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SUBSEA CLAMP ON FLOW IMAGING

Research · December 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4296.4561

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 COVENTRY UNIVERSITY

MGBEAFULU, CHUKWUNONSO EMMANUEL

SUBSEA CLAMP ON FLOW IMAGING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND COMPUTING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MSc
Academic Year: 2014 – 2015

Supervisor: Glenn Miles

 COVENTRY UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND COMPUTING

MSc

Academic Year: 2014 – 2015

MGBEAFULU, CHUKWUNONSO EMMANUEL

SUBSEA CLAMP ON FLOW IMAGING

Supervisor: Glenn Miles

August 2015

This Thesis is Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for

the Degree of MSc in Mechanical Engineering

i
Declaration of Originality

The work presented and described in this report is the result of my own
research. All sections of the results and texts that have been obtained
from other publication are fully referenced. I understand that plagiarism
and cheating constitutes a breach of University Regulations and will be
dealt with accordingly.

© Coventry University 2015. All rights reserved. No part of this work

may be reproduced without the written permission of the copyright
owner.

Signed:
Date: 𝟏𝟕𝒕𝒉 August, 2015

ii
iii
Abstract
Multiphase flow is referred to as simultaneous passage of two or more distinct and immiscible
substances in the stream of a system. This is widely noticeable in engineering applications such
as chemical engineering and crude oil extraction processes. The simplest case of multiphase
flow is that of two-phase flow in which the same pure substance bifurcates to form two different
phases. However, in most engineering application, the rate at which multiphase flow occur in
a system determines the efficiency and safety of that process. Base on this, the need for flow
measurement during flow processes became predominant. In recent days, multiphase and wet
gas flow meter are now routinely used in subsea flow measurement, this has attracted
researchers all over the globe with the aim of accurately predicting, quantifying and controlling
the rate of multiphase flow occurrence in the system of subsea flow lines.
In contribution to subsea flow measurement, this project research is focused on design
improvement of an existing prototype clamp on Electrical Capacitance Tomography (ECT)
system for subsea flow measurement. With the depth of over 10,000ft (3,000m) from the
surface of the sea to the seabed, subsea oil and gas production system presents huge challenge
in terms of equipment Installation, Maintenance and Repair (IMR). Base on this, most
underwater IMR are been archived via ROV intervention, this makes it necessary that the
design of subsea equipment should considers factors such as ease deployment, installation and
manipulation aimed at being suitable for ROV handling. The existing ECT prototype clamp
presents complexity for single ROV handling as its anchor and clamp mechanism requires
rigorous manual processes in order to unclamp and clamp on subsea flow lines.
The necessity for this design improvement was also based on a test conducted with the existing
prototype clam on ECT system. Regarding the test observations, this project work is aimed at
improving on the sensor arrangement of the measurement equipment and also improving on
the clamping mechanism to achieving more efficient and simplified mechanism suitable for
ROV handling. However, an empirical method was implemented to improve the design, and a
viable design was achieved. Finally, series of recommendations were outlined for further work
on this project.

Keywords:
Electrical Capacitance Tomography, Subsea Clamp, Flow Measurement/Imaging, Remote
Operated Vehicle, Improved Mechanism, Helical Gears, Sprockets and chains.

iv
Acknowledgements

The author wishes to express his profound gratitude to God almighty for making this project a
successful one.
Many thanks goes to Professor Andrew Hunt and Glenn Miles for their professional guidance
and continuous help throughout the research period.
I also want to use this medium to thank my parents who gave me their maximum support to
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Table of Contents

Abstract.................................................................................................................................................................. iv
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................................ v
Table of Contents................................................................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures...................................................................................................................................................... viii
List of tables ........................................................................................................................................................... x
1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Aim and Objectives ...................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Research Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 3
1.3.1 Report Organisation ............................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Introduction to Subsea Pipeline Monitoring and Integrity System ............................................................... 4
2.1.1 Subsea Pipeline Leak Monitoring and Detection Methods .................................................................... 4
2.1.2 Subsea Pipeline Corrosion Monitoring Techniques ............................................................................. 11
2.2 Production and Distribution of Non-Metallic Pipes in Oilfield Environment ............................................ 13
2.2.1 Non-Metallic Reinforced Composite Pipes ......................................................................................... 14
2.2.3 Description of Non Metallic Reinforced Composite Pipes Structure .................................................. 17
2.2.4 Non-Metallic RCP’s Manufacturing Routes ........................................................................................ 20
2.2.5 Application of Non-Metallic RCP in Oilfield Environment ................................................................ 22
2.3 Submarine and Autonomous Systems Deployment Methods ..................................................................... 23
2.3.1 Remote Operated Vehicle (ROV) Capabilities .................................................................................... 24
2.3.2 Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) Capabilities ....................................................................... 27
2.3.3 Submergence Manned Vehicles Relevant to Subsea Operations ......................................................... 29
2.3.4 Underwater Vehicles Protective Deployment ...................................................................................... 30
3.0 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................................. 35
3.1 ECT Flow Measurement ............................................................................................................................. 35
3.2 Existing Prototype Clamp on ECT System ................................................................................................. 36
3.3 Laboratory Procedure for Design Improvement Method ............................................................................ 38
3.4 Clamp Deployment and Measurement Operation Method ......................................................................... 41
4.0 THEORYTICAL DESING ANALYSIS OF THE CLAMP MECHANISM .......................................... 42
4.1 Helical Gears .............................................................................................................................................. 42
4.1.1 Helical Gear Efficiency ....................................................................................................................... 44
4.1.2 Analysis of Crossed Helical Gear ........................................................................................................ 46
4.2 Analysis of Sprocket and Chain .................................................................................................................. 47
4.3 Analytical Calculation of Torque, Clamp Force & Stress of Mechanism................................................... 49
4.3.1 Efficiency of the Crossed Helical Gears .............................................................................................. 50
4.3.2 Torque Delivered to Horizontal Shafts ................................................................................................ 53
4.3.3 Sprockets Input and Output Torque ..................................................................................................... 55
4.3.4 Clamping Force and Circumferential Stress on Sensor Casing ........................................................... 57

vi
5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................... 63
5.1 Laboratory Design Improvement Result and Discussion ............................................................................ 63
5.2 Mechanism Calculations Result .................................................................................................................. 65
5.3 Structural Material Discussion .................................................................................................................... 66
6.0 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................................. 68
6.1 RECOMMENDATIONS OF FUTURE WORK ........................................................................................ 68
7.0 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................... 69
APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................................................... 75
APPENDIX A: ................................................................................................................................................. 75
APPENDIX B:.................................................................................................................................................. 77
APPENDIX C: .................................................................................................................................................. 78

vii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Pipeline Integrity System (Tuvnel.com, 2015) ........................................................................ 5
Figure 2: Leak Detection Methods (Bai and Bai, 2012) ......................................................................... 6
Figure 3: Fibre Optical Cable System (Boaz, et al., 2014) ..................................................................... 7
Figure 4: Sensor Hose System (Boaz, et al., 2014)................................................................................. 8
Figure 5: Magnetic Induction Communications (Boaz, et al., 2014) .................................................... 10
Figure 6: Causes of significant incidents in onshore and offshore pipelines (Baker, et al., 2008 ) ...... 11
Figure 7: Electrically Isolated Wire and Condition at Each Stage of Probe Life (Alspi.com, 2015) ... 12
Figure 8 : Glass Reinforced Plastic Pipe (Usci-corp.com, 2015) ......................................................... 18
Figure 9: Typical Structure of RTC (Gibson, 2003 ) ........................................................................... 19
Figure 10: Typical Structure of Standard FFRP (Bryant, et al., 2007) ................................................. 19
Figure 11: Typical Structure of free Vented FFRP (Bryant, et al., 2007) ............................................. 20
Figure 12: Illustrative Diagram of Centrifugal Casting Process (Hobas.com, 2015), .......................... 21
Figure 13: Illustrative Flow Process of Filament Winding (Nuplex.com, 2015) .................................. 21
Figure 14: RTP Manufacturing Principles (Gibson, et al., 2011) ......................................................... 22
Figure 15: Flow Diagram of Underwater Vehicle Classifications ........................................................ 23
Figure 16 : Remote Operated Vehicle Schematic (Rsl.engr.scu.edu, 2015) ......................................... 24
Figure 17: Autonomous underwater vehicle pipeline inspection at seabed (Cctechnol.com, 2015) .... 29
Figure 18: : (a) Rail Guide Overboard Deployment System (Lallier, et al., 2003), (b) Stationary wire
Guide Cursor Through Moon pool System Deployment System (Oceaneering, 2015). ....................... 32
Figure 19: Stern Built In A-Frame Whoi.edu, (2015) ........................................................................... 34
Figure 20: (a) and (b) ROV float line pull (Whoi.edu, 2015). .............................................................. 34
Figure 21: (a) Example of ECT Sensors arranged around outer diameter of pipe, (b) Cross correlation
of Pixels (Toskey & Hunt, 2015). ......................................................................................................... 35
Figure 22: Screen shoots of pipe centre lines 2-D ECT video of (a) high velocity gas flow: small
connected bubbles moving through and oil filled vertical pipe (b) annular flow in vertical pipe where
oil runs up the pipe in wave and air fills the pipe core (Toskey & Hunt, 2015) ................................... 36
Figure 23: Shows Images of (a) Mini-Grip Clamp Fitted on the System as Part of the Anchoring and
Clamping Mechanism, (b) The Existing Underwater ETC measurement Clamp. ................................ 37
Figure 24: Fixed Sleeve Sensor ............................................................................................................ 38
Figure 25: Shows the Image of the Clamping Arm During Replication............................................... 39
Figure 26: Shows Fabricated Component that Links the Sensor Casing to Clamping Arms ............... 39
Figure 27: Frame with Replication of Holes ......................................................................................... 40
Figure 28: Shows Image a Coupling Stage of the equipment ............................................................... 41
Figure 29: Shows Helical Gear Arrangement (a) For Crossed Shaft and (b) For Parallel Shafts ......... 43
Figure 30: Coefficient of Friction (Doane, J. 2002).............................................................................. 45
Figure 31: Graphical Solution for Crossed Helical Gear with 90𝑜 Shaft angle (Doane, J. 2002) ........ 46

viii
Figure 32: Driver and Driven Sprockets ratio and rpm (Technologystudent.com, 2015) .................... 47
Figure 33: Schematic Diagram of Clamp Mechanism arrangement ..................................................... 49
Figure 34: Section of Clockwise Direction During Clamping .............................................................. 53
Figure 35: Section of Anti-Clockwise Direction During Clamping ..................................................... 55
Figure 36: Illustrative Diagram of the Sensor Casing Showing the direction of Active Clamping Force
.............................................................................................................................................................. 57
Figure 37: Shows the Improved Design (a) Sensor Clamped on a Short Transparent Pipe (b) Sensor
Casing widely Open .............................................................................................................................. 63
Figure 38: Side View of the Improved Design Showing Part of the Mechanism ................................. 64

ix
List of tables
Table 1: Coefficient of Friction 𝛍 Value for Steel Material to Steel Material (Roymech.co.uk, 2015) ............... 50
Table 2: Proportions of 3 DP Small Pinion Helical Gears form 5 to 12 gear teeth (Buckingham, 1981) ............. 51
Table 3: Calculated values with respect to steel on steel coefficient of friction non-greased and greased ........... 65

x
NOMENCLATURE
PIMS………………………………………………... Pipeline Integrity Management System
ER………………………………………………………………….…... Electrical Resistance
LPRM…………………………………….…….Linear Polarization Resistance Measurement
RCP………………….…………………………………..……… Reinforced Composite Pipe
HDPE……………………………………………………………. High Density Polyethylene
MEKP………………………………………………………... Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide
BPO………………………………………………………………………… Benzyl Peroxide
FRP…………………………………………………….……… Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic
GRP………………………………………………………………… Glass Reinforced Plastic
RTRP………………………………………...……….. Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipe
RTMP………………………………………….……. Reinforced Thermosetting Mortal Pipe
RTP…………………………………………………….……. Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipe
FFRP………………………………………………….……... Flexible Fiber Reinforced Pipe
AUV………………………………………………….…... Autonomous Underwater Vehicle
ROV………………………………………………………..……... Remote Operated Vehicle
RF…………………………………………………………………………... Radio Frequency
IMR…………………………………………………...……... Inspection/Maintenance/Repair
TV…………………………………………………………………………………..Television
DC…………………………………………………………………………….. Direct Current
FPSO………………………………….……….. Floating Production Storage and Offloading
MMI……...………………………………………………...……….. .Man Machine Interface
MDB…………………………………………………………….……….. Mobile Divers Bell
DSRV……………………………………………….…. Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle
RORV……………………….……………………………. Remote Operated Rescue Vehicle
SRV…………………….……………………………………… Submersible Rescue Vehicle
SRC……………..………………………………………..……. Submarine Rescue Chamber
TLP……………………………………………………………..…….. Tension Leg Platform
LARS………………………………………………………..… Launch and Recover System

xi
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Multiphase flow is the simultaneous passage of two or more distinct and immiscible substances
in the stream of a system. This often occur in engineering applications such as chemical
engineering and crude oil extraction processes. Minor case of multiphase flow is that of two-
phase flow in which the same pure substance bifurcates to form two different phases. In most
engineering application, the rate at which it occur in systems determines the efficiency and
safety of that process. Base on this, the need for flow measurement during flow processes
becomes predominant. In recent days, multiphase and wet gas flow meters are routinely used
in subsea pipeline flow measurement. However, subsea flow measurement is mostly faced with
challenges such as conveying measurement equipment to the desired underwater site,
difficulties in manipulation and clamping of measurement equipment on subsea flow lines. Due
to this, underwater flow meter installation are often achieved via Remote Operated Vehicle
(ROV) intervention. This makes it necessary that the design of measurement equipment should
consider simplicity suitable for ROV manipulation.

Several techniques has been developed for clamping different types of flow meter on subsea
flow lines for flow measurement. According to Toskey & Hunt (2015), Electrical Capacitance
Tomography (ECT) flow measurement sensors on subsea clamp system has been considered
an ideal development for the application. ECT is electromagnetic non-intrusive flow imaging
technique that is well recognised as a research tool and has been used in numerous industrial
applications for dry solids, gas-liquid and wet gas flow measurements. Base on this, ECT is
certified to be consistent in giving detailed flow measurement structure more accurately than
other available techniques. Further explained that, a prototype clamp on ECT system was
developed and tested and also shows capability of clamping on subsea electromagnetic
transparent pipe and make flow measurements.

This project basically explains how the existing prototype clamp on ECT system functions and
its drawbacks which entails leaky sensor arrangement, rigorous and complex mechanism which
is difficult for a single ROV to handle. The work further improves the design to achieve a better
sensor casing arrangement with simplified and more efficient clamping mechanism. This was
done with emphasis on easy installation and handling to alleviate a single middle work class
ROV manipulation, while carrying out either temporal or permanent installation on vertical or
horizontal subsea flow lines for flow measurement operation.

1
1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
In recent days, multiphase and wet gas flow meter are routinely used in subsea production
system, these meters are expected to be in operation over a long period of years. The major
challenge associated with subsea flow measurement equipment is development of a suitable
design which considers factors such as subsea environmental requirements and ease handling
and manipulation for underwater robots. The operational and environmental conditions makes
it necessary that the design of subsea flow measurement equipment has to be completely ROV
deployable, easy handling, quick installation which implies reduction of ROV installation time
and also cost effective for industries.
The existing prototype clamp on ECT system presents complexity for a single ROV handling
and installation as the anchoring and clamping mechanism requires so many rigorous processes
in order to anchor and clamp the equipment on subsea flow lines. Base on this, it is deemed
very necessary to carry out design improvement on the prototype clamp to achieve a simplified
mechanism suitable for ROV handling, this involves to merge the anchoring and clamping
mechanism by introducing a simplified mechanism which eliminates protrusions and uses a
single mechanism to anchor and clamp the system on pipes. This in turn enhances the ROV
lifting and lowering of the equipment, control and positioning of the equipment and simplified
anchoring and clamping mechanism suitable for ROV manipulation.

1.2 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this project is to improve the design of an existing subsea prototype clamp on ECT
system with emphases on simplifying its mechanism to suit single ROV manipulation. ECT
flow measurement is achieve by mounting series of electrodes (sensors) around the outer
diameter of pipes to make non-intrusive electromagnetic flow imaging, series of non-metallic
pipe materials is considered necessary to be investigated to determine their level of
electromagnetic transparency. To achieve the aim, the following objectives should be adhered
to:
 Review the available literature for subsea pipeline monitoring systems
 Investigate the production and distribution of non-metallic pipes in the oilfield
environment
 Report on suitable submarine deployment methods including autonomous systems
 Take an existing prototype and design improvement, considering real life application
 Develop a view on the likely timescale and geographic deployment of such a system.

2
1.3 Research Methodology
A good research methodology is the key steps to the success of a project, it indicates how a
project would be achieved. It analyses how the work shall be organised and may also entail the
logistics involved in each section of the research. Subsea clamp on flow imaging is a research
thesis which entails analysis of design improvement, functionality and deployment method of
underwater flow measurement system. The course of this project work shall take empirical
method to accomplish the aim of the project. The strategy and steps implemented are as
follows: introduction to the project, literature review, methodology of design improvement,
theoretical design analysis of the clamp mechanism, results and discussion as regards the
advantages presented by the improved design over the previous design, conclusion and
recommendation for further research on the project.
1.3.1 Report Organisation

Chapter 1: This section is basically about the project, it consists of the preamble into the
necessities of subsea flow measurement and what the design of subsea measurement equipment
should put into consideration regarding the environmental requirements. The chapter entails
the following steps: introduction, aim and objectives, statement of problem and research
methodology.
Chapter 2: This section covers literature review. In this section, the report provides work done
by other researchers which are considered very relevant for making head ways in this project.
This includes review of literature in areas such as Subsea pipeline monitoring methods,
Investigation of non-metallic pipes and its distribution in oilfield environment finally
Deployment methods of oil and gas submergence vehicles both autonomous systems.
Chapter 3: This section covers the method implemented to achieve the design improvement
of the ECT flow measurement clam, the section explains in details the steps taken to achieve
the viable design improvement which involves the laboratory procedures and reasons for most
choices made.
Chapter 4: This section is basically theory of the mechanical design analysis and relevant
calculations
Chapter 5: This section entails the results and discussion regarding the design improvement,
the section presents the advantages of the improved prototype design over the previous design.
The section also helps to enunciate the effectiveness of the implemented method.
Chapter 6: This section covers summary, conclusion and recommendations as regards to
further work on the project.

3
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter of the project covers the relevant literature in correlation with the project, most
especially the publications which directly relates and benefits the research work as a whole.
The work presented in this section is basically previous and current papers published by other
researchers and information obtained from commercial website which contributes extensively
for making headway in this project. Since the technology concepts presented in this review has
been investigated and confirmed viable, they shall be adopted where necessary to enhance the
accomplishment of the project aim.

2.1 Introduction to Subsea Pipeline Monitoring and Integrity System

In subsea oil and gas production field, pipelines are considered as an integral unit of the entire
system as they play the crucial role of transporting hydrocarbons to downstream processes.
Pipelines are mostly faced with problems such as corrosion, structural failure and sludge
formation resulting from the hydrocarbons chemical processes. According to (Dspcomm.com,
2015), these known problems of subsea pipelines normally leads to loss of products and
revenue, high maintenance cost as well as catastrophic brake down of the system. Further
explained that, as the ocean environmental regulations governing the leak of hydrocarbons
stipulate standards which are aimed at avoiding leakages and spillages to prevent ecological
disaster. Base on this, it is deemed very necessary to minimize the potentials of such problems.
As regards to the latter, industries are mandated to put in place reliable means of forecasting
the tendency of such problems and hence carry out timely actions to avoid them.

2.1.1 Subsea Pipeline Leak Monitoring and Detection Methods

Subsea pipeline integrity and production systems have attracted reasonable attention, as
authorities became less tolerant of pollutant spillages into the marine environment. This is not
just a response regarding the catastrophic incident such as that of Gulf of Mexico (Macondo
blow out) but also as the result of the numerous existence of the small hydrocarbons out flow
at the seabed, which are due to abandoned wells. Contros.eu, (2015) highlighted that the ability
to monitor and detect the distribution of subsea oil and gas leakage at a tender stage is of utmost
important, this ensures the compliance with the legislative requirement.

4
 Figure 1: Pipeline Integrity System (Tuvnel.com, 2015)

According to (Tuvnel.com, 2015), most integrity systems are based on specific methodologies
and instrumentation which enhances the reduction of likelihood of pipeline failure, also reduces
the consequences of such incident. Further explained that, pipeline integrity system can be
divided into two “Before the event” and “After the event” as illustrated in Figure 1. Before the
event system are normally aimed at ensuring integrity of the pipeline by employing
combination of maintenance and operational procedures as well as dedicated software and
hardware which relates to Pipeline Integrity Management System (PIMS) to give an advance
warning of the pipeline which might cause loss of integrity. After the event systems normally
operates by detecting and locating leaks caused by loss of integrity, the system are mostly based
on detecting sensors or the combination of modelling techniques and an existing sensors. For
safety reasons and product values, before the event systems are mostly employed in oil and gas
pipelines, the concept can be applied to fluid carrying pipelines, though the techniques requires
access to the overall length of the pipelines, this limits its application offshore (Tuvnel.com,
2015).
According to (Bai and Bai, 2012), several leak detection methods has been applies to monitor
the integrity of pipeline in the last decades. The leak detection systems vary and are uniquely
employed in specific pipeline applications. Further explained that leak detection techniques are
classified with respect to the principals and concept involved in the individual leak detection
system. The detection systems can be classified into three groups, which are: biological
methods, hardware methods and software methods as shown in Figure 2 below.

5
 Figure 2: Leak Detection Methods (Bai and Bai, 2012)

Hardware-based methods use hardware sensors to directly detect the occurrence of leaks and
assist the localization of leak. The devices which are normally used are: infrared thermography,
acoustic emission detector, negative pressure detectors, fiber optical sensors and ultrasonic
technologies. Biological methods entail the use of trained dogs or experienced personnel to
detect and locate leaks via visual inspection, sound or odor. This method is mostly employed
onshore if cases of surface pipeline systems. Software-based methods works via the use of
computers software packages to constantly monitor data of pressure, temperature and flow rate
for leak detection in pipelines. The methods vary significantly in term the complexity and
reliability. The concept of the methods entails any of the following: flow and pressure change
detection, dynamic-model base system, pressure point analysis and mass volume balance (Bai
and Bai, 2012).
According to (Boaz, et al., 2014), leak detection methods are categorized into two main
methods; non-continuous (line patrol) and continuous methods. The non-continuous method
comprises the inspection via helicopter, trained gods, experienced personnel and smart pigging
while continuous methods is subdivided into two: internally based (inferential) also referred as
computational pipeline monitoring and externally based (direct) leak detection system.
Externally based methods detect leaking products on the outside of the pipeline system while
internally based method utilizes field instrumentation the monitor internal parameter of the
pipeline.
2.1.1.1 Continuous External Monitoring Systems
External leak detection system rely on detecting fluids, gases, temperature or other data that
may only be present outside a pipeline during leak event.
Fibre Optical Cable Method
According to (Bai and Bai, 2012), fibre optical technology system rely on the fibre optical
cable to act as a continuous distribution sensor along the length of the pipeline, this techniques
differs from the use of discrete, single point instrument which is normally spaced along the

6
pipeline. The optical characteristics of fibre alter with mechanical stress, temperature change
and surface coating or absorption of chemicals. The figure below shows the illustrative
arrangement of fibre optical cables system.

Figure 3: Fibre Optical Cable System (Boaz, et al., 2014)

Boza, et al (2014) highlighted that, localized temperature anomalies is introduced in the vicinity
by leakage from the pipeline, it may be either a localized warming (heating system) or cooling
(gas pipeline), depending on the product which is been transported through the pipeline. Oil is
warmed up for transportation optimization of oil through pipeline, once leakage occurs, the
surrounding temperature Increases accordingly. In terms of gaseous product, leakages from
pressurized gas pipeline introduce temperature cooling due to expansion of gases and
associated temperature drops (Joule Thermal Effect). The fiber optical distribution sensing
techniques presents the possibilities to measure temperature along the pipeline and provides
accurate leak detection location. The main limitation of the system is the limited length of cable
and the system failure if cable is terminated.
Sensor Hose System
This system is mostly applicable to short pipelines; this is due to the limited capability of the
system which only detecting minor and small leakages. (Boaz, et al., 2014), highlighted that
the system work by sensing the diffusion of a material which reacts when in contact with the
content transported through the pipeline. This material is disposed around the vicinity of the
pipeline, once leakage occurs, the pipe content comes in contact with the material and the
reaction causes diffusion which the sensor hose detects and sends signal accordingly. The
figure below shows an illustrative arrangement of the system.

7
 Figure 4: Sensor Hose System (Boaz, et al., 2014)

Acoustic External Systems

Acoustic external leak detection method is based on the principles that when fluid escapes
through a perforation on a pipeline, it creates acoustic signals (sound). When leak occurs in a
pipeline which is incorporated with acoustic detection system, the resulting frequency acoustic
signal is detected and analyzed by the system processors. Signals receive close to the leak are
mostly stronger and gives the detailed information as regards the exact point of leakage.
(Wavealert.com, 2015) highlighted that , in most industrial detection models, the sound signals
produced by the escaping fluid or gas has been investigated to be within the range of 25 kHz
to 70 kHz ultrasound. According to (Boaz, et al., 2014), the pressure amplitudes of sound waves
are commonly measured on a logarithmic scale (dB), normally referred to as Sound Pressure
Level (SPL), this is obtained by:
P
SLP = 20 log ( )
P0
Where:
P0 = the pressure amplitude of a reference sound
The level of the sound pressure is directly proportional to the generated power upon gas
expansion which is expressed as:
RT
SLPα log ( )
M
Where:
M = mass flow rate of jetting gass
T = gas tempareture at orifice
R = gas resistace
The method comprises of localization accuracy and high detection advantages, though the
system requires hug number of sensors along the pipeline.

8
Vacuum Annulus Method
This system entails monitoring the vacuum annulus between the inner and the outer pipe for a
pipe-in-pipe pipeline system. To minimize the number of sensors, sensor connection and
cabling along the length of an offshore pipeline, monitoring of a continuous annulus at one end
of the pipeline is required. As the system those not have limiting leak detection threshold, the
application of the technology is limited by distance and the ability of lift and install lager pipe-
in-pipe pipeline which may be bundle to other pipelines (Bai and Bai, 2012).
Hydrocarbon Vapour Sensing System
This method is based on the concept that if the substance in a pipeline is highly volatile, vapour
monitoring system can be employed around the pipeline to detect the level of hydrocarbon
vapour in the pipeline surroundings. This is normally achieved by vapour sensing, the method
can be employed for multicomponent or multiphase flow or single –phase oil to estimate the
size and location of leakage by concentration measurements. The sampling can be done by
using a sensor tube buried parallel to the pipeline or moving the device along the pipe line (Bai
and Bai, 2012).
2.1.1.2 Continuous Internal Monitoring Systems
Continuous internal monitoring system, also referred as computational leak detection system
functions with the help of the measurement of the internal pressure, density, temperature and
the flow rate of the fluid which is been conveyed be the pipeline. This system can be carried
out through several methods, most commonly employed methods are as follows:
Mass Balance Method
Methods of mass or volume balance works on the same technique, the concept is based on the
principles of conservation of mass. According to (Boaz, et al., 2014), In case of normally
cylindrical pipeline, the fluid flow into the pipeline and leaving the pipeline can be metered.
The mass of the fluid in the pipe section can be calculated from the pipe dimension and
measurement of the state variable of the fluid such temperature and pressure. (Yang, et al.,
2011), highlighted that the reduction in volume of fluid in a pipeline due to leakage, is equal to
the sum of the fluid inlet volume divided by the difference in outlet volume and the change in
fluid inventory of the system. Base on this, leakage is identified when less fluid than the inlet
volumes leaves the pipe, this is normally determined from the measurements of input flow and
estimation of the pipe contents.
According to (Bai and Bai, 2012), the sensor required for this technique can be categorized as
flow rate, temperature and pressure of the production fluid. Flow meters are required at all
inlets and outlet of the pipeline. Although, some system implements density meter monitoring

9
method. However, the concept of mass balance method is simple; the system is very sensitive
to dynamics of the pipeline as well as arbitrary disturbances which tends to give a false
detection.
Magnetic Induction Method
This method utilizes sensors both outside and inside of the pipeline. The outside sensors
measures the temperature and properties of the seawater around the pipeline while inside
sensors measure velocity of the fluid, pressure and the acoustic vibrations due to the leakages.
The sensors outside provides high localization and granularity which enhances the leak
detection. The sensors inside the pipeline are incorporated with magnetic induction transceivers
which enable the sensors to communicate with those fitted around the outside of the pipeline.
Figure 5 below illustrates the communication between the two sensors through magnetic field,
this function with the aid of coils and wires. The coils are normally wind around the pipeline,
the signal in the transmission coil is modulated via a sinusoidal current, which creates a time
varying magnetic field within the field of the transmitter. Similarly, the time varying magnetic
field also induces a sinusoidal current in the receiver; this helps to establish the required
communication between the sensors (Boaz, et al., 2014).

Figure 5: Magnetic Induction Communications (Boaz, et al., 2014)

Pressure Trend Monitoring

The pressure trend monitoring method is based a concept which assumes that when a leak
occurs in a pipeline, the pressure in the pipe drops. Applying the statistical analysis of the
pressure measurement, a decrease in the mean value of a pressure measurement may indicate
the leak. A leak alarm is generated when the decrease in more than the predefined level (Bai
and Bai, 2012).
According to (Wan, et al., 2011), pressure trend monitoring system detects leakages by
monitoring the pressure of a pipeline at a single point along the length of the line and carries
out comparison whit a running statistics trend obtained from previous pressure measurement,

10
the system requires pressure signals from several detection points. The advantage of the system
comprises of cost effectiveness and can easy maintenance, also detects small leakages which
are the drawback of other detection system. However, the limitation of the system is the
difficulty in localizing the leak points; this narrows the application of the system.
2.1.2 Subsea Pipeline Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
Corrosion has been investigated as one of the main reasons which lead to the failures of
offshore and onshore transmission pipelines (both gases and hazardous liquids). This is also
considered as a threat to high pressure liquids and gas distribution flow lines, as well as oil and
gas gathering systems. As shown in the figure below, corrosion is 18 percent responsible for
significant pipeline incident within the period 20-year (from 1988 to 2008 precisely).
According to (Salujaa, et al., 2009), the most industrial technologies employed for pipeline
corrosion monitoring are based on intrusive methods, which are achieved by indirect
measurement of the remaining wall thickness of the pipeline. The most commonly employed
techniques are as follows:

Figure 6: Causes of significant incidents in onshore and offshore pipelines (Baker, et al., 2008 )

Weight Loss Coupons Method

Palmer and King (2008) highlighted that the weight loss coupons are used to evaluating
corrosiveness and inhibitor performance over a long term, this is because the coupon are
relatively insensitive. Increasingly, the weight loss approach is been augmented and/or replaced
with electrical resistance and with electrochemical monitoring methods. A small sample of
cleaned and preweighed steel is exposed for a defined time period in the pipeline, the steel is
removed and the change in weight would be noted. The corrosion rate of the pipelined would
be calculated based on the noted information obtained from the small steel sample which gives
optical value. Calculation of the corrosion rate over the corroded area of the coupon gives a
more realistic corrosion rate.

11
According to (Alspi.com, 2015), this method is extremely versatile, as the weight loss coupons
sample may be fabricated from a commercially available alloy. However, using appropriate
designs geometry, a wide range of corrosion phenomena can be studied and is not limited to
the following:
 Different aeration
 Bimetallic(galvanic) attack
 Stress related corrosion
 Heat affected zones
Electrical Resistant (ER) Probe Monitoring
This method comprises the use of an electrically isolated wire, tube or plates are normally
exposed to the fluid. A fixed electrical current is imposed across the metal and the current
flowing through the wire or tube is measure, as the tube or plate corrodes, it thins. This implies
that the electrical resistance increases and consequently the current flow through the wire or
tube reduce. If the wire in the probe is thin, then then sensitivity will become high and induced
shorter life to the probe. Thicker wire, tube or plate will last longer but are less sensitive
(Palmer and King, 2008).

Figure 7: Electrically Isolated Wire and Condition at Each Stage of Probe Life (Alspi.com, 2015)

ER probe comprises of the advantages of the coupon method, also the second most popular
industrial monitoring technique, they can be used in a wide range of environment, including
high resistance systems (Alspi.com, 2015).
Linear Polarization Resistance Measurement (LPRM) Probe
The LPRM technique is based on the complex electrochemical theory. For the purpose of its
application in industrial corrosion measurement, it is simplified to a basic concept. According
to (Palmer and King, 2008), LPRM probe comprises of two small electrically wired steel
fingers which are exposed to the environment and a low frequency AC voltage of few millivolt
(≤ 20𝑚𝑉) is imposed on the fingers, the current responds is measured and the instrument

12
converts the current into normal corrosion rate using resistance factors inputted by the user.
One of the advantages of the LPRM technique is the instantaneous measurement of corrosion
rate. The technique is more powerful tool when compared with either coupons or ER methods
which entails the fundamental measurement via metal loss and requires some period of
exposure to determine corrosion rate.

2.2 Production and Distribution of Non-Metallic Pipes in Oilfield Environment

A pipe is referred to as a hollow bar, cylinder or a solid mass which is enclosed between two
coaxial circular cylindrical surfaces conventionally made of metals, ceramics, concrete or
plastic. The innovation of composite materials technology of lightweight, non-metallic and
flexible pipes has been investigated for use in oilfield environment. (Hossain, 2011),
highlighted that composite is a term which has verities of meaning among manufactures and
engineers. Generally, a composite material is one which consists of two or more dissimilar
material of which when combined are considered stronger than the individual material. The
implementation of composite materials in piping technology has enabled floating production
system, subsea completion and deep-water application which enhances the production of oil
and gas from offshore field of shallow water and to field of deep water. These pipes are unique,
they offer hug savings in cost and weight to operators. However, the elimination of reinforced
metallic pipes in oilfield industry removed its seawater associated corrosion and in turn
improved the U-value of pipes.
According to (Gibson, et al., 2011), as the oil and gas production fields ages, there would be
higher tendency of these fields becoming more corrosive, increasing the corrosion problem of
metallic flow lines, leading to further remedial role of rehabilitation and replacement of flow
lines with non-metallic pipes. The substances mostly found in oil and gas production fields are
crude oil and water as well as mixture of oil and gases (CH4 , CO2 and H2 S) normally found at
the wellhead, also sand alongside injection water, which are used for oil flow stimulation and
strapping remaining fractions from oil bearing rock. (Bryant, et al., 2007), further explained
that those substances are corrosive in nature combined with the high temperature and the
operational conditions which in general present major challenges to materials. These also
present the need for technologies which comprises the combination of improved material to
meet the operational demands and high standard at a reasonable cost. (Gibson, et al., 2011),
states that, non-metallic polymer and composite materials has been investigated and shows
unique advantages comprising the absence of galvanic corrosion and less susceptible effects

13
of H2 S, CO2 and H2 O. However, non-metallic materials of such are mostly affected by
environmental as well as radical temperature.
2.2.1 Non-Metallic Reinforced Composite Pipes
Non-metallic Reinforced Composite Pipes (RCP) are innovation in pipe technology which are
aimed at meeting the required standard for high performance industrial application. The
composition of these pipes is basically combination of resin and fibre to form a composite or
matrix. Materials of high quality reinforcement characteristics are normally incorporated as
part of the composite, this enhances the production to presents a high quality pipes of unique
strength, lightweight, high corrosion resistance as well as cost effective pipes suitable for oil
and gas application (Ijogbemeye & Umeania, 2011).
The materials combined during the manufacturing process of non-metallic RCP are of various
categories, normally based on quality. Material choice for a particular product depends more
on the intended application. Based on this, material selection considers factors such as
environmental exposure of the pipes, economics, required level of corrosion resistance, weight
lamination and strength performance (Gibson, 2003 ). As explained above, the technology of
non-metallic RCP generally comprises the combination of reinforcement material, fibre and
resins, the most commonly used fibre material is the glass type which is reinforced with other
fibre material of different properties.
2.2.1.1 Fibre Materials
Glass Fibre Reinforcement: - Glass fibres are generally used for RCP production due to their
flexibility to meet performance criteria. (Tamarelle, et al., 1987), highlighted glass fibres
presents low Young’s modulus which give room for greater strain, they also offers good shock
resistance. (Hossain, 2011), highlighted that, there are several types of glass fibre materials of
which the most commonly used are the AR-glass, C-glass and E-glass. However, glass fibre
are known for weak seawater corrosion resistance, though their weakness to corrosion
resistance are usually overcome by using a suitable resin liner material and a matrix.
Carbon Fibre Reinforcement: - According to (Tamarelle, et al., 1987), carbon fibre presents
pipe products with an outstanding resistance to damages due to fatigue and also give the
product a quality of high ultimate tensile strength which is associated with the chemical
resistance to oilfield environment. Despite their fragile nature, counterbalance by susceptible
weak cracks, carbon fibre presents excellent characteristics for subsea tubular applications.
According to (Ijogbemeye & Umeania, 2011), carbon fibre reduces the effects of
environmental interaction, solvent, atmosphere, moisture, bases and weak acids on pipes.

14
However, carbon fibres are more expensive to compare with glass fibre but increasing number
of industrial application would result in much cheaper material.
Cellulose Fibre Reinforcement: - Cellulose fibre provides the material with dramatically
increased mechanical propertied of pipe such as modulus and tensile strength of pipe
(Ijogbemeye & Umeania, 2011). When combined with epoxy, it significantly improves the
mechanical and fracture properties of the material (Alomayri & Low, 2013).
Aramid Fibre Reinforcement: - Tamarelle, et al., (1987), highlighted that aramid fibre presents
the product with excellent quality of resistance to shocks, fatigue and corrosion properties.
Though aramid fibres are known for poor compression resistance which limits their use for
oilfield tubular applications as regards to some many precise requirements. According to
(Ijogbemeye & Umeania, 2011), aramids acts like a Kevlar which increased pipe resistant to
solvents and chemicals.
2.2.1.2 Resins Systems
The second major component of non-metallic RCP is the resin system. Selection of resin
system normally based on manufacturing route which considered chemical, mechanical,
thermal properties and processability. The type of resin systems selected during manufacturing
process determines the load circulation of the product and the cohesion between fibres.
According to (Tamarelle, et al., 1987), selection and evaluation of optimum resin system for
oilfield pipes application depends on the specific design criteria of the pipe. This includes
parameters such as high temperature performance, resistance to hydrocarbons, matrix strength
and corrosive fluids. Further explained that the most commonly used resins are normally tested
during the preliminary development of the pipes. The two basic groups of resin systems are the
thermosetting and the thermoplastics. According to (Ijogbemeye & Umeania, 2011),
thermoplastic resins are polymer resins which are distinguished by their quality of being
reform-able, weldable when subjected to high temperature, thermoplastic are generally known
to be ductile and tough though shows poor resistance to creeps. If a material comprises two
distinctly different composite fibre and a matrix material (often a polymer resin), such material
differs from traditional material though remains discrete and functions interactively as a new
material, and consequently comprising of a material properties which cannot be predicted by
simply summing the properties of the component. (Ijogbemeye & Umeania, 2011), further
explained that most polymer resin are extremely tough and malleable but weak in tensile
strength. When resins and fibre are combined, they counteract each other’s drawbacks to create
a far more useful material than either of the individual components. Thermosetting resins are
polymer resins which are cures by heat or chemical additives. Once thermosets are cured, they

15
becomes essentially infusible (cannot be re-melted) and insoluble. Thermosetting resin
normally used for pipe production are subdivided it to two types, namely polyester resins and
epoxy resins, the most commonly used thermoplastic and thermoset resins are enunciated
below.
Thermoplastic Resin
Polyethylene Resin: - Polyethylene is a thermoplastic resin which was introduced in pipe
production in 1950’s and has been continuously used in series of piping application. It has
excellent basic properties which enhances its easy process though requires antioxidant and heat
stabilizer to prevent damage during processing as well as pigments and carbon black for
weathering protection in storage and in aboveground service conditions, the latter is thermally
suitable and economically available (Awwa.org, 2015). Since the introduction of polyethylene
in piping system, the material has been continually improved by manufacturers for high
performance and usage in oilfield piping application. In recent days, the latter has been
engineered to achieve High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), extra molecular weight and broad
molecular weight distribution, these characteristics gives the products strength, durability,
toughness and flexibility (Company, 2015)
Thermosetting Resin
Polyester Resin: - Awwa.org, (2015) highlighted that, polyester resin is commonly used in the
production of larger diameter pipes and has been investigated to have excellent quality of water
and chemical resistance as well as acid resistance. The base polyester resin is a solid, which is
typically dissolved in styrene monomer, with which it crosses links to provide the final
thermosetting structure. Further explained that polyester resin are cures by organic peroxide
catalyst, type and amount of catalysts influences the gel time, cure time, curing temperature
and the degree of cure, this typically involves catalysts including Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Peroxide (MEKP) and Benzyl Peroxide (BPO).
Epoxy Resin: - Awwa.org, (2015) Explained that, epoxy resin is commonly used in the
production of small and medium diameter pipes which are normally used to convey water,
condensates, hydrocarbon, caustics and ductile acids. Fiberglass epoxy pipes are mostly used
for high pressure and temperature piping systems in oilfield environment. Also explained that
the curing agents or hardeners is critical with the latter because the agent influences the
composite properties and performance, the two basic types are amine and anhydride cure
bisphenol-A epoxies. Bisphenol-A epoxies are commonly cured with multifunctional primary
amines. To attain an optimum chemical resistance, these mixtures usually requires a heat cure

16
and or post cure, the cured resin has been noted with high chemical resistance, particularly in
alkaline environment and has also show good temperature resistance.
2.2.3 Description of Non Metallic Reinforced Composite Pipes Structure
Non-metallic RCP’s are generally divided into two main types; thermosetting pipes and
thermoplastic pipes. These pipes has undergone innovative improvement that aided their use
in oilfield environment, they basically comprises of polymer materials of different properties
which brought about their composite nature, the combination of these polymer materials results
to the reinforcement of the products to create high performance pipes that meets the
requirements for their application in oilfield environment, the main components material of
these pipes is the fiberglass (Gibson, et al., 2011). Further explained that the maximum use
temperature and chemical resistance of fiberglass pipe in a particular fluid depends on the type
of hardener and resin used, fiberglass pipes are largely immune to the effect of carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulphide.
2.2.3.1 Thermosetting pipe
According to (Kutz, 2011), thermosetting pipes, also referred to as fiberglass reinforced plastic
pipes basically include Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP), Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP),
Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipes (RTRP) and Reinforced Thermosetting Mortar Pipes
(RTMP). Fiberglass reinforced epoxy or polyester are standard material for manufacturing
pipes capable of transporting corrosive liquids. Such pipes can also be used for conveying
hydrocarbons and for many other industrial applications. Fiberglass pipes is a piping product
containing continuous glass fibre reinforcement, embedded or encapsulated in a cured
thermoset resin. The composite structure of the pipe may contain thermoplastic or
thermosetting liner pipe.
Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) Pipes: - GRP has been investigated to be of excellent chemical
resistance which includes acid and basic chemicals as well as crude oil and natural gas. GRP
has been used for producing pipes ranging from 2 inches to 24 inches diameter for oil and gas
application at a high pressure (up to>31bar) and temperature (up to 1000 C). High pressure
GRP thermosetting pipes had been widely used in oil and gas application, mainly for oil and
gas gathering pipelines, well casing, down-hole tubing and piping of water for injection well.
Typically epoxy thermoset piping is not resistance to acid and consequently has been limitedly
used in oil and gas gathering pipeline unless in combination with thermoplastic liner which
provides resistance to corrosive chemicals. Though GRP liners are used for production pipeline
in very corrosive environment and where the internal protective coating has failed.

17
 Figure 8 : Glass Reinforced Plastic Pipe (Usci-corp.com, 2015)

2.2.3.2 Thermoplastic pipe

Reinforced thermoplastic pipe (RTP) is a non-metallic, multilayer pipe with reliable high
strength and normally comprises of synthetic fibre in the middle. According to (Bai and Bai,
2014), RTP was first developed by Akzo Nobel, in the early 1990’s. Its product comprises of
synthetic fibre with the aim of replacing medium-pressure steel pipes in responds to the
growing demand for non-corrosive conduits for application in the onshore oil and gas industry.
(Gibson, et al., 2011), highlighted that typical construction of RTP’s includes a polymeric liner
(HDPE) or barrier, a structural layer and an outer polymeric cover. They further explained that,
the function of the liner is to provide leak proof capacity, corrosion and chemical resistance
and to also contain the transported fluid. The function of the structural layer is to provide
mechanical strength aimed at withstanding the loads applied during service and installation.
The structural layer typically consists of an even number of balanced helical windings of
continuous aramid or other types of fibre reinforcement, applied at helically wound yarns or
fibre-reinforced performed tapes, in which the encapsulation is a thermoplastic resin. Its outer
layer is added on the top of the structural layer to provide structural protection during
installation and operation (Bai and Bai, 2014).
According to (Conley, et al., 2008), the construction of RTP does not contain any thermoset
resin, the thermoplastic resin which is normally used provides an excellent strength, flexibility,
corrosion resistance and ruggedness, its flexibility quality allows it to be spooled for efficient
installation, handling and transportation. RTP are mostly available within the range of 2-
4inches and at pressure range between 20-103bar.

18
 Figure 9: Typical Structure of RTC (Gibson, 2003 )

Flexible Fibre Reinforced Pipe

Flexible Fibre Reinforced Pipe (FFRP) is a unique design which comprises the combination of
series of materials with the aim of meeting a specific requirement. FFRP is categorized in to
two: the standard FFRP and the vented FFRP. According to (Bryant, et al., 2007), FFRP
comprises of internal polymeric liner (thermoplastic HDPE) that is designed to provide the pipe
with smooth chemical resistance conduit for fluids. Glass epoxy composite surrounds the
polymer liner, serving as pressure resistance reinforcement. For dynamic service purposes,
FFRP comprises of two layers of torque balanced pressure reinforcement. Pre-cured multi-start
stacks of unidirectional composite tapes bonded together for each layer of the composite
reinforcement. The manufacturing process is arranged in such a way that it allows continuous
production of the pipe as well as curing the required bond between tapes. Figure 10 below
shows the relative position of all layers including the membrane and the collapse
reinforcements.

Figure 10: Typical Structure of Standard FFRP (Bryant, et al., 2007)

FFRP are typically used for injection water application. However, the product can also be used
for oil and gas pipeline application though must ensure the inner annulus between the

19
membrane and the liner has to be vented out via termination vent ports (Bryant, et al., 2007).
The typical structure of the vented FFRP comprises of perforated outer jacket and liner. The
vented version has a pressure tight membrane extrusion, containing internal pressure which
serves as a barrier against the external pressure. As shown in Figure 10 below, relative position
of the composite reinforcement layers are changed in comparison with the structure of the
standard type. Structure of the vented design does not have any pressure containing annulus
which is due to the perforated liner and external jacket, there are no accumulation of gases in
the annulus as the permeate gases migrates out freely (Bryant, et al., 2007).

Figure 11: Typical Structure of free Vented FFRP (Bryant, et al., 2007)

2.2.4 Non-Metallic RCP’s Manufacturing Routes

There are basically two fabrication processes associated with the production of non-metallic
reinforced composite pipes; the filament winding process and the centrifugal casting process
(Kutz, 2011).
Centrifugal Casting Process: - According to (Hobas.com, 2015), fiberglass reinforced
thermosetting pipes are usually made of woven roving or chopped glass fibre, unsaturated
polyester thermoset resin, and reinforcing agent. These materials are employed by the resins
which creates a bond between them. Base on the required properties of the pipe such as pressure
rating, chemical resistance and stiffness class, the pipe wall is fabricated on basis of process
controlled production algorithm. Further explained that the pipe wall is developed from the
outside to the inward side in a rotating mould. The speed of the mould increases once all the
materials are been feed into the mould. A centrifugal force as high as 75g is developed and
presses the materials against the wall of the mould. The raw materials are fully condensed,
creating a high quality and solid void free pipe wall as all gases are totally vented. The final
stage, as the wall of the machine rotates to ensure the thickness of the pipe is uniform and to

20
maintain exact length outer diameter, heat is induced by the machine to cure the pipe (the resin
hardens).

Figure 12: Illustrative Diagram of Centrifugal Casting Process (Hobas.com, 2015),

Filament Winding: - Filament wending is a fabrication technique which involves the

continuous wrapping of resin saturated pretension reinforcement around a mandrel or liner.
According to (Nuplex.com, 2015), filament winding is the most commonly employed industrial
manufacturing process which enhances the application of the reinforcement. The liner or
mandrels are normally circular in cross section. Although, with the current programming, other
shapes of cross section are achievable. Specific mechanical properties of the product are
achieved through the selected resin and reinforcement material as well as the careful fibre
orientation and thickness. The machine program is capable of adjusting setting such as the wind
angle throughout the lamination build, this is done to optimize the properties of the product.

Figure 13: Illustrative Flow Process of Filament Winding (Nuplex.com, 2015)

The overall length of the finished part is restricted by filament winding with a fixed mandrel
by the length of the mandrel (Nuplex.com, 2015).
Production of Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipes: - According to (Gibson, 2003 ), RTP’s are
normally manufactured via a special type of filament winding known as helical filament
winding, this process typically entails non-impregnated aramid fibre as reinforcement. The

21
reinforcement tape takes almost the entire pressure. The aramid fibre may be helically wrapped
directly onto the liner, most times fibre yarn are encapsulated in a thermoplastic material to
create a tape which can be easily handle. The tape is often wrapped and welded to the liner and
cover. Aramid fibre is normally used for this application due to its quality of high strength
reinforcement that implies its compatible usage at non impregnated condition, without
damaging due to fibre friction (Gibson, 2003 ).

Figure 14: RTP Manufacturing Principles (Gibson, et al., 2011)

2.2.5 Application of Non-Metallic RCP in Oilfield Environment

As the oil and gas production fields migrate into deep water, cost, weight and corrosion of
systems such as pipeline became unbearably high for the environment. Reinforced composite
pipes has been investigated to offer the required solution to the imminent need of offshore
piping system, their uniqueness for the application entails excellent properties such as high
corrosion resistance, light weight for high stiffness and high strength as well as excellent
fatigue properties which meets the requirements for their ideal application in deep water.
Soluforce.net, (2015) highlighted that, RCP’s has been typical applied in the following areas
in oil field environment:
 High pressure water injection lines
 Oil and gas transportation flow lines
 Oil and gas gathering flow lines
 Well intervention
 Landing and export lines
According to (Gibson, et al., 2011), wide range of non-metallic pipes application in onshore
and offshore oil and gas piping system has been envisaged for flexible thermosetting tubes,
including methanol injection lines, umbilical components, as well as heater line, choke and kill
lines. The techniques has been developed recently for subsea well intervention.
According to Soluforce.net (2015), RTP has been considered a cost effective and suitable pipe
for offshore application, its application involved static risers up to 6inches in diameter, water
injection lines and oil and gas flow line.

22
2.3 Submarine and Autonomous Systems Deployment Methods
The concept of underwater vehicles has been in existence for years, Underwater vehicles in the
broadest sense encompasses manned and unmanned vehicles, of which manned underwater
vehicles includes submarines and passenger carrying self-propelled submersibles. Unmanned
underwater vehicles is subdivided into two, this includes; Autonomous Underwater Vehicles
(AUV) which are non-tethered and Remote Operated Vehicles (ROV) which are tethered.
Unmanned vehicles plays a crucial role in subsea operations, this includes the use of AUV’s
by oil and gas industries for inspection such as seabed mapping and the employment of AUV’s
by oceanographers to map the features of the ocean. ROV’s are also used for many purposes
which includes subsea exploration, underwater operations, underwater constructions and
maintenance of subsea hardware as well as cleaning of the ship hulls and underwater
inspections.

Figure 15: Flow Diagram of Underwater Vehicle Classifications

As the development of offshore oil and gas field extends to involve the wider range of
applications in highly hazardous environment, sea surface deployment system regularly evolve
to stand the taste of time as regards to design requirement. The configuration of deployment
system ranging from stationary to over boarding deployment with permanently built-in
installation, modular with semi-permanent component or totally mobile. Protective deployment
system are implemented extensively during launch and recovery of subsea underwater vehicles
and other subsea equipment such as umbilical termination assemblies, manifolds, pipeline
jumpers, connectors, trees and tools and other application. By considering protective
deployment methods in design of subsea equipment and underwater vehicles, the risk of
damage would be minimized while increasing the window of environmental limit, this also
implies reduction in financial liability. In this section of the research, underwater vehicle
relevant to oil and gas industries shall be reviewed as regards to their capabilities as well as
suitable deployment methods with respect to protective deployment.

23
2.3.1 Remote Operated Vehicle (ROV) Capabilities
Remote Operated Vehicles (ROV), which is categorized under unmanned underwater vehicles
has facilitated the development of oil and gas in deep water operations. It has enhanced assess
to areas in the deep water where divers could not safely venture. ROV capabilities has been
recorded to have contributed extensively in handing of complex situation in deep water
operations. The latter has been in existence over twenty years, within these period of time, it
has dramatically increased in reliability and has results to often usage in varieties of offshore
application. ROV’s is currently synonymous with diverless technology or any associated
technologies and has dominated in number of important subsea areas (Haetely & Technical
Manager, 1998).

Figure 16 : Remote Operated Vehicle Schematic (Rsl.engr.scu.edu, 2015)

2.3.1.1 Types of ROV’s

ROV’s are categorised by several classes and sizes, ranging from the low cost vehicles which
are used for shallow water inspections and work tasks, through “light work vehicles” which
carries out varieties of task to primary work class vehicles which accomplish most of the
unmanned deep water ROV tasks. According to (Kelner & Group., 2012), work class vehicles
are categorised by their horsepower and depth capabilities, with most of them being deployed
for operation within the depth of 3,000m. According to (subsea7.com, 2015), with operations
such as subsea tie-in carried out on deep water installation, and the transportation of very large
divers intervention system, the ROV involved in such operation is large, powerful and capable
of lifting and carrying very heavy loads, thus the industrial attributed term “heavy work class
vehicles”. when a tool package is installed underneath the such ROV, the vehicles would stand
2.5m tall, and the horsepower of such ROV is typically within the range of 100-250 Hp, and
a through frame life capability up to 5000kg. Generally, ROV’s range in the weight of 2000-

24
6500kg (without tools). Each type of ROV has a unique place within ROV task chain, the trend
is toward their operation at sea which results to atypical ROV system comprising of the
component though varies in size and weight. The basic component of an ROV are as follows:
 Vehicle
 Tethered Management System
 Main Umbilical/Winch
 Deployment System
 Control Console / cabin
2.3.1.2 Tether Management System (TMS)
The TMS connection to the ROV’s provides the means to carryout surface deployment of the
vehicle to an underwater work sit, once the vehicle arrives the intended work depth, the TMS
carries out pay-in or pay-out the umbilical which depends on the position of the ROV. The
TMS attached to the ROV is also due to water attenuation energy which limits penetration of
high Radio Frequency (RF) wavelength into the water. RF of low frequency waves would
penetrate further into water but would face limitation as regards to longer length, also decrease
RF frequency, would present fluctuation in data transmission rate. In order to perform remote
inspection task, live video is needed at the surface so the decision by human and be made by
navigating the vehicle around the inspection target as desired. With respect to current
technology, full tele operation is possible only through a high frequency bandwidth data link.
Aberdeen, (2015) highlighted that, with the AUV’s the above example, full tele operation was
available through RF link (via air) between the vehicle and the remote operator. With the
current ROV’s technology, the full telemetry is not possible in water through RF link. The
acoustic in water data transmission is limited to less than 100kilobytes per second which is
deemed insufficient for high resolution video image. According to (Molland, 2008), A hard
wire link looped to the operating platform is required to have a full tele operation in water link
to vehicle. Therefore, presents the need for a hard wire link for real time underwater inspection
tasks.
2.3.1.3 Task Performed by ROV’s
As ROV’s categorised by horsepower, size and cost, these is also extended to the type of task
carried out, which entails their operation in different spheres with the major tasks of:
 Installation/Construction
 Survey
 Inspection/Maintenance/Repairs (IMR)

25
  Salvage
 Drill support
 Cable/Flow line Burial
The task across the whole range of ROV’s are so numerous to describe, therefore, the
description shall be limited to those tasks carried out by heavy work class vehicles such as
Magnums, Diablo, Triton XL and MRV, Millenniums which are well recognised for heavy
duty operations which includes production support, construction and installation. According to
Haetely & Technical Manager (1998), the tasks carried out by the smaller capacity vehicles are
less to compare with that of the heavy work class vehicles, such tasks includes; light
manipulation tasks, video inspections, corrosion potential measurements. Small capacity
vehicles are faced with depth limitation (around 1000m), if such vehicles are to be designed to
operate in deeper water, they would increase in size and weight due to less buoyance material
and thicker pressure vessel wall. Those brands of vehicles listed above have more general
proposes which encompasses heavy duty task capabilities as well as the operations attributed
to the small capacity vehicles. The first step of any ROV assisted operation is to outline the
task and determine if the task could be executed by a one or more vehicle, the cost effectiveness
of deploying more than one ROV depends on intended operation. Work class ROV’s are mostly
fitted with comprehensive suite of equipment such as sonar, light, TV cameras (monochrome
and coloured), echo sounder, seven function manipulators, depth sensors, spare hydraulic
controls and heavy duty grabber. Recently the trend have also added capabilities of through-
frame-lift ranging from one to five tonnes, this implies that extra toolsluds or work-packages
up to a specified maximum figure can be conveyed. The packages are usually made of corrosion
resistance as regard to seawater. Generally, ROV’s are considered as tractors, which provide
basic propulsion and power, deployable to carry out varieties of work packages as regards to
the tools for task execution.
According to (Jolly & Moles, 2001), Magnums and Millennium ROV’s has been investigated
and certify capable of carrying out tasks ranging from simple visual inspection to sophisticated
flow line and extremely complex tooling operations. Tooling operation comprising of
manipulator deployed tools ranging from subsea operation modified standard surface tools
such as hydraulic grinders, hardline cutting, trash pumps and impact wrenches to custom
designed subsea tools such as ring gasket tools, torque tools and hot stabs. The latter also assists
for highly sophisticated tasks comprising of interchangeable tooling, hydraulic/mechanical
work skids, sophisticated computer controlled semi-automated or fully automated work

26
packages. ROV’s assists in the full range of underwater drill operation, subsea facility support,
installation support and IMR tasks in general.
2.3.2 Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) Capabilities
Autonomous underwater vehicles are un-tethered mobile platforms used by oceanographer,
military and offshore industries for survey operation, they are computer controlled and may
have little or no interaction with human operator while carrying out their mission. As the result
of their untethered nature, they are required to store energy on-board, typically relying on
batteries. The use of AUV’s are motivated by their unique quality which includes the ability to
assess un assessable underwater regions, improved data quality, low cost operation and the
ability to acquire near synoptic observation processes in water column. According to Guaita,
et al., (2001), the rapid growth in subsea oil and gas production system has driven the industries
to considered the ability of AUV’s which entails the performance of long range deep water
survey, this was considered basically for their pre and post routine pipeline survey and subsea
hardware monitoring purposes.
2.3.2.1 AUV Configuration
According to (Guaita, et al., 2001), the AUV propulsion system basically comprises of two
main DC brushless thrusters and three auxiliary thrusters (one horizontal and two vertical
thrusters), these thrusters works in such a way that they navigate the vehicle in all degree of
freedoms exception of vehicle rolling at intrinsic stable condition. The longitudinal dynamic
stability are controlled by two bowfins, the bowfins also compensate pitching when the forward
velocity becomes greater than that of the aft by 1m/s. Since AUV hulls are usually free flooded,
batteries are housed by five cylindrical pressure vessel and the electronics equipment such as
the microprocessor and acoustic modem are accommodated in other spaces. The payload,
propulsion and the navigation system are powered by the electric supply from a silver zinc
secondary battery with high energy density. The acoustic line on board the AUV enhanced
communication with a controller, although the vehicle performs its navigation autonomously,
this is achieved via the installation of the following:
 Altitude sensor: measure the distance between the AUV and the seabed
 Dopper speed log: Continuously measures speed velocity of the AUV
 Forward navigation sonar: to detect objects in the front
 Motion reference unit: dynamically controls the AUV heading and acceleration
 TV camera: to provide forward look as the AUV makes headway
 SSBL Transponder: to provide operator with the actual coordinate of the AUV

27
  GPS: to fix high accuracy point while AUV is on sea surface
2.3.2.2 Possible AUV Intervention
AUV generally provides intervention for offshore industries as regards to survey and inspection
on a wide range of scale which including multi-beam echo sounding, still and video
photographing, sub-bottom profiling and side scan and synthetic aperture sonar (Halloran &
Elvander, 2013). Some of the intervention carries out by AUV are explained below:
Visual Inspection of Riser: - To carry out the task, the vehicle is deployed from an FPSO or
fixed platform or from vessel of opportunity to where the man machine interface, the vehicle
uses the available sensors to reach the riser or flow line autonomously, as different transponders
are installed in on each riser, the vehicle traces the specified riser via the sensor guide. Once
the vehicle positions in proximity (2m) to the riser, the task commence as the vehicle follows
the riser line at a specified safe distance while TV coverage taken at the same time. The vehicle
autonomously tracks the line via video processing via the TV camera on forward looking
image. However, possible obstacles could be located with sonar classification algorithm. The
controls system executes the off line plane trajectory, signals base on the AUV status and mean
of altering the trajectory plans to correlate with unforeseen incidents are been provided for the
remote operator.
Valve Actuation/Override and Inspection: - In this kind of operation, the function of the AUV
is limited though considered very necessary, subsea production system overall inspection and
valve operation requires several class of intervention. To actuate the valve, a suitable device
(torque tool) which is capable of turning the valve is required, the step required for the
operation are as follows:
 The AUV uses suitable processing sonar image to approach the subsea production
system, the specific system is located via a unique transponder attached on the system.
 The AUV swims around the plant to carry out a visual survey, at the same time
matching the geometric model of the plant with the TV image, this provides the AUV
with localisation alongside with Doppler sonar.
 The AUV manoeuvres to place its rear door in proximity to the valve panel, then station
keeping is carried out via TV imaging.
 The torque tool is then placed on the right valve, this is achieved as the boom extends
to reach the valve. At this point, the operator confirmation is required to ensure the
maximum integrity of the subsea production system. As the man machine interface

28
 (MMI) gets a compressed image of the work scene, then base on operators command,
the torque tool is operated.

Pipeline Inspection with Laser Profile:- This task requires that the AUV would conduct a
detailed inspection along the pipeline which is located at the seabed, for accurate measurement,
two laser profiles works simultaneously to pick up data. As regards to the required information,
the AUV positioning data can be worked out with the help of the sensors such as dopper and
altitude sensors and the video processing of the front TV camera. Sacrificial anode is used as
milestone to compensate for the dopper integration drift, this is achieved by suitable object
recognition executed by the forward TV camera images. Suitable TV picture of the pipes and
the pipe and the seabed profile information are recorded and constitutes the inspection data.
Figure 17 below shows the illustrative image of this task.

Figure 17: Autonomous underwater vehicle pipeline inspection at seabed (Cctechnol.com, 2015)

2.3.3 Submergence Manned Vehicles Relevant to Subsea Operations

With respect to offshore oil and gas industries, Mobile Divers Bell (MDB) and Deep
Submergence Rescue Vehicles (DSRV) are underwater vehicles which encompass the relevant
feature of every other manned underwater vehicles, hence shall be explained in this section.
MDB’s are basically for deploying divers to an underwater work site. The vehicles are normally
deployed either from service vessel, FPSO or from a fixed platform. The latter works on the
same principles as AUV though in a bigger capacity with diver’s compartment, it located the
work place via sonars by tracking of the transponder normally fitted on the subsea production
systems. Mobile diver bell has the ability to dynamically control its buoyancy
(Metalcraft.co.uk, 2015).
DSRV are typically used for submarine rescue operations, as regards to their basic function,
they are mostly designed for quick deployment in case of underwater accident, and they are
transportable by air crafts, ships and trucks or attached to a submarine via provision of special

29
configuration. According to Aroor, (2008), at the location of a disables submarine or
underwater accident site, DSRV’s works with either a mother submarine or a mother ship, it
carries out a sonar tracking and attach to the hatch of the disables submarine, the victims are
transferred in distress in to the DSRV, and it safely delivers them to a mother ship or submarine.
Oceanworks.com,(2015), highlighted that other submarine related rescue systems are as
follows;
Remotely Operated Rescue Vehicle (RORV):- This system works on similar technology as the
normal ROV though applied in an advance manner, the vehicle comprises of an umbilical
(tethered) connection to a surface platform systems to provide unlimited power supply, high
capability angle mating and control features. At 650m depth, the vehicle is capable of
evacuating 18 personnel from a disabled submarine to a mother ship, the surface system aids
the transfer of personnel with a pressure of 1-5bar.
Submersible Rescue Vehicle (SRV):- This system operates at the same depth and capacity as
that of the RORV, the main difference between the two is the source of power supply, SRV
has on board batteries which powers its propulsion system and all other units.
Submarine Rescue Chambers (SRC): - SRC systems are surface applied type of McCann bell,
the configuration of the system is an upgraded type of the early design which has been in
existence over 70 years. The innovation includes integrated launch and recovery system,
increased containment capacity for personnel, operation at 600 meters water depths, upgraded
umbilical supply technology and capability to transfer under pressure.
2.3.4 Underwater Vehicles Protective Deployment
The application of Protective deployment system has been certified compatible with various
types of offshore structures, including Tension Leg Platforms (TLP), spar platforms, ships,
semi-submersibles and barges with each structure consisting of unique installation
requirements. Basically, several factors are normally put into consideration during design of
deployments systems to ensure protection of lives and equipment during the operation.
According to (Lallier, et al., 2003), protective deployment system for launching underwater
vehicles are normally designed as overboarding or stationary systems, depending on the type
of vehicle and the structure. The configuration required for the installation depends totally on
the application, spatial constraints and whether the vehicle would be deployed over the side of
through the moon pool.
2.3.4.1 Components Relevant to Deployment Systems
Rail Guidance: - As some deployment systems requires tightly constrained horizontal motion
due to the area of application, regarding the strength achieved during the operation, rail guides

30
are put in place to offers effective horizontal motion control. Such area of application includes
proximate deployment over the side of multi service vessels and drill ship, enclosed moon pool
deployment and deployment close to the legs of semi submersibles and TLP’s (Lallier, et al.,
2003).
Wire Guidance: - Wire guides are put in place mostly where side to side movement occurs and
there is no provision or adequate structure to fix the rail guides. They help to limit deflections
due to waves, current and wind. Wire guides are fitted in application where vertical clearance
exist between the deck and the pontoon below such as that of semi submersibles platforms. The
latter are typically incorporated with stationary deployment systems. In comparing wire guide
in terms of cost and weight with the fabricated rail guide, the wire guide is considers cost
effective, light weighed (Lallier, et al., 2003)
Cursor: - Cursor is a protective deployment system component considered to be unique when
compared to others, this is as the result of its compatibility with either stationary or overboard
deployment systems. In a bad weather condition, the deployment of a tethered management
system (TMS), cursor nests the system during launch and recovery there by providing effective
protection. A typical cursor is fabricated with stainless steel pipe, the pipes comprises of
interval drilled holes which enables the cursor to flood and drain easily as to resist assembly
disruption of transmission at air water interface. Cursor is normally connected to a guidance
system to provide constraints that makes the vehicle to travel along a desired guided path during
launching process. A structure know as bell mouth are typically fitted at the top each cursor.
On deploying an underwater vehicle, once the cursor gets to the guidance terminal, the vehicle
continues to travel on that same path without the cursor. As the vehicle is ascending or d
descending, the vehicle is subjected to forces due to current, these forces causes the umbilical
or the lift line to bend and abrade, the umbilical is constrained by the bell mouth preventing it
from bending more than the allowable designed bend radius, this protects the umbilical from
fracture, prevents the cursor from abasing with umbilical (Oceaneering, 2015).
Docking Head: - Docking head presents positive latching and damping support on the vehicle
during deployment, also secure the vehicle snug from coming in contact with any interface
surface in case of contacts while controlling vehicle swing. Overboard type deployment system
incorporated with docking head, reduces the ability of the vehicle swinging while luffing on
deck, this reduces the risk of vehicle damage or personnel injury. Docking head and the cursor
or cage interface is typically rubber, other material consideration may involve properties such
as shock absorption and friction coefficient, the damping and shock absorbing effect of the
docking head is aided by the hydraulic cylinder used for articulation (Lallier, et al., 2003).

31
Passive Motion Compensation: - Passive motion compensation basically provides constant
tension of wire. In deployment systems, it helps to maintain the tension of the guide wire
between the seabed and the platform on which the deployment is taking place. Its tension effect
also helps eliminate snap load in conditions when wave lift overcomes the weight of the
vehicle. It is deemed necessary to know that passive compensation does not respond
significantly to motion or acceleration vessels, but only reacts to the fluctuation in tension
caused by the vehicle which is been deployed. This implies that subsea motion compensation
on lift lines done not have effect on light loads with light drags that does not show noticeable
fluctuation in tension (Lallier, et al., 2003).
2.3.4.2 Underwater Vehicles Launch and Recovery systems
As explained above, offshore underwater vehicles Launch and Recovery System (LARS) can
either be stationary or over boarding type. The type of vehicle to be launched or recovered from
a specific type of LARS and offshore structure depends totally on the application, spatial
constraints and whether the vehicle would be deployed over the side or through the moon pool.
The suitable LARS related to ROV and AUV are discussed below.
ROV Deployment Methods
ROV can either be launched and recovering through stationary deployment system or
overboard deployment system. The most important component when launching ROV is the
TMS, whether ROV is to be launched via stationary or overboard LARS, the TMS is deemed
necessary as it manages the tethered with is used LARS. Associated ROV stationary
deployment systems includes the following;
 Stationary wire guide cursor through moon pool system
 Built in rail guide through air/water interface method
 Passive motion compensated wire guide to the seabed

Figure 18: : (a) Rail Guide Overboard Deployment System (Lallier, et al., 2003), (b) Stationary wire
Guide Cursor Through Moon pool System Deployment System (Oceaneering, 2015).

32
The most suitable ROV deployment method is through an overloading system known as over
boarding heavy weather deployment system. The system comprises of a cursor, guide rail and
docking head features to present effective restrained motion control. The rail guide is installed
on the vessel structure and may be temporal or permanent, the rail normally starts from the
deck and extend down towards the bottom of the vessel hull (Lallier, et al., 2003).
This system shows positive motion control and has been investigated to increases operation
limits to over 100 years. The system has been employed in areas such as Gulf of Mexico during
winter storm event, it maintained excellent deployment as well as high level of personnel safety
and the installation was on a drill ship. This type of LARS is large capital investment. It
minimizes financial impact resulting from delays in deployment and its quality of continuous
operation in extremely bad sea condition provides maximum utilization of the vessel (Lallier,
et al., 2003).
AUV Deployment Methods
Deployment of AUV is considered much easier since the vehicles are un-tethered. Though
several factors are considered prior AUV deployment, this involves availability of trained
personnel, location and freeboard, deck loading, sea state, on deck turnaround time, vessel
availability, deployment through overboard versus deployment over the stern, davit or A-frame
reach, available power and many other factors are also considered to determine the most
appropriate with respect to the type of platform the deployments would be carried out from. By
nature of AUV design, it appears as small as possible and tends to be fragile when compared
to most other underwater vehicles, based on this several approaches has be implemented for
launching and recovering of AUV, this includes articulated arms, cages and garages, modified
cranes and stern ramp and stern A- frame methods, with each of these approaches evolved from
experiences or been tailored to the platform, vessels or the vehicle. These approaches optimized
AUV availability and reliability, though often times limits AUV versatility as vessel of
opportunity may not be compatible or must be large enough to accommodate AUV handling.
According to Whoi.edu,(2015), larger underwater vehicles are deployed using LARS, a
platform or any offshore structure incorporated with LARS extends operational range and
eliminated the need of deployment from a smaller boat.

33
 Figure 19: Stern Built In A-Frame Whoi.edu, (2015)

Stern Built In A-Frame Deployment Methods: - Stern built in A-frame method is a system
normally installed in ships, the method has the capabilities to execute complete launch and
recover, the system requires only one operator and it comprises of a float line, docking head,
power pack, hydraulic actuators and a built in A frame. To launch the vehicle, the built in A-
frame tilts the cradle up over and the AUV is left at hanging position, in such a way that its
nose is clear from the fantail, as the A-from rotates, the cradle supports the vehicle until it is in
a safe distance off the stern. The docking head provides damping effect to minimize swinging
in heavy sea, at this point, the vehicle is gradually lowered into the sea while the ship is on
approximately 1-2 knots forward way which helps the AUV to clear of the ship. Verification
are carried out in all system before releasing tow line of the vehicle to commence its mission
Whoi.edu, (2015). Recovering the vehicle, the vehicle can be driven into the cradle via the use
of wifi or via the use of float line arrangement to pull and be locked into the cradle as shown
in the figures bellow.

Figure 20: (a) and (b) ROV float line pull (Whoi.edu, 2015).

34
3.0 METHODOLOGY
As stated in chapter one, this section of the work justifies the approach taken. This is essentially
the procedures and steps implemented to improve the design of the prototype clamp on ECT
system. The method taken is basically an empirical method which involves laboratory design
improvement. This method puts into consideration necessary remedial steps to improve on the
challenges presented by the previous design. One of the main challenge associated with subsea
flow measurement equipment is the design and development of suitable measurement
equipment, capable of anchoring and clamping on subsea pipeline with a simplified clamping
mechanism suitable for ROV handling. Since subsea environmental conditions makes it
necessary that the design of subsea flow measurement equipment has to be completely ROV
deployable. The approach first presents the relevant arguments associated with the ECT flow
measurement and further explains the related issues of the existing prototype clamp on ECT
system and finally enunciates the steps taken to improve the design.
3.1 ECT Flow Measurement
As a research tool, ECT has a well-recognised reputation and has been implemented in
numerous industrial application for different categories of flow measurement, these includes
gas-liquid flows, solid flows and wet gas flows. ECT has been certified to be consistent in
giving detailed non-intrusive flow measurement structure more accurately than other available
techniques. This thesis contributes to diversify the use of ECT flow measurement sensors for
measurement of detailed flow structure and mass flow rate of hydrocarbon in subsea flow lines.
According to (Toskey & Hunt, 2015), mass production of subsea clamp on ETC flow meter
capable of being used by offshore oil and gas industries for subsea production system is
underway. ETC flow measurement are made by arranging series of sensors around the outer
diameter of pipes, this arrangement helps the sensors to communicate electromagnetically and
as the result, flow images are displayed and the value of the capacitance between several pairs
of sensors are obtained. Figure 12(a) below shows a typical example of ECT flow sensor
mounted around the outer diameter of electromagnetic transparent pipe.

Figure 21: (a) Example of ECT Sensors arranged around outer diameter of pipe, (b) Cross
correlation of Pixels (Toskey & Hunt, 2015).

35
Figure 12(b) shows on PC screen display of ECT flow image, the blue represents the
normalized concentration variations on a colour scale from zero, which corresponds to the
lower permissible material such as air while the red corresponding to higher permissible
material such as oil. Tomography or images given via matrix of measurements interpreted
through the use of sensitive map are normally measurement of multiphase media such as that
of gas liquid flows. Basically the images represents two cross sections of the pipes. Flow
measurement are made by recording images through the flow at two axially separated planes,
if visual of flow structure is consistent over the length of the sensor, cross correlation of pixels
between the planes will produce transit times and so flow velocity can be determined. This also
enhances the interpretation of the fluid phases with respect to convection and dispersion
information. The measured transit time is considered as the highest velocity measured between
the two phases as the fluid flows. ECT flow measurement sensor has the capabilities to measure
concentration and flow velocity non-intrusively. This is due to its quality of flow imaging, as
the result of this detailed flow profile information can be visualized as concentration contour
or flow structure in three dimensional images. Gas liquid flow structures mostly appear as
waves or slugs, large churn bubbles or small bubbles, an example is as shown in the figure
below.

Figure 22: Screen shoots of pipe centre lines 2-D ECT video of (a) high velocity gas flow: small
connected bubbles moving through and oil filled vertical pipe (b) annular flow in vertical pipe where
oil runs up the pipe in wave and air fills the pipe core (Toskey & Hunt, 2015)

3.2 Existing Prototype Clamp on ECT System

Toskey & Hunt (2015) developed a subsea prototype clamp on ECT flow measurement system,
their design entails that the capacitance measurement is achieved by conventional rack type
unit, and the processing images is displayed on a laptop PC as show in Figure 21, the ECT
sensor is coaxially connected to the measurement unit. This arrangement is known for couple
of advantages such as using different sensor head with the same electronics, software
improvement are easily incorporated in the system as well. Their design arrangement entails

36
that the PC and the capacitance interacts through high speed Ethernet enhanced by a control
system.
The required power supply to the underwater unit is 24VDC, 20 W which can be conveniently
sourced from the power supply to a standard subsea control system. The sensor data output rate
is about 1 megabyte per second at 1000 hertz frame rate measurement frequency which gives
room for complete flow characterization. The raw data obtained from the measurement is
converted into useful flow measurement data as input information by characterization of oil
and gas permittivity against density. This can be done after the data has been obtained in post
processing or in field by field basis.

Figure 23: Shows Images of (a) Mini-Grip Clamp Fitted on the System as Part of the Anchoring and
Clamping Mechanism, (b) The Existing Underwater ETC measurement Clamp.

The image of the existing prototype clamp is as shown in Figure 23, the clamp mechanism
comprises of four mini-grip clamp, two anchor arms (left and right), one sensor case fitted with
flexible sensor foil. The design separates the anchoring and clamping mechanism such that to
clamp the measurement system on pipe, the equipment has be first anchored on the pipe before
clamping the sensor casing around the pipe diameter. The anchoring mechanism comprise of
two mini-grip clamps, treaded rods, nuts and spring. Each set of these components are attached
on each anchor arm with bolts and nuts. Once the mini-grip clamp is operated (by grasping and
releasing the handle), the anchor arm un-anchors from the pipe and once the grip is released,
the force exerted by the compressed spring pushes the anchor to grip on the pipe. The same
mechanism is incorporated in the system for clamping the sensor casing around a pipe diameter.
Toskey & Hunt (2015) also carried out an underwater flow measurement testing on their
design. During the testing process, some level of reduction in sensitivity was observed. They
further explained that the lapses in sensitivity during the test was as the result of the ECT
clamp-on arrangement. This caused uncontrollable level of water to leak under the sensor,
which reduced the effectiveness of sensor measurement.

37
3.3 Laboratory Procedure for Design Improvement Method
The first step of the laboratory work was the examination of the existing design and outlining
the areas which requires improvement. This was done with respect to the underwater test
conducted on the prototype design, where observations such as reduction in sensor sensitivity
resulting from large water leakage under the sensor was recorded. And it was also notices that
the design presents complex manipulation of the anchoring and clamping mechanism. Based
on these, it is deemed necessary to improve on the following:
 Improve on the sensor arrangement (by fastening a fixed sleeve sensor on the sensor
case)
 To improve on the clamp mechanism (by simplifying the clamping mechanism to suit
ROV manipulation)
Installation of the fixed sleeve on the sensor case: - The fixed sleeve sensor comprises of eight
pieces of aluminium strips screwed together in a coaxial arrangement with each strip consisting
of a flexible sensor. This component was splinted into three (3-2-3) and was attached on the
sensor case with clips and screws, the arrangement is in such a way that the strips can easily be
detached from the sensor casing either for maintenance or replacement purposes. Figure 24
below shows the image of the fixed sleeve sensor.

Figure 24: Fixed Sleeve Sensor

Replication of the Anchors/Clamps Arms: - The previous design comprises of two arms which
normally anchors on the pipe before the sensor would be clamped around the pipe. The design
improvement took advantage of these anchors. The latter were seen to be viable of working as
one of the main components of the entire system, as the improvement intends that this
component shall carry the sensor casing and at the same time be driven by the improved
mechanism. The left and right sides of this component were replicated. The geometry of the
existing arm was taken and carefully machined using the C.N.C machine. Each of the arms
comprises of two aluminium plates of 6mm thickness and 5 bushing which are fitted between
the plats to maintain a gap of 20mm between the two plates.

38
 Figure 25: Shows the Image of the Clamping Arm During Replication

The Figure 26 below shows fabricated component of the system, the components were
designed for mounting the sensor casing on the clamp arms, the tip of the four components
were made to be screwed on each of the clamp arms while the base is designed to be screwed
on the body of the sensor casing, aimed at suspending the casing at a desired height. This
arrangement helps to effect the opening and closing of the sensor casing as the clamp arm
drives within the confined length of movement. These components may be referred to as
linkages. The curved part of the component were made with the use of a compass, this was
done on an aluminium plate by drawing an arc which correlates with the circular wall thickness
of the sensor casing. This was machined and trimmed to suit the wall thickness of the existing
casing. Also, 10mm rod was machined according to the required length, the rods were threaded
at both ends and screwed perpendicular to the aluminium base as shown in the Figure 25 below.

Figure 26: Shows Fabricated Component that Links the Sensor Casing to Clamping Arms

Drilling of holes on Main Frame: - Basically all the existing wholes on the top section of the
frame were replicated on the down section of the frame. This is because the design
improvement intends to fix extra clamp arms at the down section of the frame, aimed to work
in an opposite direction to the already existing clamp arms. This implies all the existing holes
at the top section of the frame has to be replicated at the down section of the frame. These holes
were provided to link the mechanism from the clamp arms to the back of the frame where the

39
mechanism would be manually operated. Some other holes were drilled for fastening of
components to the frame with bolts and nuts. The holes are of different sizes and shapes aimed
to serve their intended purposes. The holes were made using electric hand drills. The Figure 27
below shows the frame with replication of perforations.

Figure 27: Frame with Replication of Holes

Improved Clamp Mechanism: - The improved mechanism comprises of eight sprockets, seven
helical gears, chains, eight saddles and four shafts, Figure 28 below shows a coupling stage of
the system. The improved mechanism intends that the helical gears would be crossed to
transmit torque across shafts at the points of intersection. The two main shafts are 483mm long,
with one helical gears at the mid shaft and two saddles at both ends. These shafts were mounted
horizontally on the rear panel of the clamp frame.
The two shafts which delivers rotary motion to the horizontal shafts are 160mm long, they
comprise of two helical gears and two bearings each. One of the helical gears on the vertical
shafts was be matted with the central helical gear, while the other end was meshed with the
gears on the horizontal shafts, this is aimed at delivering rotary motion to the horizontal shafts.
As the result of this arrangement, when a torque is applies on the central helical gear, the torque
transmits from the central helical gear through the vertical shafts to the horizontal shafts. This
drives one of the horizontal shafts in clockwise direction while the other rotates in
anticlockwise direction. As the result of this, torque would be transmitted to the sprockets
which are synchronised to the four clamp arms through chains, to delivers opposite forces to
the lower and upper segments of the sensor case via linkages and so effects the simultaneous
anchoring and clamping of the arms and casing respectively.

40
 Figure 28: Shows Image a Coupling Stage of the equipment

3.4 Clamp Deployment and Measurement Operation Method

With the depth of over 10,000ft (3,000m) from the surface of the sea to the seabed, subsea oil
and gas production system presents huge challenge in terms of equipment deployment and
installation. Base on this, underwater flow measurement equipment deployment normally
includes the following:
 Load out and Sea Fastening
 Transportation
 Seas Survey
 Deployment, which includes over boarding, slash zone lowering, midwater lowering,
landing, positioning and setting
Generally, subsea flow measurement equipment deployment are mostly done from discretional
vessels with sufficient winch rope length and crane capacity with or without heavy
compensator. The vessel may be a drill vessel, umbilical laying vessel, pipe laying vessel or
offshore support vessel. As stated in the literature review, the most suitable ROV equipment
attached deployment method is the over boarding method which is generally referred to as over
boarding heavy weather deployment system. In cases of temporal installation of the equipment
on subsea pipeline with fouling, the attached ROV is used to remove the fouling on the surface
of the pipe before anchoring and clamping. The concept of the ROV’s TMS system is
considered to be an excellent technique. To power the equipment, the ROV should comprise
of a socket compatible with that of the equipment to supply the required power to the ECT
system. This temporal installation implies that the ROV would be on standby throughout
measurement process. In case of permanent installation, an alternative power source could be
achieve via the power supply of the subsea production system. Through the umbilical,
communication is achieved between the sensor and the computer located on the platform or
vessel via high speed Ethernet.

41
4.0 THEORYTICAL DESING ANALYSIS OF THE CLAMP
MECHANISM
If a number of bodies are assembled in such a way that the motion of one causes constrained
and predictable motion of the others, such arrangement is referred to as mechanism. A
mechanism simply transmits and modifies a motion. A machine is considered as a mechanism
or a combination of mechanisms which apart from imparting definite motions to a parts, also
transmits and modifies the available mechanical energy into some kind of desired work.

As stated in chapter one, the existing measurement clamp comprises of mechanism which
entails rigorous manual processes to manipulate and achieve the clamping and unclamping of
the sensor case around pipe diameter. Base on this, the design improvement proposed a
simplified mechanism which considered real life application factor. The improved design
mechanism comprises of eight sprockets, seven helical gears, chains and four shafts. The
design arrangement is in such a way that a central helical gear is meshed with two crossed axis
helical gears (left and right driven), this is done so that the applied torque can be transmitted
between the non-parallel shafts at the intersection points of shafts. This drives the sprockets
and chains which effects the clamping and unclamping of the sensor case via the clamping
arms.

This section of the work, analyses the components of the mechanism with respect to mechanical
design. The analysis comprises of design calculations which determines the clamping force and
stress. This is achieved by calculating the efficiency of each region of crossed helical gears
based on the direction of rotary motion, the torque required by the central helical gears to
deliver a known torque on the main shafts and sprockets, the forces delivered to the clamping
arms by the sprockets and chains and the stress developed as the result of the force. This
enhanced the critically analysis of the clamp mechanism.

4.1 Helical Gears

To compare with every other types of gear, helical gears allows for several unique gears shaft
relationship, two shafts of any angle can be conveniently connected by pair of helical gears for
power transmission. Parallel helical gears are used for parallel shafts while cross helical gears
can accommodate almost any shaft angle. Helical gears for parallel shaft which is referred to
as parallel helical gears, when compared to its spur gear equivalent are known for heavy load

42
transmission. Helical gears for non-parallel shafts, which are referred to as crossed helical gears
are limited in terms of withstand-able load, this is due to their point contact between mating
teeth. Figure 29a shows arrangement of crossed helical gears, which was used for torque
transmission in the design improvement, Figure 29b shows the arrangement of parallel helical
gears transmission set up.

Figure 29: Shows Helical Gear Arrangement (a) For Crossed Shaft and (b) For Parallel Shafts

According to According to Buckingham (1981), helical gears teeth are not straight like that of
spur gear, their teeth are cut at an angle to the gear face, because of their angled teeth, tooth
contacts is more gradual to compare with that of spur gears. Its gradual contact makes it
smoother and less noisy during motion. Angled gear teeth are longer than straight geared teeth
of the same face width. Due to the longer teeth, helical gears carries more heaver load than spur
gears of the same size. Force on an angles teeth results in an axial trust force. The teeth of the
helical gears are oblique to the axis of rotation. The helix angle is the line parallel to the axis
of rotation and a line tangential to the pitch helix. The helix angle is given by:
2𝜋𝑅
𝛹 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
𝐿
Where:
𝑅 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝐿 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ
𝛹 = ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

Helical gear can be left hand or right hand. A right hand helical gear has teeth twists clockwise
away from an observer looking along the axis, the lead is the axial advance in one revolution,
equation (1) relates the helix angle and the lead by using a right triangle with lead (𝐿) as one
leg and pitch circumference (2𝜋𝑅) as the other. The pitch diameter of helical gear is not simply

43
a direct linear relationship to the number of teeth, the helix angle influences the pitch diameter.
Helical gear pitch diameter is given by:
𝑁
𝑑= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (2)
𝑃 cos 𝛹
Where:
𝑑 = 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ
𝛹 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑃 = 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
4.1.1 Helical Gear Efficiency
According to Buckingham (1981), the analysis of helical gear efficiency is quite similar to that
of spur gear, which the crossed helical gear efficiency can be determine by:

𝑁
1 + (𝑁1 )𝜇
2
𝑒 = 1−[ ] (𝑄𝑎2 + 𝑄𝑟2 ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
(𝑄𝑎 + 𝑄𝑟 ) cos 𝛹 2

Where:
𝑁1 = 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑁2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝜇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝛹 = 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

Buckingham (1981), further states that the calculation of crossed helical gears efficiency is
based on an assumption that the coefficient of friction is the same for approach and recess,
which can be determined with the use of average sliding velocity. The average sliding velocity
can be obtained using the pitch line velocity, the equation is as shown below.

𝑁1 𝑄𝑎 + 𝑄𝑟
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉 (1 + ).( ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4)
𝑁2 4
Where:
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑉 = 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡/min)

44
 Figure 30: Coefficient of Friction (Doane, J. 2002)

The arc of approach 𝑄𝑎 is given by the following equation:

2 2
√𝑅𝑜2 − 𝑅𝑏2 − 𝑅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
𝑄𝑎 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (5)
𝑅𝑏1

The arc recession 𝑄𝑟 is given by the following equation:

2 2
√𝑅𝑜1 − 𝑅𝑏1 − 𝑅1 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
𝑄𝑟 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (6)
𝑅𝑏1

Where:
𝑅1 = 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑅𝑜1 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑅𝑏1 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
∅ = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2
𝑅2 = 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑅𝑜2 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑅𝑏2 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟

45
4.1.2 Analysis of Crossed Helical Gear
Analysis of crosses helical gear makes use of equivalent diameter, which is a diameter
equivalent to that of a spur gear. For a desired speed ratio, a set of crossed helical gear for 90𝑜
shaft angle can be used by first selecting its equivalent of spur gear a and b respectively, this is
to satisfy speed ratio requirement. Both equivalent diameter may be represented on graph as
shown in the Figure 31 below, to locate point A.O drawn from the origin through point O gives
a ratio line. For a line drawn diagonally through a point O, distance AO and OB will represent
the pitch diameter of the helical gear a and b respectively. Angles 𝛼𝑎 and 𝛼𝑏 will give tooth
angle of helical gears a and b respectively (Doane, J. 2002).

Figure 31: Graphical Solution for Crossed Helical Gear with 90𝑜 Shaft angle (Doane, J. 2002)

Pitch diameter of helical gear which is represented as the length of line AO can be obtained by:
𝑑𝑎𝑖
𝐴𝑂 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (7)
cos 𝛼𝑎
Similarly, helical gear b will have a pitch diameter equal to the length of line BO and can be
determined by:
𝑑𝑏𝑖
𝐵𝑂 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (8)
cos 𝛼𝑏
The centre distance C between the helical gears can be determined by summing the above
pitch diameter and dividing the sum by two. Therefore, AO + BO = 2C
𝑑𝑎𝑖 𝑑𝑏𝑖
+ = 2𝐶 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (9)
cos 𝛼𝑎 cos 𝛼𝑏
From figure 31, it can be seen that 𝛼𝑎 + 𝛼𝑏 = 90𝑜 . By substituting 𝛼𝑏 = 90𝑜 − 𝛼𝑎 in the
above equation and noting that cos (90𝑜 − 𝛼𝑎 ) = sin 𝛼𝑎 , we have the following:

46
 𝑑𝑎𝑖 𝑑𝑏𝑖
+ = 2𝐶 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (10)
cos 𝛼𝑎 sin 𝛼𝑎

By multiplying through with sin 𝛼𝑎 and noting that sin 𝛼𝑎 / cos 𝛼𝑎 = tan 𝛼𝑎 , it implies that
𝑑𝑎𝑖 tan 𝛼𝑎 + 𝑑𝑏𝑖 = 2C sin 𝛼𝑎 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (11)

The above equation is a nonlinear equation with one unknown value of helical gear tooth angle
a. its shows that once the equation is solved the tooth angle of helical gear b would be
determined from
𝛼𝑏 = 90𝑜 − 𝛼𝑎 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (12)

The pitch diameter of the helical gear represented by length AO and BO, can be determine
using equation (7) and (8).
𝑑𝑎𝑖 𝑑𝑏𝑖
𝐴𝑂 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑂 =
cos 𝛼𝑎 cos 𝛼𝑏

4.2 Analysis of Sprocket and Chain

Sprocket and chain drive mechanism are another way of transferring and manipulating of
rotational speed and torque between rotating shafts. The speed changes between two sprockets
synchronised with chain is determined by the ratio of the number of teeth on each sprocket,
when the powered sprocket rotates three hundred and sixty degrees (360𝑜 ), it pulls the chain
by the number of teeth on the sprocket, the chain also pulls the driven sprocket by the same
number of teeth. However the driven sprocket may have equal, smaller or even larger number
of teeth depending on the application.

Figure 32: Driver and Driven Sprockets ratio and rpm (Technologystudent.com, 2015)

47
According to Societyofrobots.com, (2015), sprocket and chain calculations are very similar to
that of gears as shown in Figure 32 above. They further explained that, the ratio of the sprockets
synchronised with chain is given by:
𝑁1
𝑆𝑅 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (13)
𝑁2
Where:
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠
𝑁1 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
𝑁1 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡

Also the output speed (rpm) output of the arrangement can be determined by:

𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑆𝑅 × 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (14)

Where:
𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

Similarly, the output torque can be determined using the following equation:
𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜏𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (15)
𝑆𝑅
Where:
𝜏𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

48
4.3 Analytical Calculation of Torque, Clamp Force & Stress of Mechanism
Figure 33 below shows an illustrative diagram of the clamping mechanism, to clamp the system
on pipe, a torque has to be applied on the central helical gear via the gear handle. Since the
equipment is to be clamped on an underwater flow line by an ROV. To determine the actual
forces and stress delivered to the sensor casing, the torque applied to the central helical gears
has be within the range of the torsional force which can be produced by a standard ROV.

Figure 33: Schematic Diagram of Clamp Mechanism arrangement

According to Interventiontechnology.com, (2015), their standard ROV rotary manipulating

arm which was recently developed is a unique design comprising of low torque tool
manipulator. The tool was developed specifically to produce torque suitable for actuation of
ball and needle valves as well as clamps within the subsea production system. The following
attributes are associated with the newly developed ROV torque tool manipulator:
 Compatible interface with ISO 13628-8 (API 17H)
 Output speed of 30rpm at 10I/min (2.2g/mn)
 Torque output of between 6Nm to 70Nm
 Gear unit is made of aluminium casing, reduces corrosion and has environmental
protection
 Depth rating is the same as the hosting ROV
 Deployable via Tool Deployment Unit or manipulator
 Torque level can be manually pre-set, or via a closed loop system torque control

49
 4.3.1 Efficiency of the Crossed Helical Gears
To determine the efficiency of the crossed helical gears, from equation (3), we have

𝑁
1 + (𝑁1 ) 𝜇
2
𝑒 = 1−[ ] (𝑄𝑎2 + 𝑄𝑟2 )
(𝑄𝑎 + 𝑄𝑟 ) cos 𝛹 2

Parameters:
𝑁1 → 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 12
𝑁2 → 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 12
𝑄𝑎 → 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 =?
𝑄𝑟 → 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 =?
𝜇 → 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ?
𝛹 → 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =?

SORCING REQUIRED DATA

Coefficient of Friction 𝝁 : From Appendix 1 and hence as shown in Table 1 below which
comprises coefficient of friction values for steel material on steel material, dry static and sliding
as well as greased static and sliding values.
Dry Greased

Material 1 Material 2 Static Sliding Static Sliding

Steel (Mild) Steel (Mild) 0.74 0.57 - 0.09 – 0.19
Steel (Mild) Steel (Mild) - 0.62 - -
Steel (Hard) Steel (Hard) 0.78 0.42 0.05 – 0.11 0.029 - 12
Table 1: Coefficient of Friction 𝝁 Value for Steel Material to Steel Material (Roymech.co.uk, 2015)

The table implies the required value for the coefficient of friction 𝝁.

Arc of approach 𝑸𝒂 , and arc of recession 𝑸𝒓

Also from equation (5), the arc of approach 𝑄𝑎 is given by:
2 2
√𝑅𝑜2 − 𝑅𝑏2 − 𝑅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
𝑄𝑎 =
𝑅𝑏1
And from equation (6), 𝑄𝑟 is given by:
2 2
√𝑅𝑜1 − 𝑅𝑏1 − 𝑅1 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
𝑄𝑟 =
𝑅𝑏1

50
 To obtain the values of the required parameters for the above equation, the Diametral Pitch
“DP” of the helical gears has to be known. The Diametral Pitch is the ratio of the number of
teeth to the pitch diameter. The actual pitch diameter of the helical gears used in the improved
design is 36mm and the helical gears comprises of 12 teeth.
Now, Diametral Pitch of the helical gears is given by:
36
= 3𝐷𝑃 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
12

The Table 2 below was prepared by Buckingham, (1981), this was done to simplifying the
computation for helical pinion with small number of teeth suitable for 3 DP (normal) gears.
The gears were selected to give helix angles of approximately 150 , 200 and 250 . However the
gears may also comprise of different pitches.

𝑁1 𝐿1 𝑅𝑜1 𝑅1 𝑅𝑟1 𝑅𝑏1 𝑇1

5 60.750 4.0000 2.5880 2.1093 2.42180 2.1372
6 72.900 4.5198 3.1056 2.5625 2.90617 2,0887
7 85.050 5.0396 3.6232 3.0156 3.39053 2.0402
8 97.200 6.0793 4.1408 3.4690 3.87489 1.9917
9 109.350 6.5326 4.6584 3.9223 4.35925 1.9432
10 121.500 7.4391 5.1760 4.3756 4.84361 1.8943
11 133.650 7.8923 5.6936 4.8288 5.32797 1.8463
12 145.800 8.3456 6.2112 5.2821 5.81233 1.7978
Table 2: Proportions of 3 DP Small Pinion Helical Gears form 5 to 12 gear teeth (Buckingham, 1981)

With regards to appendix 2 and hence the table above, since the helical gear comprises of
12teeth, the required parameters values to calculate the arc of approach and recession are as
follows:
𝑅1 = 6.2112, 𝑅01 = 8.3456, 𝑅𝑏1 = 5.81233 and ∅ = 21.1690 and further, 𝛹 = 200

Now substituting the values in the recession equation, we have:

√(8.3456)2 − (5.81233)2 − 6.2112 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 21.169

𝑄𝑟 =
5.81233

51
Determining the efficiency e:
From the sources and calculations presented above, the required parameter to determine the
efficiency are as follows:
𝑁1 → 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 12
𝑁2 → 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 12
𝑄𝑎 → 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 0.6444
𝑄𝑟 → 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 0.6444
𝜇 → 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.57 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0.09 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
5.9888 − 6.2112 × 0.3611 3.7459
𝑄𝑟 = =
5.81233 5.81233

𝑄𝑟 = 0.6444

Since the geometry of the driver helical gear and the driven helical gear are the same, it implies
that they also have the same Diametral Pitch DP and consequently:
𝑄𝑟 = 𝑄𝑎
𝛹 → 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 200

For critical analysis, we shall calculates the efficiency base on dry sliding and greased sliding
of the steel material with respect to its coefficient of friction.

The efficiency of the Crossed Helical gears without lubrication (dry sliding):
We shall first determine the efficiency of the crossed helical meshed without grease (dry
sliding). Substituting the values into the equation, we have the following:
12
1 + (12) 0.57
𝑒 =1−[ [(0.6444)2 + (0.6444)2 ]
]
(0.6444 + 0.6444) × cos 20 2

2
𝑒 =1− × 0.285 × 0.8385
1.2888 × 0.9396
𝑒 = 1 − 1.6516 × 0.285 × 0.8385
The efficiency of the crossed helical gears working without lubrication is 𝑒 = 0.605 𝑜𝑟 60.5%

The efficiency of the Crossed Helical gears with lubrication (greased sliding):
Now to also determine the efficiency of the same gears when sliding surfaces are greased, we
have the following:

52
 12
1+() 0.09
𝑒 =1−[ 12 ] [(0.6444)2 + (0.6444)2 ]
(0.6444 + 0.6444) × cos 20 2

2
𝑒 =1− × 0.045 × 0.8385
1.2888 × 0.9396
𝑒 = 1 − 1.6516 × 0.045 × 0.8385
The efficiency of the crossed helical gears working with lubrication is 𝑒 = 0.937 𝑜𝑟 93.7 %
In comparison, the coefficient of friction for steel helical gears greased sliding appears to be
more efficient than that of dry sliding.

4.3.2 Torque Delivered to Horizontal Shafts

Since the torque transmission through the system delivers clockwise rotary motion to
horizontal shaft-a and anticlockwise rotary motion to horizontal shaft-b, it is deemed necessary
that the mechanism layout should be separated according to the direction of rotary motion. This
is aimed at enhancing the clockwise and anticlockwise torque calculation analysis. Also the
torque delivered to each of the horizontal shafts would be determined base on the output torque
when gears are dry and grease sliding, this is also aimed at determining the torque output base
on dry and lubricated cases.
Section of clockwise direction:
Since the ROV rotary manipulator designed by Interventiontechnology.com, (2015) provides
torque within the range of 6Nm – 70Nm and as further explained that the torque input level
can be pre-set. Regarding this, torque input by the ROV shall be assumed within the stipulated
range.

Figure 34: Section of Clockwise Direction During Clamping

53
If an ROV applies a torque of 6Nm on the central helical gear, the torque delivered to the
horizontal shaft through each of the vertical transmission shafts and the crossed helical gears
is given by:
𝜏1𝑎
𝜏2𝑎 = 𝑒1𝑎 × 𝑒2𝑎 ×
2
Where:
𝜏2𝑎 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑎
𝑒1𝑎 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑒2𝑎 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝜏1𝑎 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑂𝑉
But, since the geometry of all the crossed helical gears are the same, consequently,
𝑒1𝑎 = 𝑒2𝑎
Torque delivered to shaft-a when crossed helical gears contact is dry sliding (not-lubricated):
The data is as follows:
𝑒1𝑎 = 0.605, 𝑒2𝑎 = 0.605, Since the input torque is distributed to the two shafts, 𝜏1𝑎 =
6𝑁𝑚
= 3𝑁𝑚
2
Substituting values into the equation, we have:
𝜏2𝑎 = 0.605 × 0.605 × 3𝑁𝑚
𝜏2𝑎 = 1.1𝑁𝑚(𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒)
Torque delivered to shaft-a when crossed helical gears contact is greased sliding
(lubricated):
The data is as follows:
6𝑁𝑚
𝑒1𝑎 = 0.937, 𝑒2𝑎 = 0.937, 𝜏1𝑎 = = 3𝑁𝑚
2

Substituting values into the equation, we have:

𝜏2𝑎 = 0.937 × 0.937 × 3𝑁𝑚
𝜏2𝑎 = 2.6𝑁𝑚 (𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
This implies that, if a torque of 6Nm is applies on the central helical gear, a clockwise torque
of 1.1Nm and 2.6 Nm dried meshed case and grease meshed case respectively would be
delivered to the horizontal shaft-a.

Section of Anticlockwise direction:

Since the ROV applied the torque on the central helical gears where the torque is equally
distributed to the two gears which are meshed with the central helical gear to transmits torque

54
to the vertical shafts. Also considering the geometry of all the helical gears which appears to
be the same. This implies that the same level of torque (3Nm each) would be transmitted to
both sections (clockwise and anticlockwise) of rotary direction.

Figure 35: Section of Anti-Clockwise Direction During Clamping

Torque delivered to shaft-b when crossed helical gears contact is dry sliding (not lubricated):
Therefore:
𝜏2𝑏 = 0.605 × 0.605 × 3𝑁𝑚
𝜏2𝑏 = 1.1𝑁𝑚(𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒)
Torque delivered to shaft-b when crossed helical gears contact is greased sliding
(lubricated):
Similarly:
𝜏2𝑏 = 0.937 × 0.937 × 3𝑁𝑚
𝜏2𝑏 = 2.6𝑁𝑚 (𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒)

This implies that, if a torque of 6Nm is applies on the central helical gear, an anti-clockwise
torque of 1.1Nm and 2.6 Nm dry sliding and grease sliding cases respectively would be
delivered to the horizontal shaft-b.

4.3.3 Sprockets Input and Output Torque

Regarding the calculations in the previous section, which considers dry and grease sliding
crossed axis helical gears, the data obtained from the analysis would be used to also
determine the output torque of driven sprocket base on dry and grease sliding cases, by
ignoring the chain, we have:
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 ×
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
Where:

55
 𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
Sprocket input and output torque when crossed helical gears contact is dry sliding (not
lubricated):
Since we have two sprockets on each horizontal shafts, torque input to each driving sprocket
is given by:
𝜏𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡−𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 1.1
𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = = = 0.55𝑁𝑚
2 2
Therefore,
𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 0.55𝑁𝑚
𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 =?
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 40𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 40𝑚𝑚

Substituting values into the equation, we have

40𝑚𝑚
0.55𝑁𝑚 = 𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 ×
40𝑚𝑚
0.55𝑁𝑚 = 𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 × 1𝑚𝑚

Making 𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 the subject and recalling equation (15), we have:

0.55𝑁𝑚
𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 =
1𝑚𝑚
𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 0.55𝑁𝑚 (𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)

Sprocket input and output torque when crossed helical gears contact is greased sliding
(lubricated):
𝜏𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡−𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 2.6
𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = = = 1.3𝑁𝑚
2 2

Substituting values into the equation, we have:

40𝑚𝑚
1.3𝑁𝑚 = 𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 ×
40𝑚𝑚

56
 1.3𝑁𝑚 = 𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 × 1𝑚𝑚

Making 𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 the subject and recalling equation (15), we have:

1.3𝑁𝑚
𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 =
1𝑚𝑚
Output torque by each of the driven sprocket is:
𝜏𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛−𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 1.3𝑁𝑚 (𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)

The driven sprocket output torque is finally delivered to the shafts on each of the clamp arm,
where the rotary motion due to torque is converted to linear motion. The linear motion which
generates as the result of this arrangement transmits to the sensor casing through the linkages,
there by simultaneously anchoring and clamping the system around the pipe diameter.

4.3.4 Clamping Force and Circumferential Stress on Sensor Casing

As the output torque from each of the driven sprockets transmits a motion to the sensor casing
through the clamp arms and the linkages, forces are generated which normally pulls the case
segments to form a common axis. During this process, hoop stress is also generated within the
internal surface of the sensor casing. This stress is as the result of the external wall of the pipe,
normally generated in a situation of internal surface of sensor case overlapping the pipe
diameter. Base on this, it is considered necessary to relate the level of torque input to the system
and the amount of force and stress generated as the result of the torque.

Figure 36: Illustrative Diagram of the Sensor Casing Showing the direction of Active Clamping Force

As shown in figure 36 above, the forces delivered to the upper and lower sensor case segments
are denoted by 𝐹𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑏 respectively. To determine these forces, since we know the output
torque and the diameter of all the driven sprockets which delivered the forced on the sensor

57
casing. Base on these known parameters, the forces delivered to the sensor casing by the
sprockets can be determined. According to Roboticsindia.com, (2015), torque is defined as the
product of force and the radius of a pulley. Now, considering the sprockets as the pulley, hence
the mathematical expression below:

𝜏 =𝐹×𝑟
Where:
𝜏 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡

Again, we shall also consider this parameters base on gears dry and grease sliding cases.

Force delivered when crossed helical gears contact is dry sliding (not lubricated)
With respect to the above force equation:
𝜏 = 0.55𝑁𝑚
𝐹 =?
𝑑 40𝑚𝑚
𝑟= = = 20𝑚𝑚
2 2
Converting the radius from millimetre to meter, we have:
20𝑚𝑚
𝑟= = 0.02𝑚
1000
Substituting the values into the equation, we have the following:
0.55𝑁𝑚 = 𝐹 × 0.02𝑚
Making 𝐹 the subject, we have:
0.55𝑁𝑚
𝐹=
0.02𝑚
Therefore, the forced output by each sprocket when gears are dry sliding is:

𝐹 = 27.5𝑁
Since each of the horizontal shafts comprises of two sprockets, it implies that:
𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹 × 2 = 27.5𝑁 × 2

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 𝐹𝑎 = 55𝑁 ( 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑)
Also:

𝐹𝑏 = 55𝑁 ( 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒)

Force delivered when crossed helical gears contact is greased sliding (lubricated)
Similarly for grease case, we have:
𝜏 = 1.3𝑁𝑚
𝐹 =?
𝑑 40𝑚𝑚
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 = = = 20𝑚𝑚
2 2
Converting the radius from millimetre to meter, we have:
20𝑚𝑚
𝑟= = 0.02𝑚
1000
Substituting the values into the equation, we have the following:
1.3𝑁𝑚 = 𝐹 × 0.02𝑚
Making 𝐹 the subject, we have:
1.3𝑁𝑚
𝐹=
0.02𝑚
Therefore,
𝐹 = 65𝑁
Since each of the horizontal shafts comprises of two sprockets, it implies that:
𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹 × 2 = 65𝑁 × 2
𝐹𝑎 = 130𝑁(𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒)
And similarly,
𝐹𝑏 = 𝐹 × 2 = 65𝑁 × 2
𝐹𝑏 = 130𝑁(𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒)

Determining the hoop stress

Considering the sensor casing when subjected to an internal pressure, resulting from the
internal surface of the casing and pipe interface. The material of the sensor casing will be
subjected to hoop or circumferential stress. The forces from the top and lower segments of the
sensor case against the pipe diameter generating pressure acting circumferentially on the

59
internal surface of the casing, tending to burst the casing as shown in Figure 36. According to
Khurmi,( 2005), the expression for hoop or circumferential stress is as follows:
𝑝×𝑑×𝑙
σH =
2×𝑡
Where:
300𝑚𝑚
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 0.3𝑚
1000
140𝑚𝑚
𝑑 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0.14𝑚
1000
20𝑚𝑚
𝑡 = 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 0.02𝑚
1000
𝑝 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =?
To obtain the intensity of internal pressure, we know that:
𝐹
𝑝=
𝐴

Clamp force and stress generated from dry sliding (not lubricated)
Force 𝐹 is the sum of the forces acting on the sensor casing, this is given by:
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝑏
Force delivered by shaft-a and shaft-b with respect to dry sliding case, we have
𝐹 = 55𝑁 + 55𝑁
Therefore;
𝐹 = 110𝑁
According to Learner.org, (2015), the surface area of an open cylinder is given by:
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
And the radius 𝑟 is given by:
𝑑 0.14𝑚
𝑟= = = 0.07𝑚
2 2
Therefore,
𝐴 = 2 × 3.1415 × 0.07𝑚 × 0.3𝑚
𝐴 = 0.131943𝑚2
Now substituting the values into the pressure equation, we have:
110𝑁
𝑝= = 833.7𝑁/𝑚2 = 833.7𝑃𝑎
0.131943𝑚2
Substituting the values into the equation of hoop stress as follows:

60
 833.7𝑃𝑎 × 0.14𝑚 × 0.3𝑚 35.015
σH = =
2 × 0.02𝑚 0.04
The hoop stress due force delivered by sprockets resulting from dry friction between gears is:
σH = 875.385𝑃𝑎

Total force and stress generated when crossed helical gears contact is greased sliding
(lubricated)
Similarly, force 𝐹 is the sum of the forces acting on the sensor casing, this is given by
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝑏
𝐹 = 130𝑁 + 130𝑁
𝐹 = 260𝑁
The area of the casing as calculated above is:
𝐴 = 0.131943𝑚2
Now substituting the values into the pressure equation, we have:
260𝑁
𝑝= 2
= 1970.5𝑁/𝑚2 = 1970.5𝑃𝑎
0.131943𝑚

Substituting the values into the equation of hoop stress as follows:

1970.5𝑃𝑎 × 0.14𝑚 × 0.3𝑚 82.761
σH = =
2 × 0.02𝑚 0.04

σH = 2069.025𝑃𝑎

Brief Summary of Calculation

The above calculation presents the analysis of the mechanism, when a known level of torque
is applies to the system, how the mechanism transmits the torque within the system and finally
the force generated by the torque on delivery to the sensor casing, the stress is as the result of
the force acting against the internal surfaces of the sensor casing, consequently directly on the
fixed sensor sleeve which comprises a set of flexible sensor foil. The values obtained from the
calculation are of two categories, when the crossed helical gears are meshed and lubricated and
when the gears are meshed without lubrication, this was done to determine the level of losses
due to change in coefficient of friction.
Basically, the analytical calculation assumes that an ROV with a low robotic torque
manipulating tool applied a torque of 6Nm on the central helical gear, which through crossed
helical gears meshed with central helical gear transmits a torque to each of the horizontal shafts.

61
And since the shafts comprises of two sprockets, the input torque was equally distributed to the
sprockets. These torque transmits from the driving sprockets to the driven sprockets via chain,
which effects the moving of the clamp arms with a confined level of movement and there by
adjusting the sensor casing in a controlled manner. However, the forces generated as the result
of this also induced some level of stress on the sensor casing due to casing and pipe interface
at a known force, all these were numerically stated in the above calculation.

62
5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As stated is chapter one, this section of the project entails the results and discussion regarding
the design improvement and the analytical calculation of the clamp mechanism, the section
presents the advantages of the improved prototype design over the previous design. The section
also analysed the structural material used for the fabrication. These defines the effectiveness of
the implemented method.
5.1 Laboratory Design Improvement Result and Discussion
The laboratory design improvement presents a better handling when compared to the previous
design. The improved design significantly dealt with deployment and installation drawbacks
presented by the previous design in terms of ROV handling. Considering the deployment and
installation of the subsea flow measurement equipment, where the installation requires
anchoring the equipment to a desired (vertical or horizontal subsea pipeline) pipe before
clamping the sensor casing around the pipe. A standard ROV comprises at most two robotic
arm for manipulation, these arms are capable of pulling and pushing, grasping and releasing,
lifting and holding in three dimensional positioning as well as application of torque. Now, also
consider if such ROV is to install an underwater measurement equipment which requires lifting
and holding at a desired height (that of the pipe from seabed), and at the same time grasping
and releasing two mini-grip clamps simultaneously to anchor the equipment on the pipe. After
which the same rigorous process of simultaneously grasped and released of another two mini-
grip clamps to clamp the sensor around the same pipe. These has to be done while the same
ROV holds the equipment in position. These processes are considered complex for a single
middle work class ROV to handle. Such operation can either be carried out by more than one
ROV or by a heavy work class ROV. However, deploying more than one ROV or a heavy work
class underwater vehicle for the purpose of installation of a measurement equipment is
considered not cost effective for industries.

Figure 37: Shows the Improved Design (a) Sensor Clamped on a Short Transparent Pipe (b) Sensor
Casing widely Open

63
The figure 37 above shows the front view of the improved design, the design comprises of four
anchor or clamp arms. The latter eliminates the idea of separately anchoring the system on pipe
before clamping the sensor casing around the pipe. The anchor or clamp arms is considered as
a vital component of the system. This component carries out important function such as; being
driven by the mechanism to effect the opening and closing of the sensor casing during clamping
and unclamping. The uniqueness of this design entails that, on applying a torque to the central
helical gear handle, the simplified mechanism simultaneously effects the anchoring of the arms
on pipe and clamping the casing around the same pipe simultaneously.
Based on the mechanism simplicity, a middle work class ROV comprising of two robotic arms
can comfortably carry out the installation within a short period of time. This entails using one
of its robotic arms to lift and suspending the measurement equipment at a desired height (the
level of subsea pipe) and using the second arm which comprises of torque tool manipulator to
apply torque on the central helical gear which in turn anchors and clamps the equipment on the
desired pipe. The required time to achieve full clamp of the sensor around a pipe is directly
proportional to the rpm of the applied torque.

Figure 38: Side View of the Improved Design Showing Part of the Mechanism

Another significant advantage of this improved design is reduction in size of the equipment.
To compare with the previous design which comprises of four long threaded rods connected to
the mini-grip clamp, which pushes and pulls the rods to effect the anchoring and clamping of
the system. These rods protrudes behind the camp frame, this implies more space for the
equipment during transportation. The improved design eliminates these protrusions, making
the equipment more portable.
Figure 38 above shows one of the sides of the improved design, also the sprockets and chain
which drives the two anchor or clamp arms located on this same side. When a torque is applied

64
 on the control handle, rotary motion is transmitted within the system through the crossed helical
gears and shafts, on getting to the driving sprocket and to transmit the motion to the driven
sprocket, the top part of the chain is subjected to tension while the lower part of the chain gets
loser and even sags. This is considered as the issue with most chain and sprocket applications.
Regarding the clamp design, during this stage, as the centre to centre distance of the sprockets
gets closer and as the clamp arms drives to open the sensor casing, the lower part of the chains
sags. This issue was taken care by the design, this was done by introducing springs of the same
rating at each end of the chains to compensate for the sagging during clamping and unclamping
processes.

5.2 Mechanism Calculations Result

The data obtained from the analytical calculations of the improved mechanism are presented
in the Table 3 below. The result obtained are compared based on friction coefficient for dry
and grease sliding values for mild steel helical gear meshed and sliding with another mild steel
helical gear of the same geometry. The analytical calculation was carried out with these values
of the material to critically considering the outcome of non-greased and greased cases.

Parameters Not lubricated sliding Lubricated sliding

Torque Applied on Central Gear 6Nm 6Nm
Crossed Helical Gears Efficiency - 60.5% 93.7%
𝑒
Torque delivered to horizontal 1.1Nm (clockwise) 2.6Nm (clockwise)
shaft-a
Torque delivered to horizontal 1.1Nm (anti-clockwise) 2.6Nm (anti-clockwise)
shaft-b
Sprocket torque input & output 0.55Nm (clockwise) 1.3Nm(clockwise)
shft-a
Sprocket torque input & output 0.55Nm (anti-clockwise) 1.3Nm(anti-clockwise)
shft-b
Top case segment clamp force 𝐹𝑎 55N (acting on top segment) 130N(acting on top segment)
Down case segment clamp force 𝐹𝑏 55N (acting on down segment) 130N(acting on down segment)
Total force delivered on casing 𝐹 110N 260N
Hoop or circumferential stress 𝜎𝐻 875.385Pa 2069.025Pa
Table 3: Calculated values with respect to steel on steel coefficient of friction non-greased and greased

65
These data shows that, if two of this clamping mechanism are subjected to the same level of
torque, of which the crossed helical gears in one of the systems are fully greased (lubricated)
while the other runs dry (not-lubricated), the efficiency of the clamping mechanism which
comprises of the greased crossed helical gears would be more to compare to that of the
clamping mechanism with non-greased sliding. It is also noticed that the case without
lubrication delivered a low clamping force which also implies its reduction in hoop or
circumferential stress on the casing. This is considered to be losses due to friction between the
teeth contacts of the crossed helical gears. This also reduces the efficiency of crossed helical
gears and affects the level of torque transmission within the system.
As much as emphases are laid on reduced level of clamping forces delivered to the sensor
casing and the stress generated due the forces, it is a good practices to lubricate rubbing parts
of machine (such as that of the crossed helical gears). This reduces temperature and friction
between parts and consequently the rate of part deterioration, also contributes to parts attaining
the stipulated design life.

5.3 Structural Material Discussion

This section presents discussion with respect to the material used for the fabrication of the
system. The material used for the fabrication of the clamp structure are aluminium alloy and
small portion of steel. Considering the application, steel is a known non corrosion resistance
material, though might be coated for the application. According to (Knutsen, et al., 2001), For
many years, aluminium and its alloy has been in used for offshore application, mainly for
topside structures, modules and for subsea application as tools and ROV related materials
which are not intended for permanents submerge but for tools temporal used in seawater.
Aluminium are not normally used for permanent submerged subsea application. Though, the
latter are used for sacrificial anode for the protection of subsea steel structures. Base on this,
aluminium is considered non seawater corrosion resistant material in the mind of subsea
structural designers.
The most commonly observed corrosion on aluminium exposed to sea water is pitting
corrosion, though to an extent intergranular corrosion as well (Knutsen, et al., 2001). When
aluminium is subjected to seawater, its corrosion susceptibility is dependent of the flow rate
and at the same time uniform dissolution of the oxide film may take place as the flow rate
increases. As the result of the seawater exposure, the aluminium surface will rapidly oxidise
again and form a new oxide film and the flow rate dependent dissolution will then commence
all over again. Coated steel material is considered a noble material to compare with aluminium,

66
though damage in the steel coating may only result to relatively small anodic area versus the
catholic area, which may require sacrificial anode. Local galvanic coupling may also occur,
resulting to highly localise subsequent polarisation as well. Base on this, selection of advance
material for the equipment is recommended.

67
6.0 CONCLUSION
This thesis basically entails design improvement of an existing subsea prototype clamp on ECT
system. Emphases were laid on improving on its sensor casing arrangement and simplifying its
mechanism to suit middle work class ROV handling. The design improvement was deemed
necessary due to the observation recorded during an underwater test conducted on the existing
design by the inventors. The cause of the design improvement took an empirical method where
a fixed sensor sleeve was incorporated into the system as well as merging of the anchoring and
clamping mechanism, so to be simultaneously driven by a torque applies on the central helical
gear. A viable design was achieve. Base on the project criterion, areas of further work were
outlined by the author.

6.1 RECOMMENDATIONS OF FUTURE WORK

Base on the research that has been conducted on this project for the past three months now,
the author deemed it’s necessary that the following recommendation should be focused on for
further work on this project:
 Design of related mechanical and electrical hardware suitable for use in offshore
environment such as extreme harsh weather condition.
 Obtain series of non-metallic pipe samples from manufactures and measure
electromagnetic spectrum to check individual level of compatibility with ECT flow
measurement sensor.
 Investigate and carry out advance material selection for the equipment, with emphases
on seawater corrosion, buoyant force and the level of water pressure at the seabed.

68
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A:
Coefficient of Friction Values for Different Materials (Roymech.co.uk, 2015)

75
76
APPENDIX B:
Proportions of Three Diametral Pitch (3DP) Helical Gears (Buckingham, 1981)

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 APPENDIX C:
Oil Field Flow Diagram Showing Multiphase Flow and Single Phase Flow (Ismaila, et al.,
2005)

The flow diagram above shows typical arrangements of two methods of measuring gas-oil-
water flows: with the conventional method using on-line measurement and test separators,
statistical record has shown that the installation of multiphase meter has significantly increased
from 200 in 1998 to 1000 in 2000. The first development of this meter was channelled to subsea
wellhead completion, comprising of metering to handle any percentage of water, oil and gas
from 0% to 100% and the percentage combination of any of the three component. The used of
multiphase meter has increased to the measurement range of 5% to 10% (Ismaila, et al., 2005).

78

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