POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

WHAT IS PROTECTION
IT IS A KIND OF INSURANCE FOR COSTLY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT.
THE COST OF PROTECTION IS SIMILAR TO THE INSURANCE PREMIUM AND WORKS OUT
TO BETWEEN 1 TO 5 PER CENT OF THE COST OF THE PROTECTED EQUIPMENT.

PROTECTION
EXAMPLES:
 A 100 MW GENERATOR MAY COST ABOUT RS 30 CRORES. THE COST OF COMPLETE
PROTECTION WITH PANELS MAY BE 30 LAKHS (i.e. ABOUT 1 PER CENT).
 A 150 MVA POWER TRANSFORMER MAY COST ABOUT RS. 2.0 CRORES. THE COST
OF PROTECTION WILL BE AROUND RS. 10 LAKHS (5 PER CENT).

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF PROTECTION

SENSITIVITY
SELECTIVITY (DISCRIMINATION & STABILITY)
SPEED OF OPERATION
RELIABILITY

ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
AUXILIARY SUPPLIES (AC or DC)
CIRCUIT BREAKERS

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
APPLICABLE INDIAN STANDARDS – IS 2705 BAR PRIMARY AND WOUND PRIMARY
 METERING CURRENT TRANSFORMER
 PROTECTIVE CURRENT TRANSFORMER

METERING CT
ACCURACY FROM 10 TO 125% RATED CURRENT
CLASSES OF ACCURACY – 0.1, 0.5, 1.0 & 1.5

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PROTECTIVE CT
ACCURACY IMPORTANT FROM 100% RATED CURRENT UPTO ACCURACY LIMIT FACTOR
WHICH CAN BE 5, 10, 15 OR 20

CLASSES OF ACCURACY – 5P, 10P & 15P

USUALLY SPECIFIED AS:
 RATED VA BURDEN
 CLASS OF ACCURACY
 ACCURACY LIMIT OR SATURATION FACTOR (ALF)
e.g. 15VA, 5P10 OR 20VA, 15P5 OR 30VA, 10P15

SPECIAL PURPOSE CTs

(FOR REF, DIFFERENTIAL, AND DISTANCE PROTECTION. ETC)
CLASS – PS
SPECIFIED AS FOLLOWS:
 LOW REACTANCE TYPE
 TURNS RATIO ERROR
 Vk = KNEE POINT VOLTAGE = X.If (Rct + Y)
 Im = MAGNETISING CURRENT < Z MILLIAMPS AT CERTAIN PERCENTAGE OF Vk.
Here, X=Transient Factor
If=CT sec eq. of max. Fault current
Rct= CT sec winding resistanc
Y= maximum secondary lead resistance

KNEE POINT VOLTAGE:

THAT POINT ON THE MAGNETISATION CURVE AT WHICH A 10% INCREASE IN VOLTAGE
RESULTS IN A 50% INCREASE IN CURRENT.

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS:
 ELECTRO MAGNETIC TYPE (FOR BUS VTs)
 CAPACITOR TYPE (FOR LINE VTs)

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USUALLY DUAL PURPOSE i.e. SUITABLE FOR BOTH METERING AND PROTECTION.
 FOR METERING, ACCURACY IS IMPORTANT BETWEEN 0.9 TO 1.1 TIMES RATED
PRIMARY VOLTAGE, WITH 0.25 TO 1.0 TIMES RATED BURDEN.
 FOR PROTECTION ACCURACY IS IMPORTANT BETWEEN 0.05 TO 0.9 TIMES RATED
PRIMARY VOLTAGE AND FROM 1.1 TO Vf TIMES RATED PRIMARY VOLTAGE, AT 0.25
TO 1.0 TIMES RATED BURDEN.
 Vf IS 1.1 FOR SOLIDLY EARTHED SYSTEMS AND 1.9 FOR INSULATED SYSTEMS (FOR 30
SECONDS OR 8 HOURS)
 CLASSES OF ACCURACY – 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 & 5.0 FOR METERING
 CLASSES OF ACCURACY - 3 & 5 FOR PROTECTION.

AUXILIARY SUPPLY FOR RELAYS:

 24, 36, 48, 110, 220 & 250 V DC
 110, 230 / 240 & 415 V AC, 50 Hz.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
 THE CONTACT OF THE PROTECTION RELAYS OPERATES ON THE TRIP COIL OF THE
CIRCUIT BREAKER EITHER DIRECTLY OR THROUGH HIGH SPEED TRIPPING RELAYS.
 FOR EHV CIRCUIT BREAKERS GENERALLY TWO TRIP COILS ARE PROVIDED.
 THE TRIP COILS OPERATE ON ONE OF THE AUXILIARY SUPPLIES NOTED ABOVE.

PROTECTION FUNDAMENTALS
CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS BASED ON THE PRINCIPLES OF OPERATING MOVEMENT:
ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS:
 ATTRACTED ARMATURE OR HINGED ARMATURE RELAYS
 INDUCTION DISC RELAYS
 INDUCTION CUP/VANE RELAYS
 POLARISED MAGNET RELAYS
 MOVING COIL RELAYS
 THERMAL RELAYS (BI-METALLIC TYPE)
 THERMAL RELAYS (HEAT SINK TYPE)
 MECHANICAL RELAYS (BUCHHOLZ RELAY)

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ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS:
 REED RELAYS
STATIC RELAYS:
 RELAYS USING ANALOGUE TECHNIQUES (COMPARATORS, LEVEL DETECTORS, ETC)
 RELAYS USING DIGITAL TECHNIQUES (MICROPROCESSORS, ICs ETC)

NOTE:
WE MUST UNDERSTAND THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ELECTROMECHANICAL AND
ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS. IN THE FORMER, THERE IS ALWAYS A MECHANICAL
LINKAGE BETWEEN THE OPERATING MOVEMENT AND THE CONTACT ASSEMBLY,
WHEREAS IN THE LATTER, THE CONTACTS CLOSE DUE TO IONIZATION BROUGHT
ABOUT BY MAGNETISATION OF THE RELAY.

CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS BASED ON THE OPERATING PARAMETER

 CURRENT OPERATED RELAYS (OVER CURRENT, UNDER CURRENT)
 VOLTAGE OPERATED RELAYS ( OVER VOLTAGE, UNDER VOLTAGE)
 POWER RELAYS ( OVER POWER, UNDER POWER, REVERSE POWER)
 POWER FACTOR RELAYS (POWER FACTOR, RKVA ETC)
 FREQUENCY RELAYS ( OVER FREQUENCY, UNDER FREQUENCY, RATE OF CHANGE OF
FREQUENCY)

CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS BASED ON THE OPERATING PARAMETER

 IMPEDANCE RELAYS (OHM, MHO, OFF-SET MHO, REACTANCE ETC) ALSO CALLED
DISTANCE RELAYS.
 DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS (BIASED DIFFERENTIAL, HIGH IMPEDANCE ETC)
 GAS OPERATED RELAYS ( BUCHHOLZ RELAY)
IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT THE PRIMARY OPERATING QUANTITIES ARE CURRENT AND
VOLTAGE IN ALL CASES. HOWEVER, DEPENDING ON THE APPLICATION, RELAYS ARE
CLASSIFIED FURTHER AS POWER RELAYS, FREQUENCY RELAYS ETC; ‘V’ & ‘I’ ARE
INTEGRATED SUITABLY FOR THE APPLICATION.

CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS BASED ON OPERATING ACCURACY

TWO BROAD CLASSIFICATIONS ARE AS FOLLOWS:-
 MEASURING RELAYS

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 ALL OR NOTHING RELAYS (AUXILIARY RELAYS)

MEASURING RELAYS ARE DESIGNED TO HAVE A DEFINED ACCURACY, USUALLY ±5%
(OR LESS) ERROR, WHILE THE AUXILIARY RELAYS, ALSO KNOWN AS ALL –OR –
NOTHING RELAYS, OPERATE OVER A WIDER RANGE.

CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS BASED ON APPLICATION

 DIRECTIONAL / NON DIRECTIONAL OVER CURRENT / EARTH FAULT, UNDER
CURRENT, NEUTRAL UNBALANCE CURRENT (IN CASE OF CAPACITOR BANKS)
RELAYS.
 OVER VOLTAGE, UNDER VOLTAGE, NEUTRAL UNBALANCE VOLTAGE (CAPACITOR
BANK) RELAYS.
 OVER POWER, UNDER POWER, REVERSE POWER, FORWARD POWER RELAYS
 BIASED DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION ( OF GENERATORS, TRANSFORMERS, MOTORS,
BUSBARS ETC)
 HIGH IMPEDANCE RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
(TRANSFORMERS,GENERATORS, MOTORS ETC)
 HIGH IMPEDANCE BUSBAR PROTECTION
 DISTANCE PROTECTION (IMPEDANCE, REACTANCE, MHO, OFF-SET MHO, POLYGONAL
ETC)
 PILOT WIRE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF FEEDERS
 UNDER FREQUENCY, OVER FREQUENCY AND RATE OF CHANGE OF FREQUENCY
RELAYS.
 POWER FACTOR RELAY
 NEGATIVE SEQUENCE CURRENT PROTECTION
 THERMAL OVER LOAD PROTECTION
 ( GENERATORS, TRANSFORMERS, MOTORS)
 OVER EXCITATION PROTECTION FOR TRANSFORMERS (V/F RELAY)
 AUXILIARY RELAYS
 HIGH SPEED TRIPPING RELAYS
 TRIP CIRCUIT SUPERVISION RELAYS
 AUTO RECLOSE RELAYS
 CHECK SYNCHRONISING RELAYS
 DEAD LINE CHARGING RELAYS
 INDICATING/FLAG RELAYS

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 AC/DC SUPERVISION RELAYS

CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS BASED ON TIME OF OPERATION

 INSTANTANEOUS RELAYS (DEFINITION - RELAYS WHICH HAVE NO INTENTIONAL
TIME DELAY ON OPERATION - 5 TO 120 MILLI SECONDS OPERATING TIME)
 HIGH SPEED RELAYS (INSTANTANEOUS RELAYS HAVING AN OPERATING TIME OF 5
TO 30 MILLISECONDS)
 DEFINITE TIME DELAY RELAYS
 INVERSE TIME DELAY RELAYS (DEFINED IN IEC STD)
 STANDARD INVERSE ( 0- 1.3 SECS & 0- 3 SECS)
 VERY INVERSE
 EXTREMELY INVERSE
 LONG TIME RELAY

DESIGN FEATURES OF RELAYS

 MEASURING ELEMENT (INDUCTION DISC, INDUCTION CUP/VANE, ATTRACTED
ARMATURE, STATIC ETC) DESIGNED TO HAVE THE GUARANTEED ACCURACY UNDER
SPECIFIED CONDITIONS.
 OUTPUT CONTACTS
 FOR TRIPPING AND ALARM
 SELF RESET OR HAND-RESET
 ELECTRICALLY SEPARATE (NOT PARALLELED)
 ADEQUATE ‘BREAK’ AND ‘MAKE’ RATING, BOTH FOR AC & DC

OPERATION INDICATOR
 MECHANICAL FLAG, SELF OR HAND RESET, USUALLY HAND RESET
OR
 LED, RESET BY PUSH BUTTON

OUTPUT RELAYS
 MEASURING ELEMENTS USUALLY HAVE LOW CONTACT RATINGS AND LIMITED
NUMBER OF CONTACTS AND HENCE DRIVE A FOLLOWER RELAY, WHICH IS AN
AUXILIARY RELAY HAVING SUFFICIENT No. OF CONTACTS WITH MUCH HIGHER

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CONTACT RATINGS. THE AUXILIARY RELAY ALSO INCORPORATES THE

MECHANICAL FLAG WHICH IS HAND- RESET.
 IN THE CASE OF STATIC RELAYS, THE OUTPUT RELAY IS A HIGH SPEED ‘REED’
RELAY (ELECTROMAGNETIC TYPE) HAVING SUFFICIENT CONTACT RATING. THE
INDICATION IS USUALLY BY MEANS OF LEDs.
 HIGH SPEED TRIPPING RELAYS ARE MULTI-CONTACT, ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE
RELAYS, HAVING AN OPERATING TIME OF 10-20 MILLI SECONDS. THEY CAN HAVE
EITHER SELF RESET OR HAND RESET CONTACTS. THE NUMBER OF CONTACTS
VARIES FROM 4 TO 12, DEPENDING ON THE RELAY DESIGN. RELAYS WITH HAND
RESET CONTACTS ARE PROVIDED WITH A COIL CUT OFF CONTACT, AS THE COILS
ARE USUALLY SHORT TIME RATED.

ZONES OF PROTECTION
 IDEALLY, THE VARIOUS ZONES OF PROTECTION SHOULD OVERLAP ACROSS THE
CIRCUIT BREAKERS AS SHOWN IN FIGURE. SO THAT THERE ARE NO BLIND SPOTS,
ESPECIALLY THOSE WHICH EXIST BETWEEN CTs AND CBs (E.G. POST MOUNTED CTs)
 IF THE CTs ARE MOUNTED ON EITHER SIDE OF THE CIRCUIT BREAKER AS SHOWN
BELOW, OVER LAPPING OF THE ZONES OF PROTECTION IS EASY.

 HOWEVER, IT IS NOT PRACTICAL TO HAVE THIS ARRANGEMENT ESPECIALLY IN HV

& EHV SYSTEMS, WHERE COST CONSIDERATION PLAYS AN IMPORTANT PART.
HENCE, CTs WILL BE ON ONE SIDE OF THE CB AS SHOWN BELOW

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IN THIS CASE, THE FEEDER PROTECTION WILL NOT BE ABLE TO SEE A FAULT AT ‘F’ AND
PROTECTION AT THE FARTHER END WILL HAVE TO BE USED TO ISOLATE THE FAULT.

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UNIT AND NON UNIT TYPES OF PROTECTION

IN ORDER TO OBTAIN ‘SELECTIVITY’ IN THE PROTECTION OF ELECTRICAL POWER
SYSTEMS, IT IS NORMAL PRACTICE TO USE ‘UNIT’ AND ‘NON-UNIT’ TYPES OF
PROTECTION.
 UNIT TYPE OF PROTECTION
 THE ‘UNIT’ PROTECTION, OR ‘RESTRICTED’ PROTECTION RESPONDS ONLY TO FAULT
CONDITIONS LYING WITHIN A CLEARLY DEFINED ZONE. SINCE THIS PROTECTION
DOES NOT OPERATE FOR A FAULT OUTSIDE THE DEFINED ZONE, IT CAN BE FAST IN
OPERATION. THEREFORE, UNIT PROTECTIONS ARE NORMALLY ‘HIGH SPEED’
PROTECTIONS, AND THE OPERATING TIMES CAN BE AS LOW AS 5- 10 MILLISECONDS

EXAMPLES OF UNIT TYPE OF PROTECTION ARE

 BIASED DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OPERATING ON THE MERZ PRICE CIRCULATING
CURRENT PRINCIPLE
 HIGH IMPEDANCE PROTECTION(NON-BIASED)
 CARRIER AIDED DISTANCE SCHEMES
.
GENERALLY, DEDICATED CTs ARE USED FOR UNIT PROTECTION
NON-UNIT TYPE OF PROTECTION:
THIS TYPE OF PROTECTION CAN OPERATE FOR ANY FAULT ANYWHERE IN THE SYSTEM.
TO ENSURE THAT ‘SELECTIVITY’ IS MAINTAINED, THE PROTECTION HAS TO BE
SUITABLY ‘GRADED’. THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF GRADING:-
 CURRENT GRADING
 TIME GRADING
 TIME CURRENT GRADING

IN THE CURRENT GRADING PRINCIPLE, THE OPERATING CURRENT SETTINGS OF THE

RELAYS AT VARIOUS LOCATIONS ARE SO SELECTED THAT THEY OPERATE ONLY FOR
NEAR END FAULTS AND NOT FOR FAULTS DOWN THE SYSTEM. THIS IS POSSIBLE ONLY
IF THERE IS A WIDE VARIATION IN THE LEVELS OF FAULT CURRENTS FOR FAULT AT
VARIOUS POINTS. AS THIS IS NOT GENERALLY THE CASE, CURRENT GRADING IS USED
ONLY ON THE PRIMARY SIDE OF TRANSFORMERS (FAULT LEVEL ON THE SECONDARY
SIDE IS CONSIDERABLY REDUCED BECAUSE OF TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE) AND LONG
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION LINES (WHERE VARIATION IN FAULT LEVELS IN
TWO SUCCESSIVE SECTIONS CAN BE SUBSTANTIAL).

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IN THE TIME GRADING PRINCIPLE, THE OPERATING CURRENT SETTINGS OF THE RELAYS
AT VARIOUS LOCATIONS ARE MORE OR LESS THE SAME (SO THAT THEY PICK-UP FOR
ALL FAULTS), BUT THE FINAL TRIPPING IS DELAYED BY SUITABLE INTERVALS BY
MEANS OF DEFINITE TIME DELAY RELAYS. THIS ENSURES THAT THE RELAY NEAREST
TO FAULT TRIPS FIRST AND ISOLATES THE FAULTY SECTION. IF IT FAILS, THE RELAY IN
THE NEXT PREVIOUS SECTION TAKES OVER AND SO ON. ONCE THE FAULT IS CLEARED,
ALL THE CURRENT RELAYS RESET (THESE RELAYS ARE USUALLY DESIGNED TO HAVE
HIGH DROP-OFF / PICK-UP RATIO), TIME GRADING IS OBTAINED GENERALLY BY
DEFINITE TIME DELAY RELAYS BUT IT IS ALSO POSSIBLE TO USE INVERSE TIME
RELAYS.

NON-UNIT TYPE OF PROTECTION:

FINALLY, IN THE TIME-CURRENT GRADED SYSTEMS, BOTH THE CURRENT SETTING AND
THE OPERATING TIME OF THE RELAYS AT VARIOUS LOCATIONS ARE SUITABLY VARIED
SO THAT THERE IS SELECTIVE TRIPPING FOR FAULTS IN THE SYSTEM. TIME-CURRENT
GRADING IS USUALLY OBTAINED BY USING INVERSE TIME RELAYS AND SOMETIMES
DEFINITE TIME RELAYS

EVOLUTION IN THE FIELD OF POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION DURING THE LAST 70 /

80 YEARS
 PLUNGER TYPE PNEUMATIC RELAYS
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS
 INDUCTION DISC
 INDUCTION CUP
 INDUCTION VANE
 ATTRACTED ARMATURE OR HINGED ARMATURE
 POLARISED MAGNET
 MOVING COIL
 BI-METALLIC
 STATIC / ELECTRONIC RELAYS
 SOFTWARE BASED (MICROPROCESSOR BASED) RELAYS
 NUMERICAL RELAYS

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STATIC RELAYS
 POWER SYSTEM RELAYS - DESIGN BASED ON ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS.
 IS 8686 DEFINITION - “A PROTECTIVE RELAY IN WHICH THE DESIGNATED RESPONSE
IS DEVELOPED BY ELECTRONIC, MAGNETIC OR OTHER COMPONENTS WITHOUT
MECHANICAL MOTION”.
 FIELD OF ELECTRONICS - LARGELY COMPRISES PROCESSING OF ELECTRICAL
SIGNALS FOR A DESIRED FUNCTIONAL OUTPUT.
 ELECTRICAL SIGNALS - FROM CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND POTENTIAL
TRANSFORMERS.
 PROCESSING CIRCUITS - AMPLIFIERS, COMPARATORS, PHASE SHIFTING NETWORKS,
FILTERS ETC
 SIGNALS IN ANALOG FORM DO NOT UNDERGO ANY CHANGE IN FORM.
 SETTINGS OF OPERATING VALUE, OPERATING TIME, CHARACTERISTIC CURVE ETC.
WILL BE WITH POTENTIOMETERS (VARIABLE RESISTOR) OR FIXED RESISTOR
SELECTED BY DIP SWITCHES OR THUMB WHEEL SWITCHES (DIGITAL SWITCHES).
 SETTINGS ARE OBTAINED BY HAVING TAPS ON THE BUILT-IN INSTRUMENT
TRANSFORMERS, CAUSING RELAY BURDENS TO VARY.

PROCESSOR RELAYS
 AGAIN ELECTRONIC RELAYS.
 SIGNALS FROM CT’S AND PT’S ARE CONVERTED TO DIGITAL SIGNALS (O’s AND I’s).
 PROCESSING DONE BY THE DEVICE CALLED ‘MICROPROCESSOR’ OR
‘MICROCONTROLLER’.
 TECHNIQUE COMPRISES OF STORING THE DIGITAL SIGNALS IN A CIRCUIT BLOCK
CALLED “REGISTER” AND CARRYING OUT THE SIGNAL PROCESSING BY A SERIES OF
INSTRUCTIONS (LOGICAL & ARITHMETIC).
 TECHNIQUE POPULARLY CALLED BY THE NAME “SOFTWARE” (LOW LEVEL AND
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES).
 SETTINGS BY DIP SWITCHES AS IN STATIC RELAYS.
 SIGNALS CONVERTED FROM ANALOG TO DIGITAL FORM (O’s AND I’s).
 WORD LENGTH OF 8, 16 OR 32 BITS FORM THE SIGNAL INFORMATION.
 TECHNIQUE PROVIDES SUPERIOR PERFORMANCE AND FLEXIBILITY.
 SETTINGS OBTAINED WITHOUT TAPS ON INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS - MAKES
BURDEN CONSTANT AT ALL SETTINGS.

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NUMERICAL RELAYS
 TECHNIQUE OF PROCESSING THE SIGNALS WOULD REMAIN SAME AS IN PROCESSOR
RELAYS i.e., CONVERTING THE ANALOG SIGNALS TO DIGITAL AND PROCESSING BY A
SOFTWARE.
 FEATURES ENHANCED BY HAVING THE SETTINGS DISPLAYED ON A SMALL LCD
SCREEN – SIMILAR TO THAT OF CALCULATOR OR DIGITAL POCKET DIARY.
 SETTING DONE BY PUSH BUTTONS AND READ DIRECTLY ON THE SCREEN.
 AVOIDS MANUAL COMPUTATION AS WOULD BE REQUIRED WHEN DONE BY DIP
SWITCHES.
 DIGITAL SIGNALS STORED IN ANOTHER DEVICE TERMED “MEMORY”.
 HELPS IN RECORD OF FAULT LEVEL FOR RETRIEVAL AND ANALYSIS.
 SIGNALS CONVERTED TO A FORM (RS 232) SUITABLE FOR COMMUNICATING WITH
PCs.
 FACILITATES IN MAKING THE SETTINGS FROM A REMOTE LOCATION SUCH AS A
CENTRALISED CONSOLE.
 HELPS IN OBTAINING ALL THE DATA ON A PC FOR FURTHER PROCESSING.

ADVANTAGES OF SOFTWARE BASED RELAYS

 DIFFERENT CHARCTERISTICS CAN BE PROGRAMMED IN ONE RELAY ENABLING
SELECTION OF THE REQUIRED CHARCTERISTIC AT SITE.
 VERY WIDE SETTINGS RANGES CANBE PROVIDED IN A SINGLE RELAY WITH MUCH
BETTER RESOLUTION (STEPS) AS COMPARED TO ELECTROMECHANICAL / STATIC
RELAYS.
 VERY HIGH PERFORMANCE ACCURACY (OPERATING ERRORS CAN GENERALLY BE
LIMITED TO 1 OR 2%).
 EXTREMELY LOW BURDENS.
 MAINTENANCE FREE.
 VERY GOOD RELIABILITY.
 VERY MUCH SMALLER IN SIZE AS COMPARED TO ELECTROMECHANICAL & STATIC
RELAYS.
 LESS WEIGHT.

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SALIENT FEATURES OF PROCESSOR BASED RELAYS

 SETTING ADJUSTMENT BY DIP SWITCHES - EXCELLENT REPEAT ACCURACY.
 AN INDICATION BY LEDs - USE OF SUPER BRIGHT AND DIFFERENT COLOURED LEDs
ENABLES EASY READING.
 SELF CHECK FEATURE - CONTINUOUS INDICATION OF HEALTHINESS OF THE RELAY
CIRCUITS.
 PUSH BUTTONS FOR RESETTING LEDs, ENTERING SETTINGS AND CARRYING OUT
TRIP AND INDICATION TESTS.

FEATURES OF NUMERICAL RELAYS

 SETTING ADJUSTMENT BY SOFT TOUCH KEY BOARD - MAN MACHINE
COMMUNICATION (MMC).
 ALTERNATIVELY SETTINGS ARE SELETED THROUGH PC USING SERIAL
COMMUNICATION PORT.
 INDICATIONS BY LEDs.
 LCD SCREEN GIVES DETAILS OF SETTINGS, SYSTEM PARAMETERS, DETAILS OF
RELAY OPERATION ON FAULTS ETC. INTHIS CASE, LEDs ARE NOT USED FOR
INDICATION.
 SERIAL COMMUNICATION PORT ALLOWS RELAY TO BE CONNECTED TO REMOTE
TERMINALS COMPRISING LOCAL TELEPHONE OR LOCAL PC.
 THE CONNECTION BETWEEN RELAY AND REMOTE TERMINAL CAN BE BY MEANS OF
OPTICAL PLASTIC FIBRE OR OPTICAL GLASS FIBRE.
 SELF SUPERVISION FEATURE
.
NEW TESTS PRESCRIBED FOR SOFTWARE BASED / NUMERICAL RELAYS
1 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC), EMISSION TESTS

TEST TYPE TEST REFERENCE

VALUES STANDARDS
1 MHZ BURST 2,5 KV IEC 60255-22-1, CLASS
DISTURBANCE III
ELECTROSTATIC 8KV IEC 60255-22-2, CLASS
DISCHARGE III
FAST TRANSIENT 4 KV IEC 60255-22-4, CLASS
DISTURBANCE IV

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SURGE IMMUNITY 2-4 KV,1,2/50 µS, IEC 61000- 4-5, CLASS

TEST IV
HIGH ENERGY
RADIATED 10 V/m, 26-1000 EN 61000- 4- 3, LEVEL3
ELECTROMAGNETIC MHz
FIELD DISTURBANCE
CONDUCTED 10 V/m,0,15-80MHz EN 61000 – 4 -6,
ELECTROMAGNETIC LEVEL3
FIELD DISTURBANCE

2 INSULATION TESTS
TEST TYPE TEST VALUES REFERENCE
STANDARDS

ELECTROMAGNETIC 30-1000 MHZ, CLASS A EN 55011

EMISSION
RADIATED

ELECTROMAGNETIC 0.15-30 MHZ, CLASS A EN 55081 - 2

EMISSION
CONDUCTED

3. INSULATION TESTS
TEST TYPE TEST VALUES REFERENCE
STANDARDS

DIELECTRIC TEST 2.0 KV ac 1 min IEC 60255-5

ALL CIRCUITS, TO
EARTH AND OTHER
CIRCUITS
IMPULSE VOLTAGE 5 KV,1.2/50 µS, 0.5 J IEC 60255-5
TEST
INSULATION >100 Mohm AT 500 V dc IEC 60255-5
RESISTANCE

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4. MECHANICAL TESTS
TEST TYPE TEST REFERENCE
VALUES SSTANDARDS

VIBRATION CLASS 1 IEC 60255 – 21 – 1

SHOCK AND BUMP CLASS 1 IEC 60255 – 21 - 1

SEISMIC CLASS 1 IEC 60255 – 21 - 3

FAULT CALCULATIONS
COMPLEX QUANTITY REPRESENTATION:
 CONVENTIONAL Z
 RECTANGULAR x + jy
 TRIGNOMETRIC Z (Cos + jsin)
 EXPONENTIAL Z e^j

CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
 RESISTANCE: R
 REACTANC: X – INDUCTIVE / CAPACITIVE
 IMPEDANCE : Z

PER UNIT OPERATION

 BASE IMPEDANCE IN OHMS, Zb = (KV)^2
MVA
 Zpu = Zb(OHMS) x BASE MVA
(BASE KV)^2
 Z% = Zpu x 100

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 Zpu (NEW BASE MVA)

= Zpu (GIVEN BASE MVA) x NEW BASE MVA
GIVEN BASE MVA
Zpu (NEW BASE KV)
= Zpu (GIVEN BASE KV) x (GIVEN BASE KV)^2
(NEW BASE KV)^2

NO LOAD VOLTAGE 145KV

TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE 132KV

G1/G2  66.6 MVA, 11kV Xd  15%

T1/T2  75 MVA, 11/145KV XT  12.5%

CHOOSE BASE MVA= 100, BASE KV = 132

GENERARTOR IMPEDANCE ON 100 MVA BASE
Xd ² = 0.15 x 100
66.6
= 0.225 pu
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE ON 100MVA BASE
XT = 0.125 x 100 = 0.167 p.u
75

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IMPEDANCE OF ONE GENERATOR AND TRANSF

Xd ²+ XT =0.225 + 0.167 = 0.392
IMPEDANCE OF TWO GENERATORS AND TRANSFORMERS IN PARALLEL
Xd ²+ XT = 0.392 =0.196 p.u
2 2
145KV FAULT LEVEL = 100 = 510 MVA
0.196
(FOR TWO UNITS IN PARALLEL ON 100 MVA BASE.)

SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS METHOD

ANY UNBALANCED SYSTEM CAN BE REPRESENTED BY THE SUM OF BALANCED +VE / -
VE SEQUENCE COMPONENT AND A ZERO SEQUENCE COMPONENT.

THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF FAULT

 SINGLE PHASE TO EARTH
 THREE PHASE
 DOUBLE PHASE
 DOUBLE PHASE TO EARTH
 THE FIRST TWO ARE MOST COMMONLY CONSIDERED FOR ANALYSIS ISE =
V/Z1+Z2+Z0
 ITP = V/Z1
 THE NETWORK CAN BE REPRESENTED AS +VE SEQUENCE, -VE SEQUENCE & ZERO
SEQUENCE NETWORKS. THE EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE Z1, Z2 & Z0 ARE
CALCULATED & THE SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENTS ARRIVED AT.

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

RECOMMENDED PROTECTIONS FOR VARIOUS EQUIPMENT:

GENERATOR PROTECTION:
i. DIFFERENTIAL
ii. STATOR EARTH FAULT (95% & 100&)
iii. INTER-TURN FAULT
iv. ROTOR EARTH FAULT(2 STAGE)
v. FIELD FAILURE
vi. NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE
vii. POLE SLIPPING
viii. OVER FREQUENCY / OVER SPEED
ix. OVER VOLTAGE
x. REVERSE OR FORWARD POWER
xi. OVER LOAD (THERMAL)
xii. IMPEDANCE / OVERCURRENT BACK-UP PROTECTION
 (i) TO (iv) TAKE CARE OF INSULATION FAILURES.
 (v) TO (xii) TAKE CARE OF ABNORMAL RUNNING CONDITIONS.

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
DEPENDING ON THE CAPACITY OF TRANSFORMER (50 KVA OR 150 MVA), THE
FOLLOWING PROTECTIONS ARE PROVIDED.
 BUCHHOLZ
 DIFFERENTIAL
 REF (RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT)
 OVER FLUXING (V/F)
 BACKUP OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT WITH INSTANTANEOUS HIGH SET ON
THE HV SIDE
 BACKUP OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT WITH INSTANTANEOUS HIGHSET ON
THE LV SIDE
 OIL TEMPERATURE, WINDING TEMPERATURE & OIL SURGE
 THERMAL OVERLOAD

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

BUCHHOLZ RELAYS ARE NOT NORMALLY PROVIDED ON DISTRIBUTION

TRANSFORMERS OF RATING UPTO 1MVA.
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION IS RECOMMENDED FOR TRANSFORMERS HAVING A RATING
UPTO 0.75 MVA OR MORE.
THE DIFFENTIAL RELAY SHOULD PREFERABLY HAVE SECOND HARMONIC RESTRAINT
FEATURE SO THAT IT REMAINS STABLE ON MAGNETISING IN RUSH CURRENTS WHICH
CONTAIN VERY HIGH PERCENTAGE OF SECOND HARMONICS. IT SHOULD ALSO HAVE
FIFTH HARMONIC RESTRAINT FEATURE SO THAT IT REMAINS STABLE ON OVER
VOLTAGE IN RUSH CURRENTS WHICH CONTAIN A HIGH PERFORMANCE OF FIFTH
HARMONIC.

THE TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL RELAY SHOULD HAVE ADJUSTABLE BIAS (SLOPE)

CHARACTERISTICS SO THAT IT CAN BE ADJUSTED TO REMAIN STABLE ON MISMATCH IN
THE CIRCULATING CURRENTS DUE TO THE TAP CHANGE RANGE AVAILABLE ON THE
TRANSFORMERS.
SOME OF THE MODERN TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS ARE DESIGNED ON THE
PRINCIPLE OF WAVE SHAPE MEASUREMENTS SO THA THEY REMAIN STABLE UNDER
MAGNETISING AND OVER VOLTAGE IN RUSH CONDITIONS WITHOUT HAVING ANY
HARMONIC RESTRAINT FEATURE.
THE OPERATING TIMES OF TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS ARE GENERALLY OF
THE ORDER OF 20 TO 30 MILLISECONDS.

RESTRICTED EATRH FAULT PROTECTION:

THIS IS THE MOST SENSITIVE PROTECTION AVAILABLE FOR THE POWER TRANSFORMER
WINDINGS. IT IS PREFERABLE TO PROVIDE DEDICATED CTs FOR THIS PROTECTION AS IT
WORKS ON THE “HIGH IMPEDANCE” PRINCIPLE. IN THE CASE OF STAR WINDINGS, 4 CTs
OF IDENTICAL RATIO AND CHARCTERISTICS ARE REQUIRED, 3 CT s IN THE PHASE AND 1
IN THE NEUTRAL. IN THE CASE OF DELTA WINDING, 3 CTs IN THE PHASES ARE USED
AND THE REF RELAY IS CONNECTED IN THE RESIDUAL CIRCUIT. IT AUTOMATICALLY
PROVIDES REF PROTECTION FOR DELTA WINDING.

OVER FLUXING PROTECTION

IT IS BASICALLY A RELAY WHICH MEASURES V/F OF THE TRANSFORMERS. AS MODERN
POWER TRANSFORMERS ARE DESIGNED TO OPERATE AT VERY NEAR SATURATION
FLUX LEVELS UNDER NORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS, ANY INCREASE IN THE
VOLTAGE OR DECREASE IN THE FREQUENCY, RESULTS IN THE SATURATION OF THE
CORE AND THE ADDITIONAL FLUX TRIES TO FIND ITS FAULT THROUGH CORE BOLTS
DAMAGING THE CORE BOLT INSULATION. TO PREVENT THIS, OVER FLUXING RELAY IS
USED. IT IS NORMALLY A TWO STAGE RELAY, WITH THE FIRST STAGE SET FOR ALARM
AND THE SECOND STAGE FOR TRIP.

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT OVER VOLTAGE CONDITIONS SHOULD BE REFERRED ONLY

TO THE OVER FLUXING RELAY AND THE TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL RELAY SHOULD
NOT OPERATE. HOWEVER, IF THE OVER VOLTAGE IS OF A VERY HIGH LEVEL, THE
TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL RELAY IS ARRANGED TO TRIP INSTANTANEOUSLY (SAY
ABOUT 140% OF OVER VOLTAGE). THIS IS ACHIEVED BY ELIMINATING THE FIFTH
HARMONIC RESTRAINT AT THIS VOLTAGE LEVEL. IN ANY CASE, IT IS FOUND THAT AT
HIGHER VOLTAGES, THE FIFTH HARMONIC CONTENT IN THE IN RUSH CURRENTS
COMES DOWN DRASTICALLY.

BACK-UP OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

FOR THE HV SIDE OF POWER AND DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS, INVERSE TIME OVER
CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT RELAYS WITH INSTANTANEOUS HIGHSET FEATURE ARE
PROVIDED FOR BACK-UP PROTECTION. THESE RELAYS SERVE AS BACK-UP TO
TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL RELAY AND RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT RELAY FOR
INTERNAL FAULTS AND AS BACK-UP TO INVERSE TIME OVER CURRENT AND EARTH
FAULT RELAYS ON THE LV SIDE FOR FAULTS ON THE LV SYSTEMS.

THE INSTANTANEOUS HIGHSET ELEMENTS ARE USUALLY SET IN SUCH A WAY THAT
THEY DO NOT OPERATE FOR FAULTS ON THE LV SIDE OF THE TRANSFORMER, WHEREAS
ALL FAULTS ON THE HV SIDE ARE CLEARED INSTANTANEOUSLY BY THESE RELAYS.
INVERSE TIME OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT RELAYS ARE PROVIDED ON THE LV
SIDE OF THE TRANSFORMERS TO SERVE AS BACK-UP FOR FAULTS DOWN THE LINE ON
LV FEEDERS AS WELL AS ON BUSBARS.
WHEN TWO TRANSFORMERS ARE IN PARALLEL ON THE LV SIDE, IT IS NORMAL
PRACTICE TO PROVIDE DIRECTIONAL OVER CURRENT & EARTH FAULT RELAYS,
LOOKING TOWARDS THE TRANSFORMERS. THESE RELAYS ALSO SERVE AS BACK-UP
FOR INTERNAL FAULTS TO THE TRANSFORMERS.

OIL TEMPERATURE, WINDING TEMPERATURE AND OIL SURGE PROTECTION

 THESE ARE USUALLY INBUILT IN ANY TRANSFORMER AND CONTACTS OF THESE
PROTECTIONS ARE MADE AVAILABLE FOR ENERGISING AUXILIARY RELAYS ON THE
CONTROL & RELAY PANEL TO GIVE ALARM. IT IS NORMAL PRACTICE TO PROVIDE
BUCHHOLZ ALARM AND TRIP, WINDING TEMPERATURE ALARM & TRIP AND OIL
TEMPERATURE ALARM & TRIP.

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

THERMAL OVERLOAD
 THERMAL OVERLOAD RELAYS CAN BE PROVIDED TO MONITOR THE OVERLOAD
CONDITIONS ON THE TRANSFORMERS. THE NORMAL INVERSE TIME RELAYS ARE
UNABLE TO PROVIDE EFFECTIVE OVERLOAD PROTECTION BECAUSE THEIR
MINIMUM PICK-UP VALUE IS AROUND 110% TO 120% OF THE SETTING. THERMAL
OVERLOAD RELAYS FOR TRANSFORMERS HAVE TO DESIGNED WITH LARGE TIME
CONSTANTS SUCH AS 120. SOMETIMES, SIMPLE DEFINITE TIME OVER CURRENT
RELAYS HAVING A HIGH DROP-OFF / PICK-UP RATIO ARE USED FOR OVERLOAD
PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS. THESE RELAYS DO NOT CATER FOR THE ACTUAL
OVERLOAD CAPACITY OF THE TRANSFORMERS AS IS DONE BY THE THERMAL
OVERLOAD RELAYS.

BUS BAR PROTECTION:

HIGH IMPEDANCE TYPE (REQUIRES DEDICATED CTs WITH IDENTICAL RATIOS AND
CHARACTERISTICS)
LOW OR MEDIUM IMPEDANCE TYPE (CT REQUIREMENTS ARE LESS STRINGENT)

BUS BAR ARRANGEMENTS:

 SINGLE BUS
 SINGLE BUS WITH SECTIONALISER (EITHER SWITCH OR CIRCUIT BREAKER)
 DOUBLE BUS
 MAIN AND TRANSFER
 MAIN AND RESERVE
 THREE BUS
 MAIN I, MAIN II AND TRANSFER
 MESH BUSBAR WITH 1 1/2 BREAKER

LOCAL BREAKER BACK-UP PROTECTION:

 THIS IS PROVIDED TO TAKE CARE OF STUCK BREAKER CONDITIONS.
 IT IS GENERALLY A 3 PHASE OVER CURRENT RELAY HAVING A FAST RESET TIME
WHICH IS VERY IMPORTANT.
 IT IS GENERALLY ARRANGED TO TRIP ALL THE BREAKERS FEEDING INTO THE
FAULT THROUGH BUSBAR PROTECTION TRIPPING RELAYS.

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

LINE PROTECTION:
 MAIN I – DISTANCE PROTECTION (3 ZONE / 4 ZONE)
 MAIN II – DISTANCE PROTECTION (3 ZONE / 4 ZONE) OR PHASE COMPARISON
CARRIER CURRENT PROTECTION OR WAVE DETECTION PROTECTION.
 BACK-UP DIRECTIONAL O/C & E/F PROTECTION (DEFINITE TIME OR INVERSE TIME).
 CHECK SYNCHRONISING / DEAD LINE CHARGING.
 1/3 PHASE AUTO RECLOSING.
 OVER VOLTAGE.
 DISTANCE TO FAULT LOCATOR.

APPLICATION ASPECT OF DISTANCE PROTN.:

 LINE LENGTH (SHORT LINES AS WELL AS LONG LINES)
 SERIES COMPENSATION IN CASE OF VERY LONG LINES, ESPECIALLY AT 400 Kv.
 EARTH FAULT COMPENSATION FACTOR (THIS DEPENDS ON THE Z0 / Z1 RATIO OF THE
LINE.
 CAREER DISTANCE PROTECTION (PERMISSIVE UNDER REACH / PERMISSIVE OVER
REACH – CAREER INTER TRIPPING / CAREER BLOCKING ; ZONE EXTENSION
ASSOCIATED WITH AUTO RECLOSING)
 SINGLE AND THREE PHASE AUTO RECLOSING (IMPORTANCE OF CHECK
SYNCHRONISING AND DEAD LINE CHARGING)

REQUIREMENTS OF DISTANCE TO FAULT LOCATOR:

PREFERABLY OF THE REACTANCE MEASURING TYPE SO THAT ERRORS DUE TO FAULT
ARC RESISTANCE / EARTH LOOP RESISTANCE ETC. CAN BE ELIMINATED.

SHUNT REACTOR PROTECTION:

 SHUNT REACTORS ARE GENERALLY USED IN EHV SUB-STATIONS TO COMPENSATE
FOR THE SHUNT CAPACITANCE OF LONG TRANSMISSION LINES.
 THE RATINGS OF THE SHUNT REACTORS ARE FAIRLY HIGH AND THEREFORE THEY
HAVE TO BE PROVIDED WITH EFFECTIVE PROTECTION (AROUND 50 MVAR).
 THE PROTECTION PROVIDED FOR REACTORS IS GENERALLY THE SAME AS THAT FOR
POWER TRANSFORMER.
 SHUNT REACTORS ARE CONNECTED EITHER TO THE TRANSMISSION LINE OR TO THE
BUS-BARS.

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

MOTOR PROTECTION
 THERMAL OVERLOAD
 INSTANTANEOUS SHORT CIRCUIT
 INSTANTANEOUS EARTH FAULT
 SINGLE PHASING
 LOCKED ROTOR PROTECTION
 NUMBER OF HOT STARTS PER HOUR
 UNBALANCED LOAD (NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE PROTECTION)

GENERALLY, COMPOSITE MOTOR PROTECTION RELAYS ARE AVAILABLE. THESE

INCORPORATE THERMAL OVERLOAD, INSTANTANEOUS SHORT CIRCUIT,
INSTANTANEOUS EARTH FAULT, LOCKED ROTOR PROTECTION AND SINGLE PHASING
PROTECTION
IN THE APPLICATION OF MOTOR PROTECTION RELAYS, WE HAVE TO CONSIDER THE
MOTOR STARTING TIMES AND MOTOR STARTING CURRENTS (ESPECIALLY IN THE CASE
OF DIRECT ON-LINE STARTING). WE HAVE TO ALSO CONSIDER THE LOCKED ROTOR
WITHSTAND TIMES UNDER BOTH HOT AND COLD CONDITIONS.

IF THIS WITHSTAND TIME IS LESS THAN THE MOTOR STARTING TIME, IT BECOMES
NECESSARY TO PROVIDE SEPARATE LOCKED ROTOR PROTECTION COUPLED WITH A
CENTRIFUGAL SWITCH OPERATED BY THE ROTOR OR THE MOTOR.
WITH SOFTWARE BASED RELAYS, IT IS PPOSSIBLE TO GIVE A ‘BLOCK ON START’
FEATURE WHICH WILL TAKE CARE OF THE ABOVE CONDITION WITHOUT USING
CENTRIFUGAL SWITCH.

FEEDER PROTECTION
FOR LT FEEDERS, IF AIR CIRCUIT BREAKERS ARE PROVIDED FOR CONTROLLING THEM,
INVERSE DEFINTE MINIMUM TIME LAG (IDMTL) OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT
RELAYS ARE USED.
IF THE PROTECTION AT THE BACK OF THESE FEEDERS IS PROVIDED BY MEANS OF HRC
(HIGH RUPTURING CAPACITY) FUSES, IT IS PREFERABLE TO USE EXTREMELY INVERSE
TIME CHARACTERISTICS ON THE RELAYS SO THAT THEY CAN GRADE WITH THESE
FUSES.

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

FOR MEDIUM VOLTAGE FEEDERS, IT IS NORMAL PRACTICE TO USE IDTML OVER

CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT RELAYS HAVING EITHER THE STANDARD 3 SECONDS OR
THE STANDARD 1.3 SECONDS CHARACTERISTICS. SOMETIMES, VERY INVERSE
CHARACTERISTICS IS ALSO USED.

IF THE FEEDERS ARE QUITE LONG, AND IF THERE IS CONSIDERABLE DISTANCE

BETWEEN FAULT CURRENTS FOR FAULTS CLOSE TO THE SENDING END AND FAULTS AT
THE FAR END, THE INVERSE TIME RELAYS CAN BE PROVIDED WITH INSTANTANEOUS
HIGHSET FEATURE SO THAT THE HIGHSET CAN BE SET TO PICKUP FOR CLOSE UP
FAULTS AND TRIP THE BREAKERS INSTANTANEOUSLY. FOR FAR END FAULTS, THE
INVERSE TIME FEATURE TAKES OVER AND ALLOWS THE RELAY TO GRADE WITH
OTHER PROTECTIONS DOWN THE LINE.

AUTO RECLOSE RELAY:

ON SOME OF THE DISTRIBUTION FEEDERS,MULTI SHOT AUTO RECLOSING RELAYS ARE
USED IN SERIES WITH INVERSE TIME RELAYS.USUALLY, UPTO FOUR AUTO RECLOSE
SHOTS ARE USED. IN MANY CASES, TWO SHOT AUTO RECLOSING RELAYS ARE USED.
THE DEAD TIMES OF THESE AUTO RECLOSE RELAYS ARE GENERALLY SET HIGH (DEAD
TIME RANGE BEING 0 TO 60 SECONDS) SO THAT THE POSSIBILITY OF THE FAULT BEING
DESTROYED BY REPETITIVE RECLOSING OF THE LINE IS BETTER.

WHEN AUTO RECLOSING IS USED WITH INVERSE TIME RELAYS HAVING

INSTANTANEOUS HIGHSET FEATURE, THE FIRST TRIP IS ALLOWED TO TAKE PLACE
THROUGH THE INSTANTANEOUS FEATURE AND AFTER THAT IT IS BLOCKED. FURTHER
TRIPPINGS ARE REFERRED ONLY TO THE INVERSE TIME ELEMENTS. THE AUTO
RECLOSE RELAY IN SUCH CASES IS PROVIDED WITH A FEATURE WHEREBY IT BLOCKS
THE OPERATION OF INSTANTANEOUS HIGHSET FEATURE AFTER THE FIRST TRIP.

SENSITIVE EARTH LEAKAGE PROTECTION:

THIS PROTECTION IS SOME TIMES PROVIDED IN LT NETWORKS AS WELL AS IN 11KV
NETWORKS. USUALLY, THE SENSITIVE EARTH LEAKAGE RELAY OPERATES FROM THE
SECONDARY OF A CORE BALANCE CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CBCT). THE CBCT COMES
IN DIFFERENT SHAPES AND THE PROTECTED CABLES ARE PASSED THROUGH THE
CBCTs. THE EARTH LEAKAGE RELAY IS CALIBRATED IN PRIMARY AMPS, THE RANGE
BEING OF THE ORDER OF 300 MILLI AMPS TO 8 AMPS. IT IS POSSIBLE TO COME DOWN TO
THE LEVEL OF 50 MILLI AMPS PRIMARY FAULT SETTING, IF REQUIRED.
ANOTHER USUAL APPLICATION OF EARTH LEAKAGE RELAYS IS IN OPEN CAST MINES
WHERE THE LT AND MV FEEDERS ARE REQUIRED TO BE PROVIDED WITH SENSITIVE
EARTH LEAKAGE PROTECTION

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

CAPACITOR:
SHUNT CAPACITORS
 SHUNT CAPACITORS ARE USED IN SUB-STATIONS TO IMPROVE POWER FACTOR AND
VOLTAGE OF THE SYSTEM.
 SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS ARE MADE UP OF A NUMBER OF SERIES – PARALLEL
UNITS MAKING UP THE TOTAL MVAR REQUIREMENT FOR THE SYSTEM.
 HV CAPACITORS ARE GENERALLY RATED FOR 11 KV TO 33 KV.
 IN MAJOR SUB-STATIONS, HV CAPACITORS ARE CONNECTED TO THE TERTIARY
WINDING OF THE POWER TRANSFORMERS WHERE THE VECTOR GROUP OF THE
POWER TRANSFORMERS IS GENERALLY YY0 WITH DELTA TERTIARY WINDING.
 SHUNT CAPACITORS ARE ALSO USED AT INDUSTRIAL SUB-STATIONS IN ORDER TO
IMPROVE THE POWER FACTOR OF THE LOAD DRAWN BY INDUSTRIES.

CAPACITOR PROTECTION
 INVERSE TIME OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT
 OVER VOLTAGE
 UNDER VOLTAGE
 UNBALANCE CURRENT (FOR DOUBLE STAR BANKS WITH FLOATING NEUTRAL).
 NEUTRAL DISPLACEMENT (FOR SINGLE STAR BANKS USING RVTs WHOSE
SECONDARY IS CONNECTED IN OPEN DELTA).

CAPACITOR AUTOMATIC SWITCHING

 CAPACITOR BANKS CAN BE SWITCHED MANUALLY OR AUTOMATICALLY.
 FOR AUTOMATIC SWITCHING, MULTI STAGE SWITCHING RELAYS WORKING ON THE
BASIS OF PF OR VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT ARE USED.
 THE NUMBER OF STAGES OF SUCH RELAYS CAN BE AS HIGH AS 16.
 SERIAL SWITCHING MODE OR BINARY SWITCHING MODE CAN BE USED.
 IN THE SERIAL SWITCHING MODE, THE CAPACITOR BANKS ARE OF EQUAL RATING
AND ARE SWITCHED ON AND SWITCHED OFF SERIALLY.
 IN THE BINARY SWITCHING MODE, THE SWITCHING IS DONE IN STEPS OF 1 : 2 : 4 : 8
AND THE SWITCHING OFF IS ALSO DONE IN THE SAME WAY.
 RELAYS DESIGNED TO MEASURE LEADING PF ARE USED FOR SWITCHING OFF THE
CAPACITOR BANK WHEN PF BECOMES LEADING. IN SUCH CASES, IT IS USUALLY A
SINGLE BANK AND IS SWITCHED ON MANUALLY.

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

POLE MOUNTED CAPACITORS IN RURAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS:

 USUALLY, 11 KV CAPACITOR BANKS ARE USED IN RURAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
AND THEY ARE MOUNTED ON POLES.
 THESE CAPACITORS ARE SWITCHED ON AND SWITCHED OFF AUTOMATICALLY BY
MEANS OF A CURRENT MEASURING RELAY.
 THE RELAY CONTROLS THE CAPACITOR BANK THROUGH A VACUUM SWITCH OR
CONTACTOR.
 SUCH RELAYS ARE USUALLY DESIGNED AS PER REC SPECIFICATION NO. 35 / 1984
(REVISED – 1993).

SITE TESTING & COMMISSIONING

IT IS NECESSARY TO CARRY OUT PRE-COMMISIONING TESTS AT SITE ON PROTECTIVE
RELAYS AND SCHEMES BEFORE THEY ARE PUT INTO SERVICE.
ALL THE RELAYS AND SCHEMES ARE TESTED AND CALIBRATED AT MANUFACTURES
WORKS, IN ACCORDANCE WITH RELEVANT WORKS TEST INSTRUCTIONS, TO ENSURE
THAT THE OPERATING VALUES ARE WITHIN THE CLAIMED ERROR LIMITS SUCH AS + 5%,
7.5%, ETC. THEREFORE, IT IS NEITHER NECESSARY NOR IS IT RECOMMENDED, TO
CARRY OUT CALIBRATION TESTS AT SITE. WHAT IS REQUIRED IS TO TEST THE RELAYS
ON CERTAIN SETTINGS TO SATISFY THE USER THAT THE ERRORS ARE WITHIN
PERMISSIBLE LIMITS. RELAY MANUFACTURERS’ USUALLY PROVIDE SITE TESTING AND
COMMISIONING INSTRUCTIONS FOR THEIR RELAYS AND SCHEMES, AND SITE TESTS ARE
CARRIED OUT AS PER THESE INSTRUCTIONS.
PRE COMMISIONING TESTS:
i. PHYSICAL CHECK TO ENSURE THAT THERE IS NO TRANSIT DAMAGE
ii. SECONDARY INJECTION TESTS ON INDIVIDUAL RELAYS TO CHECK THE
OPERATING VALUE ERRORS
iii. AC & DC WIRING CHECKS IN THE CASE OF PROTECTION SCHEMES LIKE
DIFFERENTIAL, DISTANCE ETC.(THIS CHECK IS CARRIED OUT AS PER THE
RELEVANT SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM)
iv. SECONDARY INJECTION TESTS ON SCHEMES TO CHECK THEIR ACCURACY
v. TRIPPING AND CLOSING OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS FROM CONTROL & RELAY
PANELS
vi. INSULATION RESISTANCE VALUE BEFORE APLLYING 2KV, 1 MINUTE, POWER
FREQUENCY TEST.
vii. 2KV, 1 MINUTE, POWER FREQUENCY TEST.
viii. INSULATION RESISTANCE VALUE AFTER HV TEST

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

ix. FINAL TEST ON LOAD CURRENT / VOLTAGE FOR CONFIRMING THE DIRECTION OF
RELAYS (DISTANCE, DIRECTIONAL ETC) AND CORRRECTNESS OF CT POLARITIES
FOR DIFFERENTIAL SCHEMES.

TEST EQUIPMENT:-
i. OVER CURRENT TEST SET
FOR CARRYING OUT SECONDARY INJECTION TESTS ON CURRENT OPERATED
RELAYS, ESPECIALLY IDMT AND DEFINITE TIME, A COMPACT TEST KIT
INCORPORATING VARIABLE CURRENT FACILITY AND A TIMER IS AVAILABLE.
THE MAGNITUDE OF CURRENT CAN BE VARIED IN THE RANGE 0 – 200AMPS. THIS
ENABLES TESTING OF EVEN 5A RATED RELAYS AT 20 TIMES THE MAXIMUM
SETTING OF 200%. THE TIMER IS DIGITAL WITH A RESOLUTION OF 1
MILLISECOND SO THAT EVEN INSTANTANEOUS, HIGH SPEED RELAY OPERATING
TIMES CAN BE MEASURED.
GENERALLY, THIS TEST KIT INCORPORATES LOW REACTANCE TRANSFORMERS,
VARIACS, CHOKES, CAPACITORS ETC. SO THAT THE OUTPUT CURRNET (TEST
CURRENT) WAVE FORM IS AS SINUSOIDAL AS POSSIBLE. THIS IS ESSENTIAL
ESPECIALLY FOR TESTING IDMT ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS AS THE
OPERATING TIMES OF THESE RELAYS ARE AFFECTED BY VARIATION IN THE
FREQUENCY OF THE TEST CURRENT AS WELL AS BY THE HARMONICS PRESENT IN
THE TEST CURRENT. OVER TEST KITS CAN ALSO INCLUDE VARIABLE AC & DC
VOLTAGE FACILITY FOR TESTING AUXILIARY AND HIGH SPEED TRIPPING
RELAYS.

ii. DISTANCE PROTECTIOON TEST KIT

FOR SITE TESTING OF DISTANCE PROTECTION SCHEMES, A SPECIAL TEST KIT
INCORPORATING VARIABLE CURRENT, VOLTAGE, PHASE ANGLE, DIRECTION AND
OTHER FACILITIES IS AVAILABLE. AS DISTANCE RELAYS WORK ON IMPEDANCE
MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE, THE TEST KIT IS USED TO VARY THE IMPEDANCE
APPLIED TO THE RELAY BY VARYING THE CURRENT & THE VOLTAGE. SUITABLE
TIMER IS ALSO INCLUDED IN THE TEST KIT TO MEASURE THE OPERATING TIMES
OF THE DISTANCE RELAYS FOR ZONE1, ZONE2 AND ZONE3 ETC.
iii. DIRECTIONAL RELAY TESTING
FOR TESTING DIRECTIONAL OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT RELAYS, IN
ADDITION TO THE STANDARD OVER CURRENT TEST KIT, WE HAVE TO USE A
PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMER ( 3 PHASE). THIS TRANSFORMER ENABLES
CHECKING OF CHACTERISTIC ANGLE (MAXIMUM TORQUE ANGLE IN CASE OF
ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS) AND ALSO THE DIRECTIONAL FEATURE OF THE
RELAYS.

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

iv. TESTING OF DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS

FOR TESTING OF DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS SUCH AS TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL,
GENERATOR DIFFERENTIAL, RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT ETC., NO SPECIAL TEST
KIT IS REQUIRED. BY USING AMMETRS / MULTIMETERS, VARIACS, RHEOSTATS
ETC., IT IS POSSIBLE TO RIG UP SUITABLE CIRCUITS TO TEST THESE RELAYS /
SCHEMES.

v. TESTING OF NUMERICAL RELAYS

AS NUMERICAL RELAYS COMBINE THE FEATURES OF MANY RELAYS IN ONE, IT IS
NOT POSSIBLE TO TEST ALL THESE FEATURES WITH STANDARD TEST KITS
DESCRIBED EARLIER.
SPECIAL TEST KITS HAVE BEEN DESIGNED TO TEST NUMERICAL RELAYS. THESE
TEST KITS ARE PROGRAMMABLE FOR TESTING DIFFERENT TYPES OF NUMERICAL
RELAYS. ONCE THE RELEVANT PROGRAMME IS SELEWCTED ON THE TEST KIT, IT
AUOTMATICALLY SUBJECTS THE NUMERICAL RELAY TO VARIOUS ESSENTIAL
TESTS AND PRINTS OUT THE RESULTS. VERY LITTLE MANUAL TESTING IS
INVOLVED. THE ENTIRE TESTING IS DONE AT HIGH SPEED AND THE TESTING CAN
BE COMPLETED IN LESS THAN AN HOUR.
THESE TEST KITS ARE QUITE EXPENSIVE AT PRESENT.

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

NUMERICAL DESIGNATION FOR STANDARD RELAYS

1. MASTER ELEMENT
2. TIME DELAY STARTING OR CLOSING DELAY
3. CHECKING OR INTERLOCKING RELAY
4. MASTER CONTRACTOR
5. STOPPING DEVICE
6. STARTING CIRCUIT BREAKER
7. ANODE CIRCUIT BREAKER
8. CONTROL POWER DISCONNENTING DEVICE
9. REVERSING DEVICE
10. UNIT SEQUENCES SWITCH
11. RESERVED
12. OVER SPEED DEVICE
13. SYNCHRONOUS SPEED DEVICE
14. UNDER SPEED DEVICE
15. SPEED OF FREQUENCEY MATCHING DEVICE
16. RESERVED
17. SHUNTING OR DISCHARGE SWITCH
18. ACCELERATING OR DEACCELERATING DEVICE
19. SRATING – TO – RUNNING TRANSITION CONTACTOR
20. ELECTRICALLY OPERATED VALVE
21. DISTANCE RELAY
22. EQUALISER CIRCUIT BREAKER
23. TEMPERATURE CONTROL DEVICE
24. RESERVED
25. SYNCHRONZNG OR SYNCHRONISM CHECK RELAY
26. OPERTAORS THERMAL DEVICE
27. UNDER VOLTAGE RELAY
28. RESERVED
29. ISOLATING CONTRACTOR
30. ANNUNCIATOR RELAY
31. SEPARATE EXTITATION DEVICE
32. DIRECTIONAL POWER RELAY
33. POSITION SWITCH
34. MOTOR OPERTAED SEQUENCE SWITCH
35. BRUSH OPERATING OR SLIP-RING SHORT CIRCUIT DEVICE
36. POLARITY DEVICE
37. UNDER CURRENT OR UNDER POWER RELAY
38. BEARING PROTECTIVE DEVICE
39. RESERVED
40. FIELD RELAY
41. FIELD CIRCUIT BREAKER
42. RUNNING CIRCUIT BREAKER
43. MANUAL TRANSFER OR SELECTOR DEVICE
44. UNIT SEQUENCE STARTING RELAY
45. RESERVED
46. REVERSE – PHASE OR PHASE BALANCE CURRENT RELAY.
47. PHASE – SEQUENCE VOLTAGE RELAY.
48. INCOMPLETE SEQUENCE RELAY
49. MACHINE OR TRANSFORMER THERMAL RELAY
50. INSTANTANEOUS OVER- CURRENT OR RATE OF RISE RELAY.
51. AC TIME OVER – CURRENT RELAY.
52. AC CIRCUIT BREAKER
53. EXCITER OF DC GENERATOR RELAY

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

54. HIGH SPEED DC CIRCUIT BREAKER

55. POWER FACTOR RELAY
56. FIELD APPLICATION RELAY
57. SHORT- CIRCUITING OR GROUNDING DEVICE
58. POWER RECTIFER MISFIRE RELAY
59. OVER VOLRAGE RELAY
60. VOLTAGE BALANCE RELAY
61. CURRENT BALANCE RELAY
62. TIME – DELAY STOPPING OR OPENING RELAY
63. LIQUID OR GAS PRESSURE, LEVEL OR FLOW RELAY
64. GROUND PROTECTION RELAY
65. GOVERNOR
66. NOTCHING OR JOGGING DEVICE
67. AC DIRECTINAL OVERCURRENT RELAY
68. BLOCKING RELAY
69. PERMISSIVE CONTROL DEVICE
70. ELECTRICALLY OPERATED RHEOSTAT.
71. RESERVED
72. DC CIRCUIT BREAKER
73. LOAD RESISTOR CONTACTOR
74. ALARM RELAY
75. POSITION CHANGING MECHANISM
76. DC OVERCURRENT RELAY
77. PULSE TRANSMITTER
78. PHASE ANGLE MEASURING OR OUT-OF-STEP PROTECTIVE RELAY
79. AC RECLOSING RELAY
80. RESERVED
81. FREQUENCY RELAY
82. DC RECLOSING REALY
83. AUTOMATIC SELECTIVE CONTROL OR TRANSFER RELAY
84. OPERATING MECHANISM
85. CARRIER OR PILOT – WIRE RECEIVER RELAY
86. LOCKING OUT RELAY
87. DIFFERENCIAL PROTECTIVE RELAY
88. AUXILIARY MOTOR OR MOTOR GENERATOR
89. LINE SWITCH
90. REGULATING DEVICE
91. VOLTAGE DIRECTIONAL RELAY
92. VOLTAGE AND POWER DIRECTIONAL RELAY
93. FIELD- CHANING CONTACTOR.
94. TRIIPPING OR TIME FREE RELAY

95 - 99. USED FOR SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS ON INDIVIDUAL INSTALLATIONS WHERE NONE OF THE
ASSIGNED NUMBERING FUNCTIONS FROM 1 TO 94 ARE USED.

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