumen/
cement blends
Granular
Polymers
Miscellaneous
chemicals2
Key Usually Doubtful or Usually not

suitable supplementary suitable
binder required
Notes:
The use of some chemical binders as a supplementary addition can extend the effectiveness of cementitious binders in
finer soils and higher plasticities.
Should be taken as a broad guideline only. Refer to trade literature for further information.
Source: Austroads (2006)
Further information on stabilisation can be found in the Austroads (2006) Guide to Pavement Technology:
Part 4D – Stabilised Materials.
5.1 Granular Stabilisation
Granular stabilisation is achieved by modifying the PSD of a material. The addition of fine cohesive material
can increase cohesion and reduce permeability in open-graded sands and gravels. The addition of coarser,
non-cohesive components can increase bearing capacity by increasing internal friction and reducing
moisture susceptibility in finer-grained clayey sands and sandy clays. It is unusual to stabilise earthworks
materials in this way, exceptions being the mixing of variable-quality materials at the extraction site or during
placement in earthworks to produce a more homogeneous material.

5.2 Cement and Cementitious Blends
Cementitious and/or lime stabilisation is sometimes used as a time-saving expedient to increase the bearing
capacity of local areas of over-wet and weak material. This results in a more stable working platform for
placement and compaction of earthworks fill and overcomes the need to remove and replace the unsuitable
material. In this case, stabilisation using a blend of cement and lime has been found to be effective,
producing higher unconfined compressive strengths (UCS) than an equivalent pure lime addition, and
providing a better immediate working platform than the equivalent pure cement addition. Cement
stabilisation in the form of low-fines concrete can also be used for drainage layers.
Typically, soils with about 10 to 35% silt and clay (generally material finer than 0.075 mm) respond
favourably to the addition of cement but soils with Liquid Limits over about 45 and Plasticity Index values
greater than 20 generally cannot be stabilised economically.
Typical cement contents for various soil types for pavement construction are shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Typical cement contents for various soil types for pavement construction
Soil type Cement requirement (% by mass)

Fine crushed rock 0.5–21
Well-graded sandy clay gravels 2–4
Well-graded sand 2–4
Poorly-graded sand 4–62
Sandy clay 4–6
Silty clay 6–8
Heavy clay 8–12
Very heavy clay 12–153
Organic soils5 10–154
Notes:
1. The use of some chemical binders as a supplementary addition can extend the effectiveness of cementitious binders
in finer soils and higher plasticities.
2. Compaction may be very difficult, and segregation of the cement may occur.
3. Mixing may be very difficult – pre-treatment with lime may help.
4. Pre-treatment with lime or the addition of 2% calcium chloride may help.

5. Additive stabilisation of organic soils is not particularly effective (more than 2% organic matter) and can be destroyed
by some soil chemicals (e.g. soil sulphates destroy the effects of cement stabilisation).
Source: Metcalf (1979)
5.3 Lime Stabilisation
Lime stabilisation is primarily used to reduce the plasticity and swell potential of cohesive soils, and to
enhance the bearing capacity of highly plastic clays (Figure 5.1). The effect is to cause flocculation of the
clay particles, resulting in a decrease in the PI and a consequent reduction in the swell potential. The use of
lime stabilisation to enhance the properties of earthworks is often required, as alternative materials of higher
quality are commonly not economically available. Lime stabilisation of select fill material may reduce ‘swell
potential‘. However, it may increase permeability; testing of the treated materials to ensure that they still
comply with the specified permeability requirements, should therefore be undertaken first. It should be noted
that stabilisation of verges can be difficult to achieve unless the contractor is prepared to over-place material
and trim to shape afterwards.

When clayey soils are to be stabilised they generally only need to be coarsely pulverised as it appears that
additives such as cement or lime can diffuse through the soil lumps and modify the majority of clay particles.
This diffuse modification immobilises the whole clay structure, thus improving the strength, durability and the
volume stability of the material. Pulverisation to finer material improves the achievable strength and multiple
mixing passes of the stabiliser may be required for heavy clays. Some caution should be exercised not to
overestimate the extent of improvement from laboratory-mixed conditions to the field situation as field results
will generally be less than laboratory results. One substantial change is the generation of some tensile
strength into what were previously unbound layers.
In some forms of stabilisation, a pozzolanic compound such as fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace
slag GGBFS (by-products of coal-fired power stations and steel production respectively) can be used to
replace some of the lime used in stabilisation. This can provide economic potential as the addition of fly ash
or GGBFS results in both a higher strength and a more rapid gain in strength than with lime alone.
Figure 5.1: Stabiliser mixing lime to clay subgrade material
5.4 Bitumen Stabilisation
Bitumen stabilisation, which is typically used in the stabilisation of existing or imported granular pavement
base and subbase materials, may also be used for the stabilisation of low-cohesion materials such as dune
sands (fine, poorly-graded silty sands) to provide for a stable subgrade prior to the placement of the
pavement layers. In this process, water is injected into hot bitumen (160 to 200 ºC), causing a greater than
ten-fold increase in volume and a fine mist or foam. This action aids bitumen dispersal through the mix, with
the bitumen preferentially coating the finer particles in the mineral aggregate, rather than coating all particles,
as with asphalt. Foamed bitumen has typical proportions of 98% bitumen, 1% water and up to 1% foaming
agent. The bitumen and fines form a binder between the coarse particles with bitumen contents usually
being 2-4% by mass of the mix.
The foamed bitumen, or expanded bitumen, is produced by a process in which water is injected into the hot
bitumen, resulting in spontaneous foaming. The physical properties of the bitumen are temporarily altered
when the injected water, on contact with the hot bitumen, is turned into vapour which is trapped in thousands
of tiny bitumen bubbles. However, the foam dissipates in less than a minute and the bitumen resumes its
original properties.
Foamed bitumen can be used with a variety of materials, ranging from conventional high-quality graded
materials and recycled pavement materials to marginal materials such as those having a high PI.

The use of foamed bitumen reduces construction time because the stabilised material can carry traffic almost
immediately after compaction is completed.
Bitumen stabilisation has the effect of increasing shear strength, reducing moisture susceptibility and the
permeability of the material, thus maintaining the existing dry strength. The bitumen products typically used
are cutback bitumen and emulsions, with the selection of the appropriate grade and type dependent on the
temperature and climatic conditions at the time of application, and also the soil properties.
5.5 Chemical Stabilisation
Chemical stabilisation involves the addition of materials that react chemically with the soil components to
decrease their susceptibility to weakening in the presence of moisture. Chemicals used include calcium,
sodium and magnesium chlorides, and soluble silicates. The use of such chemicals may provide only short-
term advantages, as the eventual leaching of the chemicals will negate their initial benefits.
Another group of chemical stabilising agents comprises polymeric binders, either in liquid or insoluble dry
powder form. Liquid forms have commonly been used to suppress dust and to stabilise clay soils in
unsealed roadway situations while dry powder forms have been used (generally in combination with hydrated
lime), in deep-lift in situ stabilisation of pavement materials. The polymer-based stabilising agents are
designed to reduce capillary rise, thus increasing the soaked CBR value and the wet strength, and reducing
the permeability with consequent reduction in pore pressure. The polymer-treated material remains flexible,
thus eliminating shrinkage and fatigue cracking commonly associated with stabilisation treatments that
incorporate cementitious reactions.
For chemical binders, which include powdered polymer stabilisers, guidelines for the selection of the method
of stabilisation based on the PI and percentage finer than 0.075 mm, indicate that materials which generally
respond to treatment are as shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3: General guidelines for materials which respond to chemical stabilisation
Percentage passing 0.075 mm AS sieve Plasticity index

> 10
> 10
(with doubtful suitability for materials with Plasticity Index
less than 10)
5.6 Drying-out
Dryback of over-wet earthworks materials is a further simple form of stabilisation. This method may be used
where a fill material is unsuitable for immediate use because it is over-wet. It may be stockpiled for aeration,
drying back and later use. This procedure is more suitable for relatively permeable materials such as clayey
sands and gravels and broken weathered rock but other, less permeable, materials have been also
successfully treated.

6. Borrow Pits
This section provides guidance on site selection and investigation of earthworks borrow areas, and considers
factors relating to the in situ and handling properties of borrow materials. While the discussion is generally
aimed at off-site borrow areas, similar factors also apply to the investigation and excavation of cut materials
along a road alignment.
In selecting sites due consideration should be given to compliance with legislative obligations and potential
restrictions on the excavation of material from borrow pits.
For all borrow sites, consideration should be given to the following potential impacts:
disruption to local drainage, both during excavation and after rehabilitation of the site
dust generation and the treatment of turbid drainage waters during excavation operations
aesthetics of the site, especially when visible to adjacent residents and to motorists
site rehabilitation, including landscaping and revegetation
the effect of moisture, subsurface water inflows and other environmental factors.
6.1 Site Selection and Investigation
The selection and investigation of borrow sites, whether for the supply of select and/or general fill materials,
should ensure that adequate volumes of relatively uniform material are available and can be readily
excavated.
Investigation requires direct sampling of the material, usually by mechanically-assisted means (power auger,
backhoe, excavator, bulldozer, etc.) on a grid basis to provide adequate exposure of the deposit and identify
the potential for variability (e.g. see Figure 6.1). Trenching has the advantage of providing an exposed face
of the profile. Consideration should be given to how the samples are retrieved and what the potential is for
mixing and/or contamination occurring in the sampling process. This can be extrapolated as to how the
deposit should be worked in the process of winning the material and whether various horizons should be
combined or, conversely, excluded from the end product. It is necessary to establish the geology of the
deposit, either from surface outcrops on the site and/or the outcrop immediately adjacent and/or the
exposures in the early investigation holes, to ensure that the investigation program is properly located and
aligned to sample the site adequately.
Soil deposits are more readily sampled with smaller portable equipment (augers, etc.) and tend to be
(sub)horizontally stratified.
For rock deposits, heavier earthmoving equipment is more likely to be required for sampling. There is also
the potential that the underlying geology is of non-horizontal strata which display differential weathering
characteristics. This type of deposit may be best investigated with several transverse costeans to expose
the full suite of rock types. In these situations, a sampling grid should be angled to the strike direction of the
structure so that sample holes are not consistently located over the same stratum.
For the testing of rock materials, the preparation of samples should reflect the treatment that the material will
receive when placed and compacted in the fill.

Figure 6.1: Investigation of borrow area using a backhoe
These assessment methods assume that mixed materials are representative of those to be supplied to the
construction site. To ensure material uniformity during supply it is necessary to carry out routine surveillance
and testing of supplied materials.
The selection of ripped rock materials (Figure 6.2) for use as select fill material can be based on an
assessment of the ease of excavation, the subsequent particle size achieved by ripping and track rolling at
the borrow site, and the product PSD, plasticity and CBR after compaction.
As specifications often require testing to be carried out on materials after compaction, it is necessary to
either pre-treat (laboratory cyclic compaction) or place a trial section in order to appropriately determine CBR
and swell values.
Figure 6.2: Ripping of weathered rock in cutting

6.2 Ease of Excavation
For the proper design of an earthworks construction program and for the selection of earthworks plant, it is
necessary to carry out investigative testing which provides data on the in situ condition of the soil or rock
materials. Much of this can be available from the investigation program and the nature of the equipment
used for this.
Geophysical testing using the seismic refraction technique together with borehole and other information can
be interpreted to provide data on the depth of overburden to the rock deposit. The seismic wave velocity of
the sub-surface horizons or layers will provide an estimation of the ease of excavation of the sub-surface
materials with subsequent requirements of earthmoving machinery type and size. Estimations derived from
geophysical testing alone must be made with caution, as the method provides no detail as to the nature of
any stratification or of the type of the sub-surface materials present. As such, confirmatory drilling, trenching
and/or rippability trials should be used to complement the geophysical interpretations; seismic data may be
calibrated against data from the sampling investigation.
6.3 Effect of Excavation on Soil and Rock Properties
The properties and handling characteristics of some soil and rock material types may change significantly
during the excavation, handling and compaction processes. For example, fine-grained sedimentary rock
types such as weathered mudstone and siltstone may degrade significantly with working and produce an
end-product which is soil-like, silty, moisture sensitive and of low bearing capacity. If such materials are
incorporated into a structural embankment such as a bridge approach, the design requirement for the
material to have adequate shear strength and stability when placed at a relatively steep batter slope may not
be realised, and instability of the embankment may ensue, particularly in the draw-down situation resulting
from receding floodwater. It is important to ensure that the laboratory testing and characterisation program
includes pre-treatment by repeated compaction to fully gauge the breakdown that will occur in the field during
handling and compaction.
The use of compaction equipment of the size and weight currently available has shown that three cycles of
pre-compaction in the laboratory are often insufficient to fully characterise the breakdown that will occur with
successive compaction passes in the field situation. If testing and/or observation indicate that materials are
degrading significantly under compaction, a field trial section can be placed and samples for CBR testing
taken from the compacted roadbed to fully assess this particular aspect. It is important that the CBR values
obtained for samples from the roadbed conform to the requirements of the specification for the particular
layer.
Some soil types, which in the in situ state have moderate bearing capacity, may lose the ability to support an
overlying embankment if they are disturbed or remoulded by excavation. Silty soils with a PI in the range 7
or less can lose strength when disturbed, particularly when they are over-wet or saturated. At a construction
site, disturbance can take the form of vibrations or trafficking from heavy equipment, pile driving, and/or
exposure in an open cut such as in trenching.
6.4 Risk of Exposure to Surface or Subsurface Seepage
Due consideration must be given to the current or potential moisture content or groundwater regime within or
adjacent to the site. In fissured or permeable soils, it is possible for the in situ moisture content to fluctuate
widely with changing climatic conditions such that a borrow area may be found to be unsuitable at the time of
excavation, particularly if the moisture content of the excavated soil exceeds the optimum moisture content.
The groundwater table level may fluctuate widely following seasonal rainfall trends, and at the time of
excavation may be found to be above or below the level shown on bore and trench logs and recorded at the
time of the investigation.

Unless saturated sand is encountered, the bore or trench logs may not show a groundwater table level. This
does not necessarily mean that a groundwater level was not encountered; it simply was not observed due to
the very low permeability of the fine-grained soil. If investigation and the selection of a borrow site is carried
out well in advance of excavation, it may be appropriate to install groundwater monitoring standpipes so that
seasonal fluctuations in the groundwater level can be recorded and opportunity given for groundwater to
inflow from strata of relatively low permeability. Materials which are up to 1-2% wet of OMC may still be
successfully used as, during the course of excavation, transportation and placement, these materials will dry
out to some extent. However, with moisture contents greater than 2% above OMC, the only options are to
dry the material out in the road bed, stabilise or mix with dry material. Drying-out is generally achieved by
regularly turning the materials over with a grader and exposing the surface material to the sun and wind.
These processes involve a considerable amount of double handling and the appropriate weather conditions,
resulting in additional earthworks costs.
For borrow areas in permeable granular soils and jointed rock, attention must be given to pit design and
excavation methods to allow for adequate drainage outfall both within, and from, the borrow pit. Otherwise,
the pit may be inundated by water inflow from the watertable or from rainfall. Where this occurs, the direction
of pit operation and floor level control may be relevant in preventing water from ponding at the pit face. The
excavation of a temporary sump in the floor of the pit may be expedient.
6.5 Variability in Borrow Materials
In some geological situations, borrow materials may be found to vary markedly in both properties and
moisture content both laterally and vertically. Examples include:
Alluvial stream deposits which typically contain inter-bedded and often discontinuous lenses or horizons
of sand, gravel, silt and clay.
Rippable weathered rock profiles which vary in thickness, ease of excavation, and handling
characteristics when broken and compacted in the earthworks formation.
Large, highly-plastic clay balls included in granular alluvial or colluvial deposits.
Steeply dipping rock strata which are comprised of beds of material of variable grain size, degree of
weathering and inherent plasticity.
Large embedded boulders and tors in otherwise readily-excavated soil materials which make the use of
self-loading scrapers impracticable.
Pedocrete (cemented cap-rock) soil or gravel horizons which make excavation using earthmoving
excavation techniques difficult. In some cases, explosives need to be used to loosen such high-strength
materials.
Sufficient field investigation and laboratory characterisation must be carried out to provide assurance that the
volumes of prescribed material can be won from the site and/or that the material can be adequately mixed to
provide an acceptable and consistent material.

7. Material Properties – Assessment and Testing
A number of basic requirements are commonly specified which aim to ensure that appropriate materials are
selected for earthworks and that the materials perform satisfactorily, both during the construction stages and
during the service life. These requirements primarily relate to:
material type and condition
maximum particle size (usually visual assessment)
PSD (grading)
nature of the fines fraction (plasticity)
bearing capacity (CBR)
swell
permeability.
The following provides guidance on assessments and tests required for classifying and selecting suitable
materials.
7.1 Soil and Rock Classification
A wide variety of soil and rock materials can be encountered during earthworks construction. Broad
variations can occur in the nature of material available at a site as influenced by factors that relate to the age
and degree of consolidation on surface material, the nature of the bedrock, the extent and depth of
weathering, the groundwater regime and the height of the watertable, the climatic conditions, the
development of a pedocrete and the mineralogical and physical stability of the material when exposed to the
atmosphere. While the majority of material encountered will be suitable for general fill, as the name
suggests, select fill has more stringent requirements and is less commonly available.
Soil and rock materials used in earthworks can be initially classified using the procedures described in
AS1726 – Geotechnical Site Investigations.
7.2 In situ/Natural Moisture Content
In the investigation and selection of borrow sites for earthworks materials, it is important, for the predominant
materials available at the site, that the moisture-density relationships be known so that assessments can be
made regarding the suitability of the material. Plastic cohesive materials may have field in situ moisture
content well in excess of the laboratory-determined OMC, and may be difficult to dry back, handle and
compact. As field moisture content can vary with climatic conditions, care needs to be taken with the
assessment of borrow areas, particularly in the case of permeable materials or fissured clays which allow for
rapid ingress of moisture after periods of prolonged rainfall.

7.3 Particle Size Distribution (PSD) (Grading)
PSD affects the bearing capacity (CBR, strength) and shear strength of an earthworks material, with select
fill materials commonly requiring a larger maximum particle size to provide the specified attributes. PSD
tests are an integral part of the classification of soil materials and limits on grading are specified for select fill
materials. It is usual to only provide limits for the permissible maximum size after compaction and a grading
envelope for several other sieve sizes. This is because of the inherent variability of soil and rock materials
likely to be encountered along a project alignment and the general ease that a range of material types can
conform to the design requirements of say bearing capacity and permeability. The maximum size specified
is commensurate with ease of handling and end-use requirements. Example limits of post-compaction
grading for a range of select fill materials are provided in Table 4.2 and for permeable fill in Table 4.3.
For the proper classification of silty soils, a hydrometer analysis, which is a determination of the particle sizes
finer than 0.075 mm, is required (AS 1289.3.6.2 or AS 1289.3.6.3 as appropriate). The results of this test,
together with the liquid and PI results, allow for precise classification of unsuitable silty materials.
7.4 Plasticity Index (PI)
The PI of a soil is related to its bearing capacity and ease of compaction although the situation with non-
plastic soils is anomalous. The effects of plasticity inter-relate with the PSD of a material in terms of its
influence on the bearing capacity and ease of compaction of a material. Very generally, in a group of
materials which are fundamentally of the same type and have similar PSDs, the introduction of some
plasticity can radically improve ease of compaction, density and therefore bearing capacity above that of the
non-plastic form. There is an optimum point above which an increase in plasticity will have an increasingly
detrimental effect, with a subsequent decrease in bearing capacity. The various points at which the change
will occur, and the degree of the influence, will depend significantly on the PSD of the material.
Trends in soil binder properties with increasing PI are summarised in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Fines binder properties
Change in property
Binder property Consequence
with increase in PI
Permeability Decreases Fine grained, plastic materials selected as moisture barriers
Drying shrinkage Increases Plastic materials to be avoided in proximity to pavement to
minimise volumetric instability and shrinkage cracking
Wet strength Decreases Plastic materials to be protected from the ingress of moisture
and/or not to be used in structural situations
Dry strength Increases Plastic materials to be protected from the ingress of moisture
and/or used in a well-drained environment
The properties of the fine fraction of an earthworks material are measured by use of the following tests:
Liquid Limit (LL) – AS 1289.3.1.1 or AS 1289.3.1.2
Plastic Limit (PL) – AS 1289.3.2.1
Plasticity Index (PI) – AS 1289.3.3.1
Linear Shrinkage (LS) – AS 1289.3.4.1.
The PI is the most common method of specifying the quality of the soil fines component of a granular
material or soil. Specifications for earthworks materials commonly set allowable ranges of PI for different fill
types and/or application.

7.5 Dry Density/Moisture Content Relation of a Soil
Dry density/moisture content relationships for soils are used to establish a required compaction OMC and
MDD target for a material used in earthworks construction. The OMC is that moisture content at which the
dry density is at a maximum when a soil sample is subjected to a standard compactive effort as per AS
1289.5.1.1. Each soil and rock material has a unique relationship of density as a function of moisture
content (see Figure 7.1) with the materials having a lower OMC typically being more sensitive to small
changes in moisture content. This is evidenced by the steeper gradient of the moisture content/dry density
curves for the more moisture-sensitive materials.
Silty soils have a significant reduction in dry density for relatively small changes in moisture content either
side of OMC. Such soils can be highly moisture sensitive and a significant reduction in strength (CBR) may
also be recorded for small increments in moisture content above the OMC. The use of materials classified
as ‘silt’ in general earthworks (e.g. select and general fill materials) is generally not desirable.
Figure 7.1: Typical moisture content/dry density relationship for a range of soils
Source: VicRoads (1998)

7.6 Bearing Capacity (CBR)
The CBR test (AS 1289.6.1.1) measures the force required to push a piston, of a specified cross-sectional
area, into a prepared surface of the sample of the material (Figure 7.2). The rate and depth of penetration
are both specified. To derive the CBR value from the test, the force required to penetrate the surface of the
sample is rated against the known force required to achieve the same rate and depth penetration of the
piston into a known material of CBR 100. The CBR value is commonly used to characterise the bearing
capacity of broken weathered rock and soil materials used for earthworks applications. The test is restricted
to material with a maximum size no greater than 19 mm and it is commonly specified that material coarser
than 19 mm be discarded from the sample prior to test. When assessing materials of larger maximum size,
due recognition should be taken of the performance history of materials from the same or similar sources.
The CBR value is an indirect measure of shear strength which in turn is dependent on moisture content and
level of compaction. The test is mainly performed in the laboratory on undisturbed or remoulded confined
samples which are soaked for four to ten days; however, it can also be undertaken on a compacted in situ
surface. A surcharge mass is placed on the surface of the compacted specimen prior to soaking to simulate
the confining effect of overlying pavement layers.
Figure 7.2: CBR test equipment
For weathered ripped rock materials, significant particle breakdown may occur during the excavation,
handling and compaction processes which can result in a significant reduction in bearing capacity (CBR
strength). For such materials, it is highly desirable that a trial field section (consisting of representative
material) be placed to fully characterise the breakdown that may occur. CBR test samples are usually then
taken from the roadbed of the trial section.
Alternatively, pre-treatment of the stockpiled material can be carried out prior to the application of the
laboratory CBR test. This pre-treatment takes the form of several cycles (commonly three) of repeated
laboratory compaction. For material subject to breakdown or weathering, such as shales, pre-treatment may
also include artificial weathering, typically by repeated wetting and drying cycles. Care is required in
assessing the potential bearing capacity of such pre-treated materials as it has been shown that material
sampled from the roadbed after compaction, and particularly those that have been ripped and re-rolled, can
record a significantly lower CBR value than for materials which have been subjected to three cycles of
laboratory pre-treatment compaction prior to CBR testing.

7.7 Swell
Swell tests are carried out according to AS 1289.6.1.1 or AS1289.7.1.1. They allow for the characterisation
of the swell potential of a soil under specified conditions of density, moisture content and surcharge. The
allowable swell of select fill material is specified to minimise deformation of the adjacent structural members
or overlying pavement layers. Some ripped and broken, highly-weathered siltstone and mudstone types
have been found to exhibit swells in excess of the specified value and would be considered unsuitable for
select fill material use.
It is common for materials with a high swell potential to swell significantly when compacted at moisture
contents less than the equilibrium level. In these cases some road agencies specify that such materials be
compacted in the field at as close as practicable to the equilibrium moisture level. For expansive materials
which exhibit a significant swell potential specialist geotechnical advice should be sought to determine the
equilibrium moisture level for the site, the swell potential at varying moisture levels and any other treatment
controls that should be implemented.
7.8 Permeability
Permeability tests are commonly used to assess the function of select fill material used as a capping layer
and verge material and, to a lesser extent, for permeable fill. The falling head permeability test apparatus is
shown in Figure 7.3. The permeability characteristics of a material depend upon the grading, plasticity,
density, moisture content and the method of compaction. The pavement design for a project commonly
provides recommendations or requirements for the drainage measures and the permeability of earthworks
materials, both in and beneath the capping layer and adjacent to the pavement in the verge material.
Figure 7.3: Falling head permeability test apparatus

7.9 Rock Durability Tests
Where ripped or otherwise processed rock is to be used as a select fill material, it may be appropriate to
specify a durability test to ensure that the material does not slake or otherwise degrade in the presence of
water. For the selection and specification of rock products for use in an environment subjected to cyclic
wetting and drying, e.g. permeable fill layers, drainage blankets, and bridge spill-through abutment facings,
only rock of sound durability should be used. Source rock classification and material selection are described
in Austroads (2008c) Guide to Pavement Technology: Part 4J – Aggregate and Source Rock.
7.10 Dispersion Tests
Dispersion tests are used to assess the potential for an earthworks material to erode or disperse in the
presence of water. To provide adequate structural performance, materials used in exposed areas of
earthworks should not have a significant potential to slake, disperse and pipe or rill when subjected to
periodic inundation or impinging rainfall. Environmental considerations also require that remedial action be
taken to minimise the potential for water runoff from disturbed and exposed earthworks to deposit sediment
and/or cause turbidity in adjacent drainage lines and waterways.
AS 1289.3.8.1 describes methods used to assess the potential for a soil to slake, disperse or pipe.
7.11 Soil Strength Tests
Other tests may be used to determine shear strength (cohesion and angle of friction) of both earthworks
materials and in situ embankment foundation soils and they may be appropriate to consider in some
circumstances. The following tests may be used to determine these soil parameters:
UCS of compacted materials (AS 5101.4)
compressive strength of a soil (AS 1289.6.4.1 or AS 1289.6.4.2)
shear strength of a soil using a shear box (AS 1289.6.2.2)
effective angle of internal friction at constant volume conditions for granular (coarse grained) materials
(Queensland Department of Main Roads Q181C 2008).
7.12 Chemical Tests
Chemical testing may be specified to test for potentially corrosive fill materials for use adjacent to, or in close
proximity to, concrete or metal structural members or for materials to be chemically stabilised. Such tests
include:
pH value of a soil (AS 1289.4.3.1)
electrical resistivity of sands and granular materials (AS 1289.4.4.1)
soluble salts in soil (conductivity method) (RC 353.09) (VicRoads 1996a)
sulphate content of a natural soil/groundwater (AS 1289.4.2.1)
organic matter content of a soil (AS 1289.4.1.1)
stabilisation tests for potential lime demand (RC 131.01) (VicRoads 2000) and the efficacy and/or dosage
rates of proprietary stabilisation agents.
Soils, rock material and groundwaters may also require testing for salinity, heavy metals, notifiable
chemicals, acidity and other chemical and hydrocarbon contaminants.

References
Austroads 2006, Guide to pavement technology: part 4D: stabilised materials, by B Andrews, AGPT04/06,
Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2007, Guide to pavement technology: part 4: pavement materials, by G Youdale & K Sharp,
AGPT04/07, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2008a, Glossary of Austroads terms, by K Sharp & P Milne, AP-C87/08, Austroads, Sydney,
NSW.
Austroads 2008b, Guide to pavement technology: part 2: pavement structural design, by G Jameson,
AGPT02/08, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2008c, Guide to pavement technology: part 4J: aggregate and source rock, by B Vuong,
G Jameson & B Fielding, AGPT04J/08, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2009a (forthcoming), Guide to pavement technology: part 8: pavement construction, Austroads,
Sydney, NSW
Austroads 2009b (forthcoming), Guide to pavement technology: part 10: subsurface drainage, Austroads,
Sydney, NSW
Barry, IM 1986, The influence of trees and shrubs on pavement loss of shape, technical report no.75, Road
Construction Authority, Kew, VIC.
Emerson, WW 1967, A classification of soil aggregates based on their cohesion in water, Australian Journal
of Soil Research, vol.5, pp.47-57
EPA Victoria 1999, Acid sulphate soil and rock, EPA information bulletin: publication 655, August,
Environment Protection Authority, East Melbourne, VIC.
Loveday, J & Pyle, J 1973, The Emerson dispersion test and its relationship to hydraulic conductivity,
Division of Soils technical paper 15, CSIRO, Melbourne, VIC.
Metcalf, JB 1979, Introductory lecture notes: 1. compaction; 2. principles and application of stabilisation;
3. pavement design, research report ARR 47, Australian Road Research Board, Vermont South, VIC.
(Revised and reprinted 1981.)
Midgley, L 1988, Construction techniques used to improve the performance of pavements constructed on
expansive clays, technical report no.77, Road Construction Authority, Kew, VIC.
Queensland Department of Main Roads 2008, Materials testing manual: test method Q181C: effective angle
of internal friction at constant volume conditions for granular (coarse grained) materials, Department of
Main Roads, Brisbane, QLD.
VicRoads 1996a, Manual of testing: test method RC 353.09: soluble salts in soil (conductivity method),
VicRoads, Kew, VIC.
VicRoads 1996b, Standard specifications for roadworks and bridgeworks (section 702 – subsurface
drainage), VicRoads, Kew, VIC.
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VicRoads, Kew, VIC.
VicRoads 2000, Manual of testing: test method RC 131.01: lime saturation point of roadmaking materials (pH
method), VicRoads, Kew, VIC.
VicRoads 2004, Code of practice 500.20: assignment of CBR (strength) and percent swell to earthworks fill
and pavement materials, VicRoads, Kew, VIC.
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VicRoads, Kew, VIC.
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Standards Australia
AS 1141.52-2008, Methods for sampling and testing aggregates: unconfined cohesion of compacted
pavement materials.
AS 1289.1.1-2001/AMDT 1-2002, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: sampling and
preparation of soils: preparation of disturbed soil samples for testing.
AS 1289.1.4.1-1998, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: sampling and preparation of soils:
selection of sampling or test sites: random number method.
AS 1289.2.2.1-1998, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil moisture content tests:
determination of the total suction of a soil: standard method.
AS 1289.3.1.1-1995, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil classification tests:
determination of the liquid limit of a soil: four point Casagrande method.
AS1289.3.1.2-1995, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil classification tests: determination
of the liquid limit of a soil: one point Casagrande method (subsidiary method).
determination of the plastic limit of a soil: standard method.
AS 1289.3.3.1-1995, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil classification tests: calculation of
the plasticity index of a soil.
determination of the linear shrinkage of a soil: standard method.
determination of the particle size distribution of a soil: standard method of analysis by sieving.
AS 1289.3.8.3-1997/AMDT No. 1-1999, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil classification
tests: dispersion: determination of pinhole dispersion classification of a soil.
AS 1289.3.8.1-2006, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil classification tests: dispersion:
determination of Emerson class number of a soil.
AS 1289.4.1.1-1997, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil chemical tests: determination of
the organic matter content of a soil: normal method.
the sulphate content of a natural soil and the sulphate content of the groundwater: normal method.
the pH value of a soil: electrometric method.
the electrical resistivity of a soil: method for sands and granular materials.
AS 1289.5.1.1-2003, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil compaction and density tests:
determination of the dry density/moisture content relation of a soil using standard compactive effort.
AS 1289.5.4.1-2007, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil compaction and density tests:
compaction control test: dry density ratio, moisture variation and moisture ratio.
AS1289.6.1.1-1998, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil strength and consolidation tests:
determination of the California Bearing Ratio of a soil: standard laboratory method for a remoulded
specimen.

AS 1289.6.1.2-1998, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil strength and consolidation tests:
determination of the California Bearing Ratio of a soil: standard laboratory method for an undisturbed
specimen.
determination of shear strength of a soil: direct shear test using a shear box.
determination of compressive strength of a soil: compressive strength of a specimen tested in undrained
triaxial compression without measurement.
determination of compressive strength of a soil: compressive strength of a saturated specimen tested in
undrained triaxial compression with measurement.
determination of permeability of a soil: falling head method for a remoulded specimen.
AS 1726-1993, Geotechnical site investigations.
AS 4133.4.1-2007, Methods of testing rocks for engineering purposes: rock strength tests: determination of
point load strength index.
AS 4678-2002, Earth-retaining structures.
AS 5101.4-2008, Methods for preparation and testing of stabilized materials: unconfined compressive
strength of compacted materials.

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Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4I:

2. Earthworks Components and their Function ......................................................................................3

3. Required Attributes of Earthworks Materials ......................................................................................5

4. Materials for Specific Applications.....................................................................................................13

5. Stabilisation of Earthworks Materials ................................................................................................24

6. Borrow Pits ...........................................................................................................................................29

7. Material Properties – Assessment and Testing ................................................................................33

Austroads 2009 | page i

7.5 Dry Density/Moisture Content Relation of a Soil ....................................................................................35

Austroads 2009 | page ii

1.1 Guide to Pavement Technology

Austroads 2009 | page 1

1.2 Scope of Part 4I of the Guide to Pavement Technology

The Guide contains brief descriptions of the topics listed below:

Austroads 2009 | page 2

2. Earthworks Components and their Function

2.2 General Requirements of Earthworks Materials

The general requirements of earthworks materials are as follows:

Austroads 2009 | page 3

2.3 Roles and Functions of Fill Materials

Table 2.1: Function of earthworks materials

Material type Function

Source: Adapted from VicRoads (2008b)

Figure 2.1: Terminology – formation construction and earthworks

Austroads 2009 | page 4

3. Required Attributes of Earthworks Materials

3.2 Workability and Cohesion

3.3 Embankment Stability and Settlement

Austroads 2009 | page 5

3.4 Bearing Capacity

Bearing capacity is an important attribute of an earthworks material as it is a primary consideration in the

Austroads 2009 | page 6

Table 3.1: Example CBR values for various soil materials

Plastic sandy clay soils 3-6

* Lower end of each range is applicable to a poorly-drained situation.

3.5 Shrink/Swell Characteristics

Uniformity of compaction is of prime importance in preventing differential or uneven settlement of earthworks

Austroads 2009 | page 7

Source: VicRoads (2008b)

Austroads 2009 | page 8

Table 3.2: Guide to classification of expansive soils

Austroads 2009 | page 9

Austroads 2009 | page 10

Figure 3.2: Permeability ranges of soils and construction materials

Source: Adapted from VicRoads (1998)

3.7 Chemical Reactivity and Contamination

Situations that require the assessment of potential chemical reactivity include:

Austroads 2009 | page 11

3.8 Erosion Potential

Austroads 2009 | page 12

4. Materials for Specific Applications

4.1 Select Fill Material (Capping, Selected or Structural Material)

Figure 4.1: Select fill and verge material at completion of earthworks

Source: VicRoads (2008b)

Austroads 2009 | page 13

Austroads 2009 | page 14

Table 4.1: Indicative dispersivity and erosion potential of soils

Emerson class Dispersivity Erosion potential/use in conservation earthworks

Austroads 2009 | page 15