Emat 2023 Ver

EMAT
Engineering Materials
3AE JORY S. TIANO

JULY 2023
VMA GLOBAL COLLEGE AND TRAINING CENTERS, INC.
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EMAT
Engineering Materials
Engineering Materials provides underpinning knowledge and understanding,

which involves identifying the different characteristics and limitations of construction,
fabrication, and repair onboard ships. The Course also tackles the structures of matter,
metallurgy, mechanical properties, fracture mechanics, ship's iron and steel, metal
fabrication techniques, heat treatment of steel, non-ferrous metals and alloys, plastics
materials and rubbers, ceramics and glass, adhesives, destructive and non-destructive
testing (JCMMC No. 1 Series of 2023)
Course Outcomes:
CO1. Distinguish appropriate materials for the construction and

repair of ships and equipment
CO2. Analyze the characteristics and limitations of process used for
fabrication
CO3. Determine the appropriate parameters in fabrication and repair
of systems and components
CO4. Determine the characteristics and select appropriate materials
and parts in the construction of equipment
CO5. Analyze the importance of theoretical knowledge of technology
of materials with the operational condition and performance
level of propulsion plant and auxiliary machineries
Student Name: ________________________________

Year and Section: _____________________________
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1. Structure of Matter and Introduction to Metallurgy 1 - 32
1.1. Structure of an atom
1.2. States of matter
1.3. Carbon and its Components
1.4. Crystal Structures in Metals and Non-Metallic Materials
2. Mechanical Properties and Fracture Mechanics 33 - 56

2.1. Stress
2.2. Strain
2.3. Mechanical Properties
2.4. Hooke’s Law
2.5. Stress Strain Curve
3. Thermal Conductivity of Materials 57 - 66

3.1 Thermal Expansion
3.2 Thermal Stress
4. Ship's Iron and Steel 67 - 88

4.1. Types of Steel Production
4.2. Steel Making
4.3. Effects of Alloying Element in Steel
4.4. Wrought Steels
5. Heat Treatment Of Metal 89 - 104

5.1. Objectives of heat treatment
5.2. Heat treatment process
6. Non-Ferrous Metals And Alloys 105 - 114

6.1. Alloying metal
6.2. Non-ferrous metal
6.3. applications of non-ferrous metals in marine engineering
7. Plastics , Rubbers And Composites 115 - 137

7.1. structure, properties and characteristics
7.2. application of composites on board
7.3. application of rubbers and plastics on board
7.4. limitations of the materials mention above
8. Adhesives 138 - 147

8.1 Types of adhesives
8.2 Preparation of adhesives
8.3 application of adhesives on board
9. Selecting Engineering Materials 148 - 169
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10. Destructive Testing 170 - 177

10.1 Objectives of destructive testing
10.2 types of destructive testing
11. Non-Destructive Testing 178 - 187

11.1 Objectives of non-destructive testing Types of Defect
11.2 types of non-destructive testing
REFERENCES 188 - 189
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STRUCTURE OF MATTER AND INTRODUCTION TO METALLURGY
Matter is made up of microscopic units called atoms. Chemical elements are

composed of atoms of a certain type. The classification of the elements takes place
according to the periodic table. If several atoms (chemical elements) react with each
other and form a stable unit by chemical bonds, these are called molecules.
For example, water consists of the elements hydrogen and oxygen. In each
case, two hydrogen atoms (H) and one oxygen atom (O) join together in order to form
a stable H2O molecule. Atomic units such as molecules, atoms, protons, neutrons,
electrons, etc. are simply referred to as particles. In this connection one often speaks
of the so-called particle model of matter.
Metallurgy is defined as a process that is used for the extraction of metals in

their pure form. The compounds of metals mixed with soil, limestone, sand, and rocks
are known as minerals. Metals are commercially extracted from minerals at low cost
and minimum effort. These minerals are known as ores. A substance which is added
to the charge in the furnace to remove the gangue (impurities) is known as flux.
Metallurgy deals with the process of purification of metals and the formation of
alloys.
Week 1 – 2
Learning Outcomes:
1.1. Explain the basic structure of matter with emphasis on the following :
 Nature of fundamental particles
 Structure of an atom
 Atomic nucleus
 Molecules
 States of Matter
1.2. Explain the properties an components of carbon and its effect on metallurgy
1.3. Explain the crystal structures of metallic and non-metallic materials
Pretest
1. It is the negatively charge component of an atom.
A. Proton
B. Electron
C. Nucleus
D. Neutron
2. It is the negatively charge component of an atom.
A. Proton
B. Electron
C. Nucleus
D. Neutron
3. What are the components of an atomic nucleus?
A. Electron and neutron

B. Electron an proton
C. Proton and neutron
D. Proton and electron
4. Which of the following describe a solid state of matter?
A. particles are tightly or closely packed

B. particles are less tightly packed as compared to solids
C. particles have less space between them to move
D. Force of attraction between the particles is weaker
5. Which of the following best describes a tensile strength of a metal?
A. the ability of a solid material to deform under stress

B. the amount of load a material can withstand before breaking
C. the ability of a material to conduct heat
D. ability of a material to resist reactions with caustic elements that can corrode or
degrade it
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Nature Of Fundamental Particles
Atoms are constructed of two types of elementary particles: electrons and quarks.
Electrons occupy a space that surrounds an atom's nucleus. Each electron has an
electrical charge of -1.
Quarks make up protons and neutrons, which, in turn, make up an atom's nucleus.
Each proton and each neutron contains three quarks.
A quark is a fast-moving point of energy. There are several varieties of quarks.

Protons and neutrons are composed of two types: up quarks and down quarks.
Each up quark has a charge of +2/3.

Each down quark has a charge of -1/3.
The sum of the charges of quarks that make up a nuclear particle determines its
electrical charge.
Protons contain two up quarks and one down quark.

+2/3 +2/3 -1/3 = +1
Neutrons contains one up quark and two down quarks.

+2/3 -1/3 -1/3 = 0
The nucleus is held together by the "strong nuclear force," which is one of four
fundamental fources (gravity and electromagnetism are two others). The strong force
counteracts the tendency of the positively-charged protons to repel each other. It also
holds together the quarks that make up the protons and neutrons
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Structure Of An Atom
All matter such as solids, liquids, and gases, is composed of atoms. Therefore,
the atom is considered to be the basic building block of matter. However, atoms are
almost always grouped together with other atoms to form what is called a molecule.
Only a few gases such as helium are composed of individual atoms as the structural
unit. Click through the applet below to see the relationship between atoms, molecules,
and compounds.
A compound is a substance consisting of two or more

different elements. Water is one such compound.
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Pictured here are two molecules of water. The two elements found in water are
Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O). The chemical formula for water is H₂O, which means
for every atom of Oxygen there are two molecules of Hydrogen.
These are two molecules of Hydrogen gas and one molecule of Oxygen gas. Each of
these molecules is made up of two atoms and each of the two different types of atoms
is an element.
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Now what is left after all of the molecular bonds have been broken are two seperate
atoms of Oxygen and four seperate atoms of Hydrogen.
Atoms are extremely small. The radius of a typical atom

is on the order of 0.00000000001 meters and cannot be studied without very
powerful microscopes. Click through the applet below to see how a scanning electron
microscope can be used to magnify things until very small details appear relatively
big.
This is an incandescent light bulb. Let's examine

the light bulb closer.
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The woman pictured here is sitting at a scanning electron microscope which she will
use to examine the light bulb closer.
Pictured here is the tungsten filament from inside the light bulb that was scanned. It is
shown at 500 times its normal size.
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Upon a closer scan, you can now see the oxide coating present on the tungsten
filament which was orginally scanned from the light bulb.
The filament is shown at 1950 times its orignal size.
Atom Composition
Now that we have talked the basics of atoms and element, let's talk about
the particles that make up the atom. Particles that are smaller than the atom are
called subatomic particles. The three main subatomic particles that form
an atom are protons, neutrons, and electrons. The center of the atom is called
the nucleus
Atomic nucleus consist of electrically positive protons and electrically

neutral neutrons. These are held together by the strongest known fundamental force,
called the strong force. The nucleus makes up much less than .01% of the volume of
the atom, but typically contains more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom. The
chemical properties of a substance are determined by the negatively charged electrons
enshrouding the nucleus. The number of electrons usually matches the number of
protons in the nucleus. Some nuclei are unstable and may undergo radioactive decay,
eventually arriving at a stable state through the emission of photons (gamma decay),
emission or capture of electrons or positrons (beta decay), emission of helium nuclei
(alpha decay), or a combination of these processes. Most nuclei are spherical or
ellipsoidal, though some exotic shapes exist. Nuclei can vibrate and rotate when
struck by other particles. Some are unstable and will break apart or change their
relative number of protons and neutrons.
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The particles in the nucleus (neutrons and protons) are also referred to as nucleons.
The attraction between the protons and the neutrons cannot be caused by a
electrostatic field because neutrons do not carry electric charges and therefore cannot
be affected by such a field. It is rather another type of force. This force is
called strong nuclear force or strong interaction. In addition to the electromagnetic
force, the gravitational force (gravity) and the weak interaction (weak nuclear force),
the strong interaction is one of the four fundamental forces of physics.
The interaction of the strong nuclear force is very limited in range, but at small
distances as in atomic nuclei , that force can be extremely strong. The strong
interaction between the protons and neutrons is the reason why this nuclear force
outweighs the repulsive electrostatic forces of the protons and thus holds the nucleus
together. The strong interaction is the “clue” for the nucleus so to speak.
The strong nuclear force (strong interaction) between the nucleons holds the atomic
nucleus together.
The electron shell is located around the positively charged nucleus of an atom. It is
formed by the negatively charged electrons. In a simplistic notion, the electrons in this
imaginary shell orbit the positive nucleus. The electrostatic forces of attraction
between the positive nucleus and the negative electrons ensure that the orbiting
electrons are held stably on their path around the atomic nucleus, so that the atom
does not fall apart.
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Protons and Neutrons
Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of an atom. All protons are identical to
each other, and all neutrons are identical to each other. Protons have a positive
electrical charge, so they are often represented with the mark of a "+"
sign. Neutrons have no electrical charge and are said to help hold the protons together
since protons are positively charged particles and should repel each other. If all
protons are identical and all neutrons are identical, then what makes the atoms of two
different elements different from each other? For example, what makes a
hydrogen atom different from a helium atom? As mentioned in our discussion
of elements and the periodic table, the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
give the atoms their specific characteristics. In the graphic below you will notice that
each of the three elements have different numbers of protons (red spheres) and
neutrons (blue spheres).
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Electrons
As shown in the figure above, electrons surround the nucleus. Electrons are
negatively charged subatomic particles that are as negative as protons are positive. In
general, atoms like to have the same number of electrons as they have protons in order
to be electrically balanced. Electrons also play an important role in how atoms bond
to each other to form molecules and will therefore be discussed in more detail in
future sections of this module.
So far, we have talked mainly about what is inside the nucleus of an atom:
protons and neutrons. Circling around outside the nucleus are electrons, the negatively
charged subatomic particle. Electrons spin billions of times every second as they
circle the nucleus. They are moving very fast and the path that they travel is not the
same each time. This means that if we could see these electrons they might appear to
look like a cloud around the nucleus
According to current theory electrons are arranged in electron shells around
the nucleus, where each shell has a different discrete energy level. This implies that
the energy of an electron is restricted to a few particular energy levels. In other
words, the energy of an electron and the energy level of electron shells are said to
be quantized, meaning that it cannot vary continuously over a range, but instead are
limited to certain values. When electrons gain or lose energy, they jump between
shells as they are rotating around the nucleus.
For example, as electrons gain energy from photons (small bundles of energy),
they might move from the second to the third energy level shell. Then, as they lose
energy by emitting photons, they might move back to the second energy level shell or
even to the first energy level shell. This process is depicted in the applet below.
Molecules
A molecule is a collection of atoms that are bonded together. These atoms can
either be of the same element or of different elements. When the molecule is made of
different elements is can also be called a compound. Based on these definitions, all
compounds are molecules but not all molecules are compounds. When a molecule is
made of only two atoms it is called a diatomic molecule. There are 7 gases that form
stable diatomic molecules near room temperature: hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. This means that the nitrogen and oxygen in
Earth's atmosphere are actually diatomic molecules of oxygen and nitrogen. The
diatomic nature of hydrogen and oxygen is depicted in the figure below: in each gas
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cylinder the gas is composed of diatomic molecules which are shown as two spheres
(atoms) connected by a bar that represents the bond between them.
Review :
1. All matter is composed of atoms.

2. A molecule is a group of atoms bunched together.
3. Subatomic particles are particles that are smaller than the atom
4. Protons, neutrons, and electrons are the three main subatomic particles found
in an atom
5. Protons have a positive (+) charge. An easy way to remember this is to
remember that both proton and positive start with the letter "P."
6. Neutrons have no electrical charge. An easy way to remember this is to
remember that both neutron and no electrical charge start with the letter "N."
7. Electrons spin and rotate around the outside of the nucleus
8. As the electrons circle the nucleus they travel at certain energy levels but can
"jump" between different energy levels if they gain or lose energy.
9. Different electron shells can hold different numbers of electrons.
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States of Matter
The matter is made up of very tiny particles and these particles are so small
that we cannot see them with naked eyes. It has been observed that matter exists in
nature in different forms. Some substances are rigid and have a fixed shape like wood
and stone; some substances can flow and take the shape of their container like water,
while there are forms of matter that do not have definite shape or size such as air.
Depending on temperature, pressure and a substance’s properties, a

substance can take on different physical forms. We call these physical
forms States of Matter. There are three very well-known states of
matter: Solids, Liquids, and Gases. Other states of matter also exist. These
include Plasma (a state of matter similar to a gas, but contains free-moving
electrons and ions - atoms that have lost electrons) and Bose-Einstein Condensates
(BECs) (waves of matter that can occur with some types of atoms at super cold
temperatures).
Matter can be classified into different categories based on the physical properties
exhibited by them and the states in which they exist; these are called states of matter.
Following are the basic three states of matter:
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
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Apart from the above mentioned three, there are 2 more states of matter which
we do not see in our everyday life. They are Plasma & Bose-einstein condensate.
Changes in the characteristics of matter related with external influences such
as pressure and temperature separate states of matter. A discontinuity in one of those
qualities frequently distinguishes states: rising the temperature of ice, for example,
generates a discontinuity at 0 °C (32 °F) as energy flows into a phase transition rather
than temperature rise. (BYJUS, 2020)
Solid Definition
 In solids, particles are tightly or closely packed.

 The gaps between the particles are tiny and hence it is tough to compress
them.
 Solid has a fixed shape and volume.
 Due to its rigid nature, particles in solid can only vibrate about their mean
position and cannot move.
 Force of attraction between particles is adamant.
 The rate of diffusion in solids is very low.
 An example of solids: solid ice, sugar, rock, wood, etc.
Liquid Definition
 In a liquid state of matter, particles are less tightly packed as compared to

solids.
 Liquids take the shape of the container in which they are kept.
 Liquids are difficult to compress as particles have less space between them to
move.
 Liquids have fixed volume but no fixed shape.
 The rate of diffusion in liquids is higher than that of solids.
 Force of attraction between the particles is weaker than solids.
 Example of a liquid state of matter: water, milk, blood, coffee, etc.
Gas Definition
 In gases, particles are far apart from each other.

 Force of attraction between the particles is negligible, and they can move
freely.
 Gases have neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape.
 The gaseous state has the highest compressibility as compared to solids and
liquids.
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 The rate is diffusion is higher than solids and liquids.

 The kinetic energy of particles is higher than in solids and liquids.
 An example of gases: air, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.
Plasma
 Plasma is a not so generally seen form of matter. Plasma consists of particles

with extremely high kinetic energy. Electricity is used to ionize noble gases
and make glowing signs, which is essentially plasma.
 Superheated forms of plasma are what stars are.
The Properties An Components Of Carbon And Its Effect On Metallurgy
Carbon steel is an iron-carbon alloy, which contains up to 2.1 wt.% carbon.

For carbon steels, there is no minimum specified content of other alloying elements,
however, they often contain manganese. The maximum manganese, silicon and
copper content should be less than 1.65 wt.%, 0.6 wt.% and 0.6 wt.%, respectively.
(study.com, n.d.)
Steel has many properties that are important for a variety of uses and applications.
The percentage of carbon plays a large role in determining these properties. Steels that
are predominantly alloyed with carbon make up 90% of all steel. Properties include:
 Tensile strength, or the amount of load a material can withstand before

breaking.
 Ductility, the ability of a solid material to deform under stress. This property is
characterized by the ability of the material to be stretched into a wire.
 Thermal conductivity, which is the ability of a material to conduct heat.
 Resistance to corrosion, which is the ability of a material to resist reactions
with caustic elements that can corrode or degrade it.
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Types of carbon steel and their properties
Carbon steel can be classified into three categories according to its carbon content:
low-carbon steel (or mild-carbon steel), medium-carbon steel and high-carbon steel
[1]. Their carbon content, microstructure and properties compare as follows:
Low-carbon steel
Low-carbon steel is the most widely used form of carbon steel. These steels usually
have a carbon content of less than 0.25 wt.%. They cannot be hardened by heat
treatment (to form martensite) so this is usually achieved by cold work.
Carbon steels are usually relatively soft and have low strength. They do, however,
have high ductility, making them excellent for machining, welding and low cost.
High-strength, low-alloy steels (HSLA) are also often classified as low-carbon steels,
however, also contain other elements such as copper, nickel, vanadium
and molybdenum. Combined, these comprise up to 10 wt.% of the steel content.
High-strength, low-alloy steels, as the name suggests, have higher strengths, which is
achieved by heat treatment. They also retain ductility, making them easily formable
and machinable. HSLA are more resistant to corrosion than plain low-carbon steels.
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Medium-carbon steel
Medium-carbon steel has a carbon content of 0.25 – 0.60 wt.% and a manganese
content of 0.60 – 1.65 wt.%. The mechanical properties of this steel are improved via
heat treatment involving autenitising followed by quenching and tempering, giving
them a martensitic microstructure.
Heat treatment can only be performed on very thin sections, however, additional
alloying elements, such as chromium, molybdenum and nickel, can be added to
improve the steels ability to be heat treated and, thus, hardened.
Hardened medium-carbon steels have greater strength than low-carbon steels,
however, this comes at the expense of ductility and toughness.
High-carbon steel
High-carbon steel has a carbon content of 0.60– 1.25 wt.% and a manganese content
of 0.30 – 0.90 wt.%. It has the highest hardness and toughness of the carbon steels and
the lowest ductility. High-carbon steels are very wear-resistant as a result of the fact
that they are almost always hardened and tempered.
Tool steels and die steels are types of high-carbon steels, which contain additional
alloying elements including chromium, vanadium, molybdenum and tungsten. The
addition of these elements results in the very hard wear-resistant steel, which is a
result of the formation of carbide compounds such as tungsten carbide (WC).
Examples & Applications
Low-carbon steel
Low carbon steels are often used in automobile body components, structural shapes
(I-beams, channel and angle iron), pipes, construction and bridge components, and
food cans.
Medium-carbon steel
As a result of their high strength, resistance to wear and toughness, medium-carbon

steels are often used for railway tracks, train wheels, crankshafts, and gears and
machinery parts requiring this combination of properties.
High-carbon steel
Due to their high wear-resistance and hardness, high-carbon steels are used in cutting
tools, springs high strength wire and dies.
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Crystal Structures Of Metallic And Non-Metallic Materials
When identical spheres are stacked, each successive layer fits into the small
spaces where different spheres come together. This orderly and regular arrangement
of the metal balls minimizes the empty space between them. Closest packing is the
most efficient arrangement of spheres. Atoms of a metal crystal are arranged in
similar patterns, called close-packed structures.
Materials are made up of a wide variety of atomic structures. However, metals

in particular almost always have their atoms organized in a
crystalline lattice structure. This means that the atoms of metals are arranged in a
patterned, three-dimensional way that repeats itself throughout large portions of the
metal. Within the crystalline structure group there are a range of subgroups that
organize the shape of these crystalline structures. The three most common crystalline
structures in metal are face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic and hexagonal close-
packed.
Face-centered Cubic
One of the most common crystalline structures is face-centered cubic (FCC).

The FCC crystalline structure gets its name from its cube shape and the locations of
the atoms within that cube. There are eight atoms that are distributed among the eight
corners of the crystalline structure. Each of those eight atoms are part of other
adjacent cubic structures as well. In addition to the atoms located on the corners of the
FCC structure, there are also six atoms located on the center of each cube face, hence
the name face-centered cubic.
There are many different types of metal with the FCC crystalline structure.
The two examples in the introduction, aluminum and lead, are two metals that have
the FCC structure at room temperature. Nickel and precious metals such as gold,
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platinum and silver have the FCC crystalline structure as well. Iron does not have the
FCC crystalline structure at room temperature, but when heated to a certain
temperature, the typical ferrite body-centered cubic found in iron begins to transform
to austenite, which does have an FCC crystalline structure. Adding certain alloying
elements (e.g., nickel) to steel allows for steel to be austenitic, and therefore FCC, at
room temperature. An example of this is austenitic stainless steel. (Learn more in the
article An Introduction to Stainless Steels.)
Body-centered Cubic
The body-centered cubic (BCC) crystalline structure is another abundant type

of atomic structure found in metals. Like the FCC crystalline structure, the BCC
crystalline structure gets its name from its shape. The BCC crystalline structure is in
the form of a cube with eight atoms distributed among the eight corners similar to the
FCC crystalline structure. What is different about the BCC crystalline structure is that
rather than having an atom at each of the six faces, it has only one atom that is inside
the cube. This atom is centered in the body of the cube, which is the reason for the
name body-centered cubic.
Many metals are comprised of the BCC crystalline structure. As previously

mentioned, iron in its ferrite form is a member of the BCC family of metals. Also
falling under the BCC crystalline structure umbrella at room temperature are
niobium, chromium and vanadium. Potassium, sodium, lithium and
other alkaline metals are also typically constructed by the BCC crystalline structure.
Metals with the BCC crystalline structure typically have less strength than
metals with the FCC and HCP crystalline structures at room temperature.
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Hexagonal Close-Packed
Hexagonal close-packed (HCP) is a crystalline structure that is somewhat

more complex than the FCC and BCC crystalline structures. If one hexagonal close-
packed structure were separated from other hexagonal close-packed structures
adjacent to it, it would be comprised of 17 atoms. There are six atoms spread evenly
among each vertex of a hexagon. An additional six atoms are distributed equally
across the vertices of another hexagon. Additionally, there is an atom in the center of
each of these hexagons. Both groups of atoms in the hexagons are aligned with one
another. Sandwiched, or packed, in between these two hexagons is a group of three
atoms that are not in line with the atoms in either of the hexagons. The atoms in the
hexagons are shared with adjacent HCP structures.
The HCP crystalline structure is found in several different

metals. Titanium and cadmium are two of the most commonly used metals that are
comprised of the HCP crystalline structure at room temperature. Cobalt, zinc and
zirconium are a few other well-known examples.
The HCP crystalline structure has few ways that slipping can occur, giving
these materials a high strength but typically a brittle failure mode.
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Structures of the Nonmetals
The structures of the nonmetals differ dramatically from those of metals.

Metals crystallize in closely packed arrays that do not contain molecules or covalent
bonds. Nonmetal structures contain covalent bonds, and many nonmetals consist of
individual molecules. The electrons in nonmetals are localized in covalent bonds,
whereas in a metal, there is delocalization of the electrons throughout the solid.
The noble gases are all monatomic, whereas the other nonmetal gases—
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, and chlorine—normally exist as the diatomic
molecules H2, N2, O2, F2, and Cl2. The other halogens are also diatomic; Br2 is a liquid
and I2 exists as a solid under normal conditions. The changes in state as one moves
down the halogen family offer excellent examples of the increasing strength of
intermolecular London forces with increasing molecular mass and increasing
polarizability.
Oxygen has two allotropes: O2, dioxygen, and O3, ozone. Phosphorus has
three common allotropes, commonly referred to by their colors: white, red, and black.
Sulfur has several allotropes. There are also many carbon allotropes. Most people
know of diamond, graphite, and charcoal, but fewer people know of the recent
discovery of fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and graphene.
Descriptions of the physical properties of three nonmetals that are

characteristic of molecular solids follow.
Carbon
Carbon occurs in the uncombined (elemental) state in many forms, such as

diamond, graphite, charcoal, coke, carbon black, graphene, and fullerene.
Diamond, is a very hard crystalline material that is colorless and transparent

when pure. Each atom forms four single bonds to four other atoms at the corners of a
tetrahedron (sp3 hybridization); this makes the diamond a giant molecule. Carbon-
carbon single bonds are very strong, and, because they extend throughout the crystal
to form a three-dimensional network, the crystals are very hard and have high melting
points (~4400 °C).
(a) Diamond and (b) graphite are two forms of carbon. (c) In the crystal
structure of diamond, the covalent bonds form three-dimensional tetrahedrons. (d) In
the crystal structure of graphite, each planar layer is composed of six-membered rings.
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Graphite, is a soft, slippery, grayish-black solid that conducts electricity.

These properties relate to its structure, which consists of layers of carbon atoms, with
each atom surrounded by three other carbon atoms in a trigonal planar arrangement.
Each carbon atom in graphite forms three σ bonds, one to each of its nearest
neighbors, by means of sp2-hybrid orbitals. The unhybridized p orbital on each
carbon atom will overlap unhybridized orbitals on adjacent carbon atoms in the same
layer to form π bonds. Many resonance forms are necessary to describe the electronic
structure of a graphite layer; illustrates two of these forms.
(a) Carbon atoms in graphite have unhybridized p orbitals. Each p orbital is

perpendicular to the plane of carbon atoms. (b) These are two of the many resonance
forms of graphite necessary to describe its electronic structure as a resonance hybrid.
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Atoms within a graphite layer are bonded together tightly by the σ and π
bonds; however, the forces between layers are weak. London dispersion forces hold
the layers together. To learn more, see the discussion of these weak forces in the
chapter on liquids and solids. The weak forces between layers give graphite the soft,
flaky character that makes it useful as the so-called “lead” in pencils and the slippery
character that makes it useful as a lubricant. The loosely held electrons in the
resonating π bonds can move throughout the solid and are responsible for the
electrical conductivity of graphite.
Other forms of elemental carbon include carbon black, charcoal, and coke.
Carbon black is an amorphous form of carbon prepared by the incomplete combustion
of natural gas, CH4. It is possible to produce charcoal and coke by heating wood and
coal, respectively, at high temperatures in the absence of air.
Recently, new forms of elemental carbon molecules have been identified in

the soot generated by a smoky flame and in the vapor produced when graphite is
heated to very high temperatures in a vacuum or in helium. One of these new forms,
first isolated by Professor Richard Smalley and coworkers at Rice University, consists
of icosahedral (soccer-ball-shaped) molecules that contain 60 carbon atoms, C60. This
is buckminsterfullerene (often called bucky balls) after the architect
Buckminster Fuller, who designed domed structures, which have a similar
appearance.
The molecular structure of C60, buckminsterfullerene, is icosahedral.
24
Nanotubes and Graphene
Graphene and carbon nanotubes are two recently discovered allotropes of

carbon. Both of the forms bear some relationship to graphite. Graphene is a single
layer of graphite (one atom thickwhereas carbon nanotubes roll the layer into a small
tube.
(a) Graphene and (b) carbon nanotubes are both allotropes of carbon.
Graphene is a very strong, lightweight, and efficient conductor of heat and

electricity discovered in 2003. As in graphite, the carbon atoms form a layer of six-
membered rings with sp2-hybridized carbon atoms at the corners. Resonance
stabilizes the system and leads to its conductivity. Unlike graphite, there is no
stacking of the layers to give a three-dimensional structure. Andre Geim and
Kostya Novoselov at the University of Manchester won the 2010 Nobel Prize in
Physics for their pioneering work characterizing graphene.
The simplest procedure for preparing graphene is to use a piece of adhesive

tape to remove a single layer of graphene from the surface of a piece of graphite. This
method works because there are only weak London dispersion forces between the
layers in graphite. Alternative methods are to deposit a single layer of carbon atoms
on the surface of some other material (ruthenium, iridium, or copper) or to synthesize
it at the surface of silicon carbide via the sublimation of silicon.
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There currently are no commercial applications of graphene. However, its

unusual properties, such as high electron mobility and thermal conductivity, should
make it suitable for the manufacture of many advanced electronic devices and for
thermal management applications.
Carbon nanotubes are carbon allotropes, which have a cylindrical structure.

Like graphite and graphene, nanotubes consist of rings of sp2-hybridized carbon
atoms. Unlike graphite and graphene, which occur in layers, the layers wrap into a
tube and bond together to produce a stable structure. The walls of the tube may be one
atom or multiple atoms thick.
Carbon nanotubes are extremely strong materials that are harder than
diamond. Depending upon the shape of the nanotube, it may be a conductor or
semiconductor. For some applications, the conducting form is preferable, whereas
other applications utilize the semiconducting form.
The basis for the synthesis of carbon nanotubes is the generation of carbon
atoms in a vacuum. It is possible to produce carbon atoms by an electrical discharge
through graphite, vaporization of graphite with a laser, and the decomposition of a
carbon compound.
The strength of carbon nanotubes will eventually lead to some of their most
exciting applications, as a thread produced from several nanotubes will support
enormous weight. However, the current applications only employ bulk nanotubes.
The addition of nanotubes to polymers improves the mechanical, thermal, and
electrical properties of the bulk material. There are currently nanotubes in some
bicycle parts, skis, baseball bats, fishing rods, and surfboards.
Phosphorus
The name phosphorus comes from the Greek words meaning light bringing. When
phosphorus was first isolated, scientists noted that it glowed in the dark and burned when
exposed to air. Phosphorus is the only member of its group that does not occur in the
uncombined state in nature; it exists in many allotropic forms. We will consider two of those
forms: white phosphorus and red phosphorus.
White phosphorus is a white, waxy solid that melts at 44.2 °C and boils at 280 °C. It
is insoluble in water (in which it is stored—), is very soluble in carbon disulfide, and bursts
into flame in air. As a solid, as a liquid, as a gas, and in solution, white phosphorus exists as
P4 molecules with four phosphorus atoms at the corners of a regular tetrahedron. Each
phosphorus atom covalently bonds to the other three atoms in the molecule by
single covalent bonds. White phosphorus is the most reactive allotrope and is very
toxic.
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(a) Because white phosphorus bursts into flame in air, it is stored in water. (b) The
structure of white phosphorus consists of P4 molecules arranged in a tetrahedron. (c)
Red phosphorus is much less reactive than is white phosphorus. (d) The structure of
red phosphorus consists of networks of P4 tetrahedra joined by P-P single bonds.
(credit a: modification of work from http://images-of-elements.com/phosphorus.php)
Heating white phosphorus to 270–300 °C in the absence of air yields red

phosphorus. Red phosphorus is denser, has a higher melting point (~600 °C), is much
less reactive, is essentially nontoxic, and is easier and safer to handle than is white
phosphorus. Its structure is highly polymeric and appears to contain three-dimensional
networks of P4 tetrahedral joined by P-P single bonds. Red phosphorus is insoluble in
solvents that dissolve white phosphorus. When red phosphorus is heated,
P4 molecules sublime from the solid.
Sulfur
The allotropy of sulfur is far greater and more complex than that of any other
element. Sulfur is the brimstone referred to in the Bible and other places, and
references to sulfur occur throughout recorded history—right up to the relatively
recent discovery that it is a component of the atmospheres of Venus and of Io, a moon
of Jupiter. The most common and most stable allotrope of sulfur is yellow, rhombic
sulfur, so named because of the shape of its crystals. Rhombic sulfur is the form to
which all other allotropes revert at room temperature. Crystals of rhombic sulfur melt
at 113 °C. Cooling this liquid gives long needles of monoclinic sulfur. This form is
stable from 96 °C to the melting point, 119 °C. At room temperature, it gradually
reverts to the rhombic form.
Both rhombic sulfur and monoclinic sulfur contain S8 molecules in which

atoms form eight-membered, puckered rings that resemble crowns. Each sulfur atom
is bonded to each of its two neighbors in the ring by covalent S-S single bonds.
27
These four sulfur allotropes show eight-membered, puckered rings. Each

sulfur atom bonds to each of its two neighbors in the ring by covalent S-S single
bonds. Here are (a) individual S8 rings, (b) S8 chains formed when the rings open, (c)
longer chains formed by adding sulfur atoms to S8 chains, and (d) part of the very
long sulfur chains formed at higher temperatures.
When rhombic sulfur melts, the straw-colored liquid is quite mobile; its
viscosity is low because S8 molecules are essentially spherical and offer relatively
little resistance as they move past each other. As the temperature rises, S-S bonds in
the rings break, and polymeric chains of sulfur atoms result. These chains combine
end to end, forming still longer chains that tangle with one another. The liquid
gradually darkens in color and becomes so viscous that finally (at about 230 °C) it
does not pour easily. The dangling atoms at the ends of the chains of sulfur atoms are
responsible for the dark red color because their electronic structure differs from those
of sulfur atoms that have bonds to two adjacent sulfur atoms. This causes them to
absorb light differently and results in a different visible color. Cooling the liquid
rapidly produces a rubberlike amorphous mass, called plastic sulfur.
Sulfur boils at 445 °C and forms a vapor consisting of S 2, S6, and

S8 molecules; at about 1000 °C, the vapor density corresponds to the formula S2,
which is a paramagnetic molecule like O2 with a similar electronic structure and a
weak sulfur-sulfur double bond.
As seen in this discussion, an important feature of the structural behavior of

the nonmetals is that the elements usually occur with eight electrons in their valence
shells. If necessary, the elements form enough covalent bonds to supplement the
electrons already present to possess an octet. For example, members of group 15 have
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five valence electrons and require only three additional electrons to fill their valence
shells. These elements form three covalent bonds in their free state: triple bonds in the
N2 molecule or single bonds to three different atoms in arsenic and phosphorus. The
elements of group 16 require only two additional electrons. Oxygen forms a double
bond in the O2 molecule, and sulfur, selenium, and tellurium form two single bonds in
various rings and chains. The halogens form diatomic molecules in which each atom
is involved in only one bond. This provides the electron required necessary to
complete the octet on the halogen atom. The noble gases do not form covalent bonds
to other noble gas atoms because they already have a filled outer shell.
Key Concepts and Summary
Nonmetals have structures that are very different from those of the metals, primarily
because they have greater electronegativity and electrons that are more tightly bound
to individual atoms. Most nonmetal oxides are acid anhydrides, meaning that they
react with water to form acidic solutions. Molecular structures are common for most
of the nonmetals, and several have multiple allotropes with varying physical
properties.
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30
Self – Assessment
Name: _______________________ Course/Year/Section: _________________
Date: ________________________
I. Essay
1. Enumerate and describe each of atom composition
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2. List down and discuss the different states of matter
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3. Cite important characteristics and application of carbon in metallurgy
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32
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND FRACTURE MECHANICS
Mechanical properties and fracture mechanics are fundamental concepts in

materials science and engineering. They form the basis for understanding the behavior
of materials under different loading conditions and play a crucial role in designing
structures, predicting failure, and ensuring the safety and reliability of engineering
applications. By studying mechanical properties, such as elasticity, strength, hardness,
ductility, and toughness, we gain insights into how materials respond to external
forces. Fracture mechanics, on the other hand, focuses on the study of cracks and their
propagation within materials, providing a framework for predicting and analyzing
fracture behavior. This introduction sets the stage for a deeper exploration of these
concepts, their interrelationship, and their significance in practical scenarios.
Week 3 – 4
Learning Outcomes:
2.1. Explain the effects of stress in a material with externally applied force
2.2. Explain the types of stress in terms of the load applied to the material
2.3. Explain the relationship of stress and strain
2.4. Explain Hooke’s Law
2.5. Explain the mechanical properties of material
2.6. Explain the parameters in stress-strain curve of material
2.7. Calculate parameters involving mechanical properties of a material
33
Pretest
1. It is a quantity that contains information about the magnitude of force causing

deformation, defined as force per unit area.
a. Stress
b. Strain
c. Elasticity
d. Bulk modulus
2. What do you call strain that occurs when forces are contracting an object, causing
its shortening?
a. tensile strain
b. shear strain
c. bulk strain
d. compressive strain
3. It is a stress caused by compressive forces, only in one direction.

a. bulk strain
b. compressive strain
c. compressive stress
d. tensile strain
4. It refers to the pressure of one atmosphere, serves as a reference level for pressure.
a. given pressure
b. absolute pressur
c. gauge pressure
d. normal pressure
5. What is the SI unit for measuring pressure?

a. pounds
b. kilogram
c. pascal
d. newton
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Discussion
Every component in a linear motion system experiences some form of loading

due to applied forces or motion. The component’s reactions to these loads are
described by its mechanical properties.
For components subjected to tension or compression — such as load-carrying
balls and rollers, shafts mounted vertically, or fastening and joining hardware — the
mechanical properties of stress and strain play an important role in determining
whether the component can withstand the application’s loading conditions.
Definition of terms:
Bulk modulus elastic modulus for the bulk stress
Bulk strain (or volume strain) strain under the bulk stress,
given as fractional change in volume
Bulk stress (or volume stress) stress caused by compressive

forces, in all directions
Compressibility reciprocal of the bulk modulus
Compressive strain strain that occurs when forces are contracting an

object, causing its shortening
Compressive stress stress caused by compressive forces, only in one

direction
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Elastic modulus proportionality constant in linear relation

between stress and strain, in SI pascals
Normal pressure pressure of one atmosphere, serves as a

reference level for pressure
Pascal (Pa) SI unit of stress, SI unit of pressure
Pressure force pressing in normal direction on a surface

per the surface area, the bulk stress in fluids
Shear modulus elastic modulus for shear stress
Shear strain strain caused by shear stress
Shear stress stress caused by shearing forces
Strain dimensionless quantity that gives the amount of

deformation of an object or medium under stress
Stress quantity that contains information about the

magnitude of force causing deformation, defined
as force per unit area
Tensile strain strain under tensile stress, given as fractional

change in length, which occurs when forces are
stretching an object, causing its elongation
Tensile stress stress caused by tensile forces, only in one

direction, which occurs when forces are
stretching an object, causing its elongation
Young’s modulus elastic modulus for tensile or compressive stress
The Effects of Stress in a Material with Externally Applied Force
External forces applied to a body have a tendency to deform the body. The
body develops an internal resistance against the deforming forces. The external forces
acting on a rigid body are termed loads, the deformation is known as strain, and the
internal resistance to the external force is called stress. The internal resistance, or
stress, increases with additional external force up to a certain limit, beyond which, the
force will cause permanent deformation, or failure, of the body. All materials that are
36
stressed will change their shape and become strained, though the amount of strain
may be too small to measure.
A change in shape due to the application of a force is known as a deformation.

Even very small forces are known to cause some deformation. Deformation is
experienced by objects or physical media under the action of external forces—for
example, this may be squashing, squeezing, ripping, twisting, shearing, or pulling the
objects apart. In the language of physics, two terms describe the forces on objects
undergoing deformation: stress and strain
Stress is a quantity that describes the magnitude of forces that cause

deformation. Stress is generally defined as force per unit area. When forces pull on an
object and cause its elongation, like the stretching of an elastic band, we call such
stress a tensile stress. When forces cause a compression of an object, we call it
a compressive stress. When an object is being squeezed from all sides, like a
submarine in the depths of an ocean, we call this kind of stress a bulk
stress (or volume stress). In other situations, the acting forces may be neither tensile
nor compressive, and still produce a noticeable deformation. For example, suppose
you hold a book tightly between the palms of your hands, then with one hand you
press-and-pull on the front cover away from you, while with the other hand you press-
and-pull on the back cover toward you. In such a case, when deforming forces act
tangentially to the object’s surface, we call them ‘shear’ forces and the stress they
cause is called shear stress.
The Types of Stress in Terms of the Load Applied to the Material
Stress
Stress is defined as the internal resistance in a material developed to counteract an

external force (load) being applied. Stress is measured as force per unit area resisting
the force.
Stress = load (Newtons)

Area (m2 )
In SI units, stress is measured in pascals, abbreviated as Pa.
1 N/m2 = 1 pascal
Since pascals are very small units, larger units such as kilopascals (kPa), megapascals
(MPa) and gigapascals (GPa) are commonly used.
1 kilopascal (kPa) = 1 000 Pa (103 Pa)
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1 megapascal (MPa) = 1 000 000 Pa (106 Pa)
1 gigapascal (GPa) = 1 000 000 000 Pa (109 Pa)
Theoretically stresses act in all directions but for simplicity the stresses are
resolved into two components; one having a direction perpendicular to the surface or
area being considered, and the other component being parallel to this surface.
The perpendicular forces are called normal stresses and can be compressive
stresses or tensile stresses, depending on whether they push or pull on the surface
being considered. The parallel forces are called shear stresses.
Mathematically, stresses are expressed as:
ρ = P /A
Or:
τ=P/A
Where: ρ = normal stress intensity, measured in pascals
τ = parallel (shear) stress intensity, measured in pascals
P = the perpendicular or parallel load applied, measured in Newtons
A = cross-sectional area of the section being considered, measured in square metres
The ultimate stress, when the material breaks, is defined as the maximum load divided
by the original cross-sectional area, before deformation occurs.
Tensile Stress
Consider a straight bar of uniform cross section (Fig. 1) subjected to a pair of

forces acting in opposite directions and coinciding with the axis of the bar. If the
forces are directed away from the bar, they tend to increase the length of the bar. The
bar is said to be in tension, the internal stress developed is normal to the cross-section
and is called tensile stress, and the member is often called a tie.
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Compressive Stress
If the forces described in Fig. 1 are directed towards the bar as in Fig. 2, they
will tend to compress the material. Then the bar is said to be in compression, the
internal stress will be a compressive stress, and the member is often called a strut.
Shear Stress
If the external forces act parallel to one another, but are not in line, a shear
stress will result. Consider two plates, A and B, (Fig. 3) joined together by a rivet, C.
If a tensile load, P, is applied to the plates, then the force or load is exactly parallel to
the cross-section (x-x) and if overloaded, the rivet would shear, or fail along its cross
section (x-x). If d is the diameter of the rivet, then the cross-sectional area of the rivet
resisting the shear force P is:
In Fig. 3, the rivet C would only shear across a single cross-sectional plane, x-x, and it
is said to be in single shear. In Fig. 4, the bolt shown could shear across two cross-
sectional planes (xx and yy). Both these planes resist the shearing force, P, therefore
39
both areas are added together and then used in the formula for stress. Because two
planes resist the shear, the bolt is said to be in double shear.
Some Terms Related To Stress

Ultimate Stress
The ultimate stress or strength of a material is the stress at the instant it breaks.
It is based on the force required to break the material and its original cross-sectional
area.
Allowable Stress
The allowable stress or working stress is the amount of stress that a material is
allowed to carry. This stress is usually well within the elastic limit for safety reasons.
Elastic Limit
The elastic limit of a material is the maximum stress value that the material
can be subjected to and still return to its original size and shape when the deforming
load is removed.
Maximum Allowable Load

The maximum load is the greatest load that can be applied to a material under
its design conditions. It is the load which corresponds to the maximum allowable
stress.
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What is a Strain?
Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the
direction of force applied, divided by the initial dimensions of the body.
The following equation gives the relation for deformation in terms of
the length of a solid:
The strain is a dimensionless quantity as it just defines the relative

change in shape.When we study solids and their mechanical properties, information
regarding their elastic properties is most important. We can learn about the elastic
properties of materials by studying the stress-strain relationships, under different
loads, in these materials.
We referred to the proportionality constant between stress and strain as the

elastic modulus. Elasticity is the tendency of solid objects and materials to return to
their original shape after the external forces (load) causing a deformation are
removed. An object is elastic when it comes back to its original size and shape when
the load is no longer present. Physical reasons for elastic behavior vary among
materials and depend on the microscopic structure of the material. For example, the
elasticity of polymers and rubbers is caused by stretching polymer chains under an
applied force. In contrast, the elasticity of metals is caused by resizing and reshaping
the crystalline cells of the lattices (which are the material structures of metals) under
the action of externally applied forces.
The two parameters that determine the elasticity of a material are its elastic
modulus and its elastic limit. A high elastic modulus is typical for materials that are
hard to deform; in other words, materials that require a high load to achieve a
significant strain. An example is a steel band. A low elastic modulus is typical for
materials that are easily deformed under a load; for example, a rubber band. If the
stress under a load becomes too high, then when the load is removed, the material no
longer comes back to its original shape and size, but relaxes to a different shape and
size: The material becomes permanently deformed. The elastic limit is the stress value
beyond which the material no longer behaves elastically but becomes permanently
deformed.
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Our perception of an elastic material depends on both its elastic limit and its
elastic modulus. For example, all rubbers are characterized by a low elastic modulus
and a high elastic limit; hence, it is easy to stretch them and the stretch is noticeably
large. Among materials with identical elastic limits, the most elastic is the one with
the lowest elastic modulus.
For stresses beyond the elastic limit, a material exhibits plastic behavior. This
means the material deforms irreversibly and does not return to its original shape and
size, even when the load is removed. When stress is gradually increased beyond the
elastic limit, the material undergoes plastic deformation. Rubber-like materials show
an increase in stress with the increasing strain, which means they become more
difficult to stretch and, eventually, they reach a fracture point where they break.
Ductile materials such as metals show a gradual decrease in stress with the increasing
strain, which means they become easier to deform as stress-strain values approach the
breaking point. Microscopic mechanisms responsible for plasticity of materials are
different for different materials.The material’s stress-strain curve gives its stress-strain
relationship. In a stress-strain curve, the stress and its corresponding strain values are
plotted. An example of a stress-strain curve is given below.
The Relationship Of Stress And Strain
The different regions in the stress-strain diagram are:
1. Proportional Limit
It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the
stress-strain ratio gives us a proportionality constant known as Young’s modulus. The
point OA in the graph represents the proportional limit.
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2. Elastic Limit
It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position
when the load acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit, the material
doesn’t return to its original position, and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it.
3. Yield Point
The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform
plastically. After the yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs.
There are two yield points (i) upper yield point (ii) lower yield point.
4. Ultimate Stress Point
It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before
failure. Beyond this point, failure occurs.
5. Fracture or Breaking Point
It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place.
Hooke’s Law
When a material behaves elastically and exhibits a linear relationship between stress
and strain, it is called linearly elastic material. In this case, stress is directly
proportional to strain.
OR
You can say that “for small deformation, stress is directly proportional to strain”
Therefore, in simple terms, Hooke’s law states that the strain in a solid is proportional
to the applied stress within the elastic limit of that solid. Hooke’s law explains the
property of elasticity.
Hooke’s Law Equations

Hooke’s equation holds in many situations where an elastic body is deformed. The
instances may include the wind blowing on a tall building or a musician playing the
guitar. The equation is said to be linear-elastic or Hookean usually for an elastic body
or material. (BYJUS, n.d.)ke's Law
Hooke’s Law Equation in Terms of Stress and Strain

According to this law, within the elastic limit, stress is proportional to the strain.
Thus, Hooke’s Law equation can be expressed in terms of stress and strain;
Stress α Strain or stress / strain = constant = E
Stress = Young’s modulus of elasticity × Strain
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σ=Eε
Where,
σ is the stress,
E is the modulus of elasticity also known as Young’s modulus of elasticity,
ε is the strain.
In SI units, the spring constant k, and each element of the tensor κ, is measured using
units such as newtons per meter (N/m), or kilograms per second squared (kg/s2).
For continuous media, each element is therefore measured in units of pressure,
namely pascals (Pa, or N/m2, or kg/(m·s2). The elements of the strain tensor ε are also
expressed in units of pressure.
For Linear Springs

Mathematically, Hooke’s law states that the applied force F equals a constant k, into
the displacement or change in length x, or F = kx. The value of k depends not only on
the kind of elastic material under consideration but also on its dimensions and shape.
All materials exhibit some degree of elasticity. Due to this elastic property, an
excellent concept of restoring force comes into the picture. We can measure this
elasticity property in the form of a restoring force. This restoring force opposes the
deformation force and tries to maintain the original dimensions of the material.
Now, consider the elasticity in only one dimension. To verify Hook’s Law on this
spring-mass system we need to find the relation between the restoring force and
stretch (elongation) for a spring. As we know, the restoring force is proportional to the
magnitude of the deformation. This restoring force can be written mathematically as;
F = – kx.
This expression for Hooke’s Law is also known as the spring constant formula.
Here,
F is restoring force.
x represents the magnitude of the distortion or displacement from equilibrium as
exhibited in the stretching of a spring or rubber band.
k is the proportionality constant, also known as the spring constant.
Note – Here the direction of the force is in the direction opposite that of the
displacement, so consider minus sign.
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General Scalar Springs

Hooke’s spring law is also applicable to different types of elastic material or object
with random complexity. However, this will depend on whether the stress and
deformation can be represented by a single number. This number can be either
positive and negative.
For instance, if we take a rubber block and attach it to two plates (kept in parallel) is
distorted by shearing. So, the shearing force Fs and the sideways displacement of the
plates x follow or adhere to Hooke’s law (small deformations).
Applications of Hooke’s Law

The applications of Hooke’s Law is as given below:
 Most commonly, in everyday life, Hooke’s Law is applied in springs because

of their elasticity.
 They are used not only in the engineering field but also used in the field of
medical science.
 It is used in breathing (lungs), skin, spring beds, diving boards and cars
suspension systems.
 It is used as a fundamental principle behind the manometer, spring scale and
balance wheel of the clock.
 It is also used as the foundation for seismology, acoustics and molecular
mechanics.
Disadvantages of Applying Hooke’s Law

The disadvantages of Hooke’s Law are as follows:
 Hooke’s Law is applied only in the elastic region.

 Hooke’s Law gives accurate results only for solid bodies if the forces and
deformations are small.
 Hooke’s Law is not a universal law.
Mechanical Properties Of Materials
In strength of materials, the internal effects produced and the deformations of

bodies caused by externally applied forces are studied. The ability of certain materials
to withstand stress and strain depends on the characteristics of the materials
themselves. In order to correctly specify a material to do a job, a designer must know
the various physical properties of the material such as its mechanical, thermal,
45
electrical, chemical, and optical properties. A description of some of the important

mechanical properties of materials follows.
Elasticity: is the property by virtue of which a material deformed under the

influence of load but after the removal of the deforming load the object tends to
recover its original dimension. If the body completely regains its original shape and
size, then it is called a perfectly elastic body.
Stiffness : is the ability of a material to resist a change in shape or size when a

load is applied.
Plasticity: It is the belongings of material by which material does not regain its
original dimension after the removal of deforming forces. This material goes in
inelastic strain. In this case, permanent deformation occurs.
Ductility: It is the property of material, which permits material to be drawn out

longitudinally to a reduced cross-sectional area, because of the application of tensile
force. It also can be defined as the property of material, which permits a material to be
drawn out in the form of wire.
Toughness: is the ability of a material to absorb energy before breaking.

Tough materials will absorb and dissipate energy by bending, twisting, and changing
shape considerably before they break.
Brittleness: It implies that material cannot be drawn out in the form of wire.
The failure takes place without any significant deformation
Hardness : is the ability of a material to resist penetration.
Stress: It is the resistance offered by the body to any deformation. Mathematically, it

can be expressed as the restoring force per unit area.
Stress = Restoring Force /Area
=F/A
Strain: Deformation per unit length in the direction of deformation is known as
strain.
Strain = Change in length / original length
= ∆L / L
Parameters In Stress-Strain Curve Of Material
In engineering and materials science, a stress–strain curve for a material gives

the relationship between stress and strain. It is obtained by gradually applying load to
a test coupon and measuring the deformation, from which the stress and strain can be
determined (see tensile testing). These curves reveal many of the properties of a
material, such as the Young's modulus, the yield strength and the ultimate tensile
strength. Generally speaking, curves representing the relationship between stress and
46
strain in any form of deformation can be regarded as stress–strain curves. The stress
and strain can be normal, shear, or mixture, also can be uniaxial, biaxial, or
multiaxial, even change with time. The form of deformation can be compression,
stretching, torsion, rotation, and so on. If not mentioned otherwise, stress–strain curve
refers to the relationship between axial normal stress and axial normal strain of
materials measured in a tension test. (Stress–strain curve - Wikipedia, n.d.)
Stages
A schematic diagram for the stress–strain curve of low carbon steel at room
temperature is shown in figure 1. There are several stages showing different
behaviors, which suggests different mechanical properties. To clarify, materials can
miss one or more stages shown in figure 1, or have totally different stages.
The first stage is the linear elastic region. The stress is proportional to the strain, that
is, obeys the general Hooke's law, and the slope is Young's modulus. In this region,
the material undergoes only elastic deformation. The end of the stage is the initiation
point of plastic deformation. The stress component of this point is defined as yield
strength (or upper yield point, UYP for short).
The second stage is the strain hardening region. This region starts as the stress
goes beyond the yielding point, reaching a maximum at the ultimate strength point,
which is the maximal stress that can be sustained and is called the ultimate tensile
strength (UTS). In this region, the stress mainly increases as the material elongates,
except that for some materials such as steel, there is a nearly flat region at the
beginning. The stress of the flat region is defined as the lower yield point (LYP) and
results from the formation and propagation of Lüders bands. Explicitly, heterogeneous
plastic deformation forms bands at the upper yield strength and these bands carrying
with deformation spread along the sample at the lower yield strength. After the
47
sample is again uniformly deformed, the increase of stress with the progress of
extension results from work strengthening, that is, dense dislocations induced by
plastic deformation hampers the further motion of dislocations. To overcome these
obstacles, a higher resolved shear stress should be applied. As the strain accumulates,
work strengthening gets reinforced, until the stress reaches the ultimate tensile
strength.
The third stage is the necking region. Beyond tensile strength, a necking forms
where the local cross-sectional area becomes significantly smaller than the average.
The necking deformation is heterogeneous and will reinforce itself as the stress
concentrates more at small section. Such positive feedback leads to quick
development of necking and leads to fracture. Note that though the pulling force is
decreasing, the work strengthening is still progressing, that is, the true stress keeps
growing but the engineering stress decreases because the shrinking section area is not
considered. This region ends up with the fracture. After fracture, percent elongation
and reduction in section area can be calculated.
Classification
It is possible to distinguish some common characteristics among the stress–

strain curves of various groups of materials and, on this basis, to divide materials into
two broad categories; namely, the ductile materials and the brittle materials.
Ductile materials
Ductile materials, which include structural steel and many alloys of other
metals, are characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperatures.[2]: 58
Low carbon steel generally exhibits a very linear stress–strain relationship up
to a well-defined yield point (Fig.1). The linear portion of the curve is the elastic
region and the slope is the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus. Many ductile
materials including some metals, polymers and ceramics exhibit a yield point. Plastic
flow initiates at the upper yield point and continues at the lower one. At lower yield
48
point, permanent deformation is heterogeneously distributed along the sample. The

deformation band which formed at the upper yield point will propagate along the
gauge length at the lower yield point. The band occupies the whole of the gauge at the
luders strain. Beyond this point, work hardening commences. The appearance of the
yield point is associated with pinning of dislocations in the system. For example, solid
solution interacts with dislocations and acts as pin and prevents dislocation from
moving. Therefore, the stress needed to initiate the movement will be large. As long
as the dislocation escape from the pinning, stress needed to continue it is less.
After the yield point, the curve typically decreases slightly because
of dislocations escaping from Cottrell atmospheres. As deformation continues, the
stress increases on account of strain hardening until it reaches the ultimate tensile
stress. Until this point, the cross-sectional area decreases uniformly because
of Poisson contractions. Then it starts necking and finally fractures.
The appearance of necking in ductile materials is associated with geometrical
instability in the system. Due to the natural inhomogeneity of the material, it is
common to find some regions with small inclusions or porosity within it or surface,
where strain will concentrate, leading to a locally smaller area than other regions. For
strain less than the ultimate tensile strain, the increase of work-hardening rate in this
region will be greater than the area reduction rate, thereby make this region harder to
be further deform than others, so that the instability will be removed, i.e. the materials
have abilities to weaken the inhomogeneity before reaching ultimate strain. However,
as the strain become larger, the work hardening rate will decreases, so that for now
the region with smaller area is weaker than other region, therefore reduction in area
will concentrate in this region and the neck becomes more and more pronounced until
fracture. After the neck has formed in the materials, further plastic deformation is
concentrated in the neck while the remainder of the material undergoes elastic
contraction owing to the decrease in tensile force.
The stress–strain curve for a ductile material can be approximated using
the Ramberg–Osgood equation.[3] This equation is straightforward to implement, and
only requires the material's yield strength, ultimate strength, elastic modulus, and
percent elongation.
Brittle materials
Brittle materials, which include cast iron, glass, and stone, are characterized
by the fact that rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change in the rate of
elongation, sometimes they fracture before yielding.
Brittle materials such as concrete or carbon fiber do not have a well-defined
yield point, and do not strain-harden. Therefore, the ultimate strength and breaking
strength are the same. Typical brittle materials like glass do not show any plastic
deformation but fail while the deformation is elastic. One of the characteristics of a
brittle failure is that the two broken parts can be reassembled to produce the same
shape as the original component as there will not be a neck formation like in the case
of ductile materials. A typical stress–strain curve for a brittle material will be linear.
For some materials, such as concrete, tensile strength is negligible compared to the
compressive strength and it is assumed zero for many engineering applications. Glass
49
fibers have a tensile strength stronger than steel, but bulk glass usually does not. This
is because of the stress intensity factor associated with defects in the material. As the
size of the sample gets larger, the expected size of the largest defect also grows.
Stress –Strain Sample Problem Calculations
Sample Problem
Problem 1
A sculpture weighing 10,000 N rests on a horizontal surface at the
top of a 6.0-m-tall vertical pillar. The pillar’s cross-sectional area is 0.20 m2 and it
is made of granite with a mass density of 2700kg/m3. Find the compressive stress
at the cross-section located 3.0 m below the top of the pillar and the value of the
compressive strain of the top 3.0-m segment of the pillar.
Solution
First we find the weight of the 3.0-m-long top section of the pillar. The
normal force that acts on the cross-section located 3.0 m down from the top is the
sum of the pillar’s weight and the sculpture’s weight. Once we have the normal
force, we use the stress equation. To find the compressive strain, we find the
value of Young’s modulus for granite in Table 1A and substitute the values on the
Young’s modulus’ formula.
The volume of the pillar segment with height h=3.0m and cross-sectional area
A=0.20 m2 is
V= Ah
= (0.20 m2)(3.0 m)
=0.60 m3
With the density of granite ρ=2.7×103kg/m3, the mass of the pillar segment is
m = ρV
= (2700kg/m3)(0.60 m3)
= 1,620 kg.
The weight of the pillar segment is
Wp = mg
= (1620 kg)(9.8 0m/s2)
= 1,5876 N
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The weight of the sculpture is Ws = 10000 N, so the normal force on the cross-
sectional surface located 3.0 m below the sculpture is
F = W p + Ws
=15,876 N + 10000 N
= 25,876 N
Therefore, the stress is
Stress= F/A
= 2,5876 N/0.20m2
=129,380 N/m2
= 129.380 kPa
Young’s modulus for granite is Y=4.5×1010Pa=4.5×107kPa. Therefore, the
compressive strain at this position is
Strain = Stress/Young’s Modulus

=129.380 kPa/4.5×107 kPa
= 2.85×10−6
Problem 2
A 2.0-m-long steel rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.30 cm2. The
rod is a part of a vertical support that holds a heavy 550-kg platform that hangs
attached to the rod’s lower end. Ignoring the weight of the rod, what is the tensile
stress in the rod and the elongation of the rod under the stress?
Solution
𝐹 𝐿𝑜
ΔL =
𝐴 𝑌
= (550 kg) x (9.8 m / s2) x 2 m___
(3.0 x 10-5 m2) (2.0 x 1011 Pa)
= 1.8 x 10-3 m
= 1.8 mm
51
Problem 3 (tensile stress )
A round tie bar in a framework is subjected to a load of 100 kN. If the

diameter of the tie is 0.050 m, what will the stress be in the tie?
Solution: 1. Calculate the area of the tie, A:
A = πd 2 / 4
= 3.14 x (0.050)2 m 2 / 4
= 0.001 963 m2
The load (P) is 100 kN or 100 000 N
2. Calculate the stress,

ρ: ρ = load / area
= 100 000 N / 0.001 963 m 2
= 50 942 435 Pa (Ans.)
= 50 942 kPa (Ans.)
Problem 4 (compressive stress )
A compressive load of 107 kN (107 000 N) is resisted by a rectangular strut 50

mm x 75 mm (0.050 m x 0.075 m). What is the stress in the strut?
Solution:
Area, A = 0.050 m x 0.075 m
= 0.003 75 m2
Stress,
ρ = load / area
= 107 000 N / 0.003 75 m2
= 28 533 333 Pa (Ans.)
= 28 533 kPa (Ans.)
52
Problem 5 (shear stress )
An angle bracket on a steel column (Sketch 4.1) supports a load of 400 kN. If
the bracket is bolted to the column with two 16 mm diameter bolts, find the shear
stress in each bolt.
Solution: In this case, the bolts are in single shear, but there are two of them. The
diameter of each bolt is 16 mm or 0.016 m.
The cross-sectional area of each bolt is:
A = π x 0.0162 m 2 / 4
= 0.000 201 m2
Assume the load of 400 kN is shared equally by the two bolts. Therefore, the load
carried by each bolt is:
P = 200 kN
The average shear stress in each bolt is:
τ=P/A
= 200 kN / 0.000 201 m2
= 995 025 kN / m2
= 995 025 kPa (Ans.)
= 995 MPa (Ans.)
Problem 5 (strain)
A steel bar 2 m long shortens by 4 mm under a compressive load. What will be the
strain?
Solution: Strain, ε = decrease in length / original length
= -4 mm / 2000 mm
= -0.0020 (Ans.)
53
54
Self Assessment
Name: ____________________ Course/Year/Section: _________________
Date: ________________________
1. A hollow cylinder with an outside diameter of 100 mm and an inside diameter of

30 mm supports a load of 100 kN. Find the compressive stress of the material in
megapascals.
55
2. A tie bar is made of a material having a tensile strength of 231 MPa and has to
carry a load of 11 kN. Find the diameter of the bar if a factor of safety of 6 is
applied.
56
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF MATERIALS
Thermal conductivity refers to the amount/speed of heat transmitted through a

material. Heat transfer occurs at a higher rate across materials of high thermal
conductivity than those of low thermal conductivity. Materials of high thermal
conductivity are widely used in heat sink applications and materials of low thermal
conductivity are used as thermal insulation. Thermal conductivity of materials is
temperature dependent. Metals with high thermal conductivity, e.g. copper, exhibit
high electrical conductivity. The heat generated in high thermal conductivity materials
is rapidly conducted away from the region of the weld. For metallic materials, the
electrical and thermal conductivity correlate positively, i.e. materials with high
electrical conductivity (low electrical resistance) exhibit high thermal conductivity.
Week 5 – 6
Learning Outcomes:
3.1.Explain the principles of thermal expansion and thermal stress
3.2.Calculate parameters involving thermal expansion and thermal stress of material
57
Pretest
1. What will happen to the atoms of a material when subjected to heat?

a. increase seperation causing to expand
b. compress and shrink
c. does not react to heat
d. Deteriorates rapidly
2. It refers to the relative change in length of a material per degree temperature

change.
a. linear coefficient
b. coefficient of change in temperature
c. coefficient of change in length
d. coefficient of thermal expansion
3. What do you call a stress produced by any change in the temperature of the
material
a. shear stress
b. thermal Stress
c. torsional stress
d. strain
4. Which of the following is an example of application of thermal stress ?

a. thermostat
b. venturi meter
c. Radiation
d. convection
5. What is the most common cause of thermal stress ?

a. overloading
b. exposure to radiation
c. change in the internal temperature of an object
d. imbalance loading to a material
Discussion
Principles Of Thermal Expansion
When heat is added to most materials, the average amplitude of the atoms'
vibrating within the material increases. This, in turn, increases the separation between
the atoms causing the material to expand. If the material does not go through a phase
change, the expansion can be easily related to the temperature change. The
linear coefficient of thermal expansion.
(α) describes the relative change in length of a material per degree temperature
change. As shown in the following equation, a is the ratio of change in length (Δl) to
the total starting length (li) and change in temperature (ΔT).
58
By rearranging this equation, it can be seen that if the linear coefficient of

thermal expansion is known, the change in components length can be calculated for
each degree of temperature change. This effect also works in reverse. That is to say, if
energy is removed from a material then the object's temperature will decrease causing
the object to contract.
Thermal expansion (and contraction) must be taken into account when

designing products with close tolerance fits as these tolerances will change as
temperature changes if the materials used in the design have different coefficients of
thermal expansion. It should also be understood that thermal expansion can cause
significant stress in a component if the design does not allow for expansion and
contraction of components. The phenomena of thermal expansion can be challenging
when designing bridges, buildings, aircraft and spacecraft, but it can be put to
beneficial uses. For example, thermostats and other heat-sensitive sensors make use of
the property of linear expansion.
Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for a Few Common Materials
59
What is Thermal Stress?
Thermal stress is the stress produced by any change in the temperature of

the material. Thermal stress is induced in a body when the temperature of the
body is raised or lowered and the body is not allowed to expand or contract freely.
Thermal stress includes both heat and cold stress.
Stress is the force acting per unit area. The force can be of any form. When
the applied force is in the form of temperature the resultant stress is called
Thermal stress. It is observed when an object expands or contracts due to a
change in temperature. Thus, we can define Thermal stress as:
“Stress caused due to the change in temperature”

It is measured using feet or meters. The effect of temperature on
conductors is vital. The thermal conductors expand on heating and contract on
cooling.
Example of Thermal Stress

The gap between the inner and outer end of the rail track is an excellent example
of a rail track. The two steel rods we use as rails on which the train passes. These steel
rods are in touch with outer and inner ends. The extent of thermal stress produced due to
temperature and friction can easily bend these rods.
60
Effects of Thermal Stress

Thermal stresses can have a significant effect on the structural strength and
stability if we do not consider it correctly. The potential to creak cracks and breaks in
various regions of major weakness often occurs due to negligence in understanding
Thermal stress.
One of the most common examples of thermal stress is the fracturing of glass
that occurs when we heat the glass to a high temperature and immediately dip into cold
water. The crack and fracture in the glass are different than the one that occurs as a result
of the impact.
Causes of Thermal Stress

According to the laws of Thermodynamics, Thermal Stress is a mechanical
process that occurs due to the change in the internal temperature of an object. Under
normal conditions, any rise in temperature causes additional stress. However, sometimes
in addition to stress, thermal shock can also occur which causes the sudden fracture or
cracking of an object.
Thermal Stress Formula

Consider a thermal conducting rod, on heating, the rod expands. The change in
length will be directly proportional to the amount of heat supplied and the coefficient
of thermal expansion. Thus, we can mathematically write thermal stress as:
Where,
 L is the length in metres

 Ti is the initial temperature in °C
 Tf is the final temperature in °C
 ΔT=Tf-Ti is the change in temperature in °C
 α is coefficient of thermal expansion
(Coefficient of thermal expansion defines the rate at which shape/physical

dimensions of object changes according to change in temperature. It varies from one
material to another)
61
Application of Thermal Stress

Thermal stress has got plenty of applications. Some of them are listed
below:
Thermostat - A thermostat is the most commonly known application of
Thermal stress. As the word implies “Thermo” means temperature and “stat”
means static, Thermostat is a device used to regulate/maintain a constant
temperature. They are widely used in the construction of various electronic
devices, ranging from air conditioners to iron bo
The thermostat used in an iron box contains a “bimetallic strip”. As the
very name suggests, bimetallic strips mean, “a metallic strip made up of two
metals of the different coefficient of thermal expansion bonded together”. Thus
on supplying the same amount of heat two metals expand at a different rate.
At room temperature, the contact points continue to be in physical contact

with bimetallic strips. However, on heating, the moment temperature crosses the
threshold limit. The bimetallic strip starts bending. Bending will be higher
towards the metal strip with a lower coefficient of thermal expansion α . As a
result, the physical connection to the contact point is ceased. The circuit opens
and there will be no further flow of electricity/current.
62
The circuit remains open until the bimetallic strip cools down and attains
its original shape. Once the strip acquires its original shape, the circuit closed, and
the current flows. The same cycle will be repeated until the power supply is
turned off.
Now you clearly got to know why your iron box turns on and off on its
own! There is no intelligence involved. It is just a simple application of thermal
stress.
Sample problem on Thermal Stress:

A bronze bar 3 m long with a cross sectional area of 320 mm2 is placed
between two rigid walls as shown in Figure. At a temperature of -20 °C, the gap Δ =
2.5 mm. Find the temperature at which the compressive stress in the bar will be 35
MPa. Use α = 18.0 × 10-6 m/(m·°C) and E = 80 GPa.
Given:
L = 3.0 m = 3000 mm
𝜎 = 35 MPa
α = 18.0 × 10-6 m/(m·°C)
E = 80 GPa = 80000 MPa
Ti = -20 °C
Δ = 2.5 mm
63
Find Tf
Solution :
δT=δ+Δ
𝜎𝐿
αL(ΔT) = +2.5
𝐸
35(3000)
(18×10−6)(3000)(ΔT) = + 2.5
80000
ΔT =70.6°C
ΔT = Tf - Ti
ΔT = Tf − -20 °C
Tf = 70.6 − 20 °
Tf = 50.6∘C
64
Self Assessment
Date: ________________________
a. Discuss the how thermal stres affects the structural strength and stability of a
material.
65
b. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed
points. The tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb. What will be the stress at 0°F? At what
temperature will the stress be zero? Assume α = 6.5 × 10-6 in / (in·°F) and E = 29 ×
106 psi. ans = 95.46 deg c
66
SHIP'S IRON AND STEEL
The introduction of metal to the shipbuilding industry helped to significantly

revolutionize the industry as a whole, especially the development of stainless steel
and aluminum alloys. Prior to the use of metal in shipbuilding, ships were constructed
out of wood. Wood was much less suitable for ship construction because it is not
durable or strong. Once metals like steel and aluminum hit the market, shipbuilders
found that these were excellent materials for construction of various components of a
ship (Texas Iron and Metal, 2021).
There are a variety of metals that can be utilized in shipbuilding. When

determining the best metals for ships, it is important to focus on the metal’s yield
strength and tensile strength. Of the metals that fit these requirements, the most
common are steel and aluminum alloy.
Week 7 – 8
Learning Outcomes:
4.1 Explain in simple terms the production of pig iron from iron ore
4.2 Explain the elements that naturally occur in iron and its effect on
mechanical property
4.3 Explain the processes involved in steelmaking
4.4 Explain the categories of wrought steels with emphasis on the following:
 plain carbon steel
 low alloy steel
 high alloy steel
 alloying limits for low alloy steels
 general characteristics of various tool steel
67
Pretest
1. This alloying element increase hardness and tensile strength of a steel.

a. carbon
b. sulfur
c. phosphorus
d. silicon
2. This alloying element trongly increases the hardenability of steel, and markedly
improves the corrosion resistance of a steel.
a. chromium
b. manganese
c. molybdenum
d. nickel
3. Which does not describe a carbon steel limitation?

a. low hardenability
b. good thermal conduction
c. low corrosion and oxidation resistance
d. poor high temperature properties
4. Which is not a significant advantages of low-alloy steel?

a. high temperature ductility
b. High yield strength
c. Able to withstand high temperatures
d. Good creep strength
5. It is a type of alloy steel which contains 10.5% of chromium.

a. high carbon steel
b. tool steel
c. low alloy steel
d. high alloy steel
Discussion
The Production Of Pig Iron From Iron Ore
Pig iron is a semi-finished metal produced from iron ore in a blast furnace, It
contain 92% iron, high measures of carbon, can say up to 3.5%, and adjust generally
manganese and silicone in addition to small amount of phosphorus, sulfur, and
different polluting influences. Pig iron is further refined in a heater for change into
steel. It gets its name from the shape of trough in which it used to be cast in the
nineteenth century.
68
Pig iron is an iron that is produced from the first smelting of iron ore. The melt
of the blast furnace is run off into rectangular moulds, traditionally in a branching
structure running off a central runner with the moulds at right angles to each other.
Pig iron has a high carbon content, typically 3.5% - 4.5% along with small
percentages of silicon, sulphur, manganese and phosphorous. This makes it brittle and
only really useful for resmelting to make cast iron, wrought iron or, nowadays, steel.
Due to above mentioned properties Pig iron can be used to produce gray iron
and high purity pig irons can be used to produce ductile iron.
Three Distinct Operations Are Involved In The Manufacturing Process Of Pig-

Iron:
(1) Dressing:
The iron ores as obtained from mines are crushed into pieces of size of 25 mm
diameter. This is achieved in the rock crushers of ordinary type.
The crushing of ores helps in two ways:
(i) The ore particles of uniform size are obtained.

(ii) The reducing gases penetrate the ores in a better way.
69
If ores contain clay, loam and other earthy matter, they are washed in a stream
to remove such impurities. The perforated trays may be kept in water to remove
pebbles and sand. To work in dry condition, the magnetic separators are used to
remove the impurities contained in the iron ores.
(2) Calcination and Roasting:
After the iron ores are dressed, they are calcined and roasted. The calcination
consists in heating ores in presence of air so that they are oxidized. The water and
carbon dioxide are removed from ores by calcination. The roasting consists of making
the ores hot and very dry. It is adopted to dissipate the volatile parts, especially
sulphur, by heat. Hence the roasting will not be necessary, if ore is an oxide.
(3) Smelting:
The melting so as to separate metal from ore is known as the smelting. It is

carried oi t in a special type of furnace, known as the blast furnace. It is in the form of
a vertical steel cylinder. The outer shell of furnace is of steel plate about 30 mm to 40
mm thick and its inside surface is covered with a lining of fire-bricks. Its diameter is
about 6 m to 8 m and its height is about 30 m to 36 m.
The blast furnaces continue throughout the world to provide the predominant, if not
the sole means of producing pig-iron. Their design has practically remained
unchanged. They have however grown to an incredible extent in size and efficiency.
The capacity of old blast furnaces was around 15000 kN of pig-iron per day. The
capacity of present day modern blast furnaces has gone upto 100000 or more kN of
pig-iron per day.
Other Methods Of Pig-Iron Manufacture:
In modern age, the attempts are made to modify it or to adopt new methods of
manufacturing pig-iron mainly for two reasons:
(i) The height of modern blast furnace has increased. It requires more capital
and labour for its working.
(ii) To most of the nations which are producing pig-iron, the coke, which is
used as fuel, is becoming either short or inaccessible.
Following are the other alternative methods of pig-iron manufacture:
(1) Electric reduction furnace

(2) Low shaft blast furnace
(3) Sponge iron process.
70
(1) Electric Reduction Furnace:
This type of furnace can be adopted at places where electric power can be
economically and cheaply generated. There are various forms of this furnace. In one
form, the hearth has a diameter about three to four times of stack diameter. The
furnace is heated by electrodes passing through the roof.
Following are the advantages of this furnace:
(i) As electric power is used, the coke is required as the reducing

agent only. It therefore results in considerable reduction, about
60% or so, in its consumption.
(ii) The external supply of air is not necessary in this furnace.
(iii) It is flexible in operation and can be economically operated for
different outputs.
(iv) It is possible to employ raw materials of low grade in this furnace.
(v) It is possible to manufacture iron with low sulphur content by this
furnace.
(vi) The quantity of fluxing material required is less.
(vii) The quantity of slag formed is less.
(viii) The gas produced in this furnace possesses higher calorific value.
Its quantity is only about 15% or so than that produced in an
ordinary blast furnace.
The only drawback of this furnace is that its initial and maintenance costs are
somewhat more. Its adoption however largely depends on the relative costs of coke
and electric power.
(2) Low Shaft Blast Furnace:
In this furnace, the blast is made rich in oxygen. It therefore depends on the
availability of commercial oxygen at cheap rate. In blast of ordinary furnace, nearly
60% is nitrogen which does not take any active part in chemical reactions. It only acts
as a carrier of heat. Hence, if blast is enriched with oxygen, the reduction of iron ores
can be carried out in a shorter time and it will also result in reduction of stack height.
Following are the advantages of this furnace:
(i) The gas produced possesses high calorific value.

(ii) This furnace consumes fine ores.
(iii) This furnace consumes or depends on oxygen which can be made
available from natural air.
(iv) This furnace permits the use of inferior fuels such as lignite, brown
coals, etc.
71
(3) Sponge Iron Process:
As the name implies, the spongy iron is obtained by the reduction of lumpy
iron ore or iron ore pellets from the oxide form into the metallic state. The iron
content of the product so obtained varies from 90% to 94% and the balance represents
the traces of gangue and residual iron oxide.
Following are the advantages of this process especially with reference to the
prevailing conditions in our country:
(i) Conversion into Steel:
The spongy iron can be conveniently converted into steel by melting in an

electric arc furnace or used in cupolas to produce heavy duty irons. It is also the direct
feed stock for many processes of iron and steel making. It is also increasingly used for
improving the productivity of the existing blast furnaces.
(ii) New Technology:
There has been considerable improvement in the method of producing sponge

iron and full advantage of such advanced technology can be taken to enhance the
production of sponge iron. For instance, the necessity of making iron ore pellets for
subsequent conversion into sponge iron may be eliminated in the new projects.
The process is simple and the control factors of process temperature exhaust gas
composition and product quality can be easily managed by the latest techniques.
(iii) Production:
There are large reserves of iron ore and non-coking coal in our country and it
appears that the annual production of sponge iron will boost to 1000 million kN by
the turn of the 2020.
(iv) Raw Material for Mini Steel Plants:
The shortage of steel scrap has been felt by the mini steel plants spread out in
the whole country. The sponge iron is very economical and superior to the ordinary
steel scrap used by such plants and hence the growth of spongy iron industry will
solve the problem of supplying raw material for mini steel plants. The spongy iron
will be an excellent substitute for steel scrap used by electric steel melting furnaces.
72
(v) Replacement of Pig-Iron:
The spongy iron can also replace pig-iron for large iron foundries where there
is facility for hot blast cupolas. The pig-iron thus saved could be supplied to the small
scale units.
(vi) Shortage of Coking Coal:
There is an acute shortage of coking coal in our country. The spongy iron
process requires non-coking coal which is abundantly available in Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa, Bengal and Bihar. The spongy iron industry will thus make the steel making
less dependent on coking coal which is scarce and is becoming costly day by day.
The small and medium sized spongy iron plants are working economically even in the
most advanced countries. Several processes have been developed in Japan and
Germany for the economic exploitation of iron ore into spongy iron.
(Engineering Notes India, 2018)
Alloying Elements And Its Effect In Mechanical Propery Of Iron
Carbon
Carbon is generally considered to be the most important alloying element in
steel and can be present up to 2% (although most welded steels have less than 0.5%).
Increased amounts of carbon increase hardness and tensile strength, as well as response
to heat treatment (hardenability). Increased amounts of carbon will reduce weldability.
Sulfur
Sulfur is usually an undesirable impurity in steel rather than an alloying
element. In amounts exceeding 0.05% it tends to cause brittleness and reduce
weldability. Alloying additions of sulfur in amounts from 0.10% to 0.30% will tend to
improve the machinability of a steel. Such types may be referred to as “resulfurized” or
“freemachining”. Free-machining alloys are not intended for use where welding is
required.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is generally considered to be an undesirable impurity in steels. It is
normally found in amounts up to 0.04% in most carbon steels. In hardened steels, it
may tend to cause embrittlement. In low-alloy high-strength steels, phosphorus may be
added in amounts up to 0.10% to improve strength and corrosion resistance.
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Silicon
Usually only small amounts (0.20%) of silicon are present in rolled steel when it
is used as a deoxidizer. However, in steel castings, 0.35 to 1.00% is commonly present.
Silicon dissolves in iron and tends to strengthen it. Weld metal usually contains
approximately 0.50% silicon as a deoxidizer. Some filler metals may contain up to 1%
to provide enhanced cleaning and deoxidation for welding on contaminated surfaces.
When these filler metals are used for welding on clean surfaces, the resulting weld
metal strength will be markedly increased. The resulting decrease in ductility could
resent cracking problems.
Manganese
Steels usually contain at least 0.30% manganese because it assists in the
deoxidation of the steel, prevents the formation of iron sulfide and inclusions, and
promotes greater strength by increasing the hardenability of the steel. Amounts of up to
1.5% can be found in some carbon steels.
Chromium
Chromium is a powerful alloying element in steel. It strongly increases the
hardenability of steel, and markedly improves the corrosion resistance of alloys in
oxidizing media. Its presence in some steels could cause excessive hardness and
cracking in and adjacent to welds. Stainless steels may contain in excess of 12%
chromium.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum is a strong carbide former and is usually present in alloy steels in
amounts less than 1%. It increases hardenability and elevated temperature strength. In
austenitic stainless steels it improves pitting corrosion resistance.
Nickel
Nickel is added to steels to increase hardenability. It often improves the
toughness and ductility of the steel, even with the increased strength and hardness it
brings. It is frequently used to improve toughness at low temperature.
Aluminum
Aluminum is added to steel in very small amounts as a deoxidizer. It also is a
grain refiner for improved toughness; steels with moderate aluminum additions have
been made to a “fine grain practice”.
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Vanadium
The addition of vanadium will result in an increase in the hardenability of a
steel. It is very effective, so it is added in minute amounts. At greater than 0.05%, there
may be a tendency for the steel to become embrittled during thermal stress relief
treatments.
Steelmaking Processes
Steel manufacturing methods have evolved dramatically since the processes of

the industrial revolution began in the mid 19th century. However modern methods are
still based on the Bessemer process which was practised over 150 years ago. This was
a way to introduce oxygen into molten iron in order to reduce the amount of carbon
contained within.
Modern-day steel production makes use of both traditional raw materials

(iron) and recycled materials to turn them into steel. With this in mind, here are the 6
steps to modern steel production explained. (Panting, 2016)
Steel is produced from iron ore or scrap. Iron ore is a mineral aggregate that
can be converted economically into iron. The quality of the iron ore is mainly
determined by its composition; a high iron content and low sulphur and phosphorus
contents are favorable. Iron ore can be found all over the world, but its iron content
varies.
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Steel scrap has been selectively collected for several decades and is recycled
as a valuable raw material for steel production.
In the steel production, following stages are identified: production of pig iron;
production of liquid steel; hot rolling and cold rolling; applying a metallic and/or
organic coating.
There are two main processes for producing steel: by means of a blast furnace
(= indirect reduction) in combination with a converter, or by means of an electric
furnace. In the former process, iron ore is the main raw material. In an electric
furnace, scrap iron is used and occasionally also sponge iron. Sponge is an
intermediate product, which is produced from iron ore by means of direct reduction (=
DRI or directly reduced iron) and that is then further reduced and smelted in an
electric furnace.
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Major Steps In The Process
Step 1 – The iron making process
As iron is the main component of steel it firstly needs to be made. Iron ore,
lime, and coke are placed into a blast furnace and melted. The resulting liquid known
as molten iron is then formed. As molten iron still contains around 4% – 4.5%
impurities such as carbon which in turn make the metal brittle, they need to be
eradicated. Step 2 does exactly this.
Step 2 – Primary steel making
There are two main methods for making steel and these are Basic Oxygen
Steel making (BOS) and Electric Ark Furnaces (EAF). BOS methods for example
involve adding scrap (recycled) steel to the molten iron when in the furnace. Oxygen
is then forced through the liquid (the Bessemer process) to cut the impurities in the
molten metal down to 0.5% -1.5%.
Alternatively with the EAF method, recycled steel is fed into an electrical ark
furnace along with the molten iron which is then heated to around 1650 degrees
Celsius in order to convert it into high-grade steel.
Step 3 – Secondary steel making
Next the newly formed molten steel needs to be adjusted to make the perfect
steel composition. This is done by either manipulating the temperature and/or
removing certain elements. This may include processes such as degassing, stirring,
ladle injection, or argon bubbling
Step 4 – casting
Now we have the bones of our steel the next step is to pour it into cooled
moulds. This causes the the metal to cool quickly. Once cooled the metal is then cut
into desired lengths depending upon the application eg, slabs for plates, blooms for
sections such as beams, and billets for longer products such as wiring or thin pipes.
Step 5 – First forming
Also known as primary forming, the initial shapes of slabs, blooms, and billets
are formed into their various shapes usually by hot rolling. Products that are hot rolled
are then divided into flat products, long products, seamless tubes, and speciality
products for one last stage of processing.
Step 6 – The manufacturing, fabrication and finishing process
Finally a variety of secondary forming techniques including shaping,

machining, jointing and coating give the products their tell-tale shapes and properties.
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Categories Of Wrought Steels
Plain Carbon Steel
Plain carbon steels are iron-carbon alloys in which the properties are primarily
derived from the presence of carbon. Some incidental elements like manganese,
silicon, sulphur and phosphorus are present in small amounts due to the method of
making steels and, not to modify the mechanical properties.
Alloy steels are those steels when, one, or more of the alloying elements are
intentionally added to plain carbon steels to enhance, or induce some property, or
properties. It is a bit difficult to make a clear cut distinction between plain carbon and
alloy steel.
Ho
wever, AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) adopted the following definition.
‘Carbon steels are regarded as steels-containing not more than 1.65% manganese,
0.60% silicon and 0.60% copper, all other steels being regarded as alloy steels.
Common alloying elements are nickel, chromium, vanadium, silicon, manganese, etc.
Classification of Plain Carbon Steels:
Plain carbon steels can be classified based on the carbon content of the steels
in two different ways as:
I. According to the micro-structure in the annealed state:

i. Hypo-Eutectoid Steels:
ii. Eutectoid Steel:
This steel with 0.77% carbon has 100% pearlite in its microstructure.
iii. Hyper-Eutectoid Steels:
The microstructure of these steels contain pro-eutectoid cementite (or free

cementite) and pearlite. The amount of free cementite increases up to a maximum of
22.11% as the carbon content of the steel increases from above 0.77% to 2.11%.
Commercial steels have carbon, normally, up to 1.5% maximum as the higher carbon
content makes the steel extremely brittle.
II. Though based on the carbon content, but classified according to the level of main
mechanical properties of practical importance.
This is the most commonly used commercial classification:
i. Low Carbon Steels:

These are steels having carbon up to 0.25%.
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As the carbon content is low (up to 0.25%) in these steels, they combine fair strength
with high ductility with excellent fabrication properties (for rolling, drawing,
pressing, welding etc.). These steels are not hardened as the hardenability is low to
produce martensite. The hardness of martensite (if produced) is low.
These steels are classified in two classes:
(a) Conventional Low Carbon Steels:
These steels contain about 0.1% carbon with 0.3-0.4% manganese and are cold
worked low carbon steels. These steels have yield strength of 200-300 MPa, tensile
strength of 350-370 MPa and percentage elongation of 28-40%. Because of high
ductility, these steels find applications in the form of cold-rolled sheets.
Their excellent formability suits for cold deformed shapes such as stampings of
automobile bodies, the refrigerator bodies, tin cans, corrugated sheets, and solid
drawn tubes. Rimmed variety finds applications as rods and wires for nails, rivets,
fencing, binding, cable armouring, ferro-concrete bars, mattress wires, etc.
Low carbon steels suffer from strain ageing, which does act as a method of
strengthening, but as it raises the transition temperature of the steel, steels become
brittle at room temperature. Low carbon steels also suffer from Luder’s band
formation, which causes the surface to be rough and unpleasing, and which is
undesirable. This defect appears to be minimal if the ferrite grain size (ASTM No
between 7 and 9) is tine.
If a small amount of about 1% reduction by cold working is done just before the
stamping, or drawing process, Luder bands can be avoided. This is called ‘temper
rolling.’ The microstructure of low carbon sheet, or strip consists essentially of ferrite
and some carbide, the latter being in the form of pearlite, or individual carbide
particles.
(b) Conventional Mild Steels:
These steels have carbon content in between 0.15% to 0.25%, i.e., higher
carbon content than conventional low carbon steels and thus, have higher strengths
but lower ductility, and thus are hot worked steels. As these steels too are not
hardened, these are air cooled (normalised) after hot rolling, or forging, etc. Thus,
these steels develop mechanical properties as a result of control of composition and
grain size (controlled by the deoxidation practice).
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Although, these steels have moderate yield and tensile strengths, but have proper
combination of strength, ductility, toughness and weldability to perform satisfactorily
in structural applications. Little more manganese (0.6 to 1.25%) increases the yield
and tensile strengths without reducing the ductility. Copper (0.2%) is often added for
improving the corrosion resistance.
ii. Medium Carbon Steels:
These steels have carbon between 0.25% to 0.55% these steels have higher
strength but lower ductility than low carbon steels. These steels are often used in
normalized condition for a great variety of components. In major industries, these
steels are used in hardened and tempered state such as for making camshafts,
connecting rods, gears, spindles, friction discs, piston rods, cross pieces, plungers.
These steels form base of components of machines and are often called ‘machinery
steels’.
Some important applications are:

(i) Drop forgings (0.25 – 0.5% C) for general engineering purposes,
boiler drums, for agricultural tools such as hoes, spades, forks, etc.
(ii) 0.3 – 0.4% C steels are used for shafts, high tensile tubes, wire, fish
plates.
(iii) 0.4 – 0.5% C steels are used for turbo-electric discs, shafts, rotors,
die-blocks, gears, and tyres.
iii. High Carbon Steels:
These steels have carbon from 0.55% to ideally a maximum of 2.11% but
commonly up to 1.5% max. in commercial steels. These are heat treated steels to
obtain high hardness, wear resistance, cutting properties, and have least ductility.
These are mainly tool steels.
Limitations of Plain Carbon Steels:
The largest tonnages of metallic materials produced are plain carbon steels,
signifying their extensive applications. Moreover, carbon steels are cheap and
available in large quantities, in quite a large variation of shapes and sizes. Their heat
treatments are simple. An engineer should try to use as far as possible the carbon
steels. They have moderate strength and can resist satisfactorily, ordinary
temperatures and atmospheres.
As it is difficult to harden carbon steel-parts thicker than 1.5 cm up to centre

(due to low hardenability), higher uniform strength by hardening and tempering
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cannot be obtained in thicker parts. Even in thinner sections, in heat treated

conditions, carbon is increased to get a maximum strength of 700 N/mm2, above
which, a rapid decrease in ductility and impact strength takes place.
Modern applications demand much higher strengths with adequate ductility,

corrosion resistance in more severe atmospheres and exposure to higher temperatures.
Hardened carbon steels show sharp drop of hardness (almost linear) even at stress
relieving conditions.
The most important limitations of carbon steels are:

1. Low hardenability.
2. Low corrosion and oxidation resistance.
3. Major loss of hardness on stress-relieving tempering treatment.
4. Poor high temperature properties.
The limitations of carbon steels are overcome by the use of alloy steels. The
presence of alloying elements, not only enhances the outstanding characteristics of
plain carbon steels, but improves some other properties, or even induces specific
properties.
Low Alloy Steel And Its Alloying Limits
A low-alloy steel is a type of metal mixture composed of steel and another

metals that possess desirable properties. Low-alloy steel contains about 1%-5% of
alloying elements. Therefore, it possesses precise chemical compositions that provide
better mechanical properties that are intended to prevent corrosion.
Low alloy steel is among the steels, when nitrogen, chromium and other alloy
elements content that consist of less than 10.5% are known as low alloy steel. The low
alloy steel contains 0.5% - 9% of chromium and 0.5% - 1% of molybdenum. Its
carbon content is lower than 0.20%, with higher hardening ability and decent
weldability due to its alloy trait. Chromium improves anti oxidization and corrosion
ability of low alloy steel and in high temperature molybdenum enhances its
strength. In low temperature environment the average steel will have higher strength
but lower toughness and elongation, thus this increases the chance for brittle fracture.
Low alloy steel is formed by adding nickel in 2.5-3.5% in the carbon steel to enhance
its toughness in low temperature. Apart from normalizing treatment during the
production process low alloy steel, quenching and tempering are also parts of
improvement treatment of mechanical properties.
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Low-alloy steels typically undergo heat treatment, normalizing and tempering

during production. They are also weldable. However, weld heat treatment is necessary
in order to avoid weld cracking.
Significant advantages of low-alloy steels over mild steel are:
 High yield strength

 Able to withstand high temperatures
 Good creep strength
 Oxidation resistance
 Hydrogen resistance
 Low temperature ductility
A higher yield strength and creep strength is desirable because low-alloy steels
are used to manufacture thin walled pressure vessels. Low-alloy steels such as 0.5 Mo
and 12 CrMoVW are used for their good creep properties in steam boilers, refinery
crackers and reformers. The upper temperature limit for low-alloy steels is about
600°C (1112°F).
Common Uses of Low-Alloy Steel
The first step in understanding low-alloy steel is to know about its common
uses—all of which vary greatly across many industries. Applications for low-alloy
steels range from military vehicles, earthmoving and construction equipment, and
ships to the cross-country pipelines, pressure vessels and piping, oil drilling platforms,
and structural steel.
Several common groupings of low-alloy steels, beginning with HY 80, HY 90,

and HY 100 steels, are used for building ship hulls, submarines, bridges, and off-
highway vehicles. These low-alloy steels contain nickel, molybdenum, and
chromium, which add to the material's weldability, notch toughness, and yield
strength. When welding these low-alloys steels, preheat and postheat treatments
typically are not required. Always refer to the welding procedure to determine the
requirements.
Another type of low-alloy steel—high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA)—is

different from other low-alloy grades in that each type has been created to meet
specific mechanical requirements rather than a given chemical composition. HSLA
applications include warships, structural steel, and others known for their strength.
Designed for strength, toughness at low temperatures, and ductility, ASTM

A514, A517, and T1 steels are quenched and tempered and used in applications such
as heavy equipment manufacturing and boiler and pressure vessel fabrication.
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Weathering steels such as ASTM A242, A588, and A709 Grade 50W rely on
certain alloys to produce a protective, corrosion-resistant layer. This layer also gives a
weathered look to the finished steel and was first introduced as COR-TEN®.
Weathered steels are popular in artwork, bridges, and as a facing material on
buildings to achieve specific aesthetics.
High Alloy Steel
High alloy steel is an alloy of iron which contains 10.5% of chromium. High
alloy steel also has a mixture of 10% alloy. Chromium makes a thin layer of oxide on
the surface of the steel and it is known as latent layer. And it is little costly than low
alloy steel. To give austenitic nature to the steel, high level of carbon and manganese
are added. The expanding measure of chromium provides an expanded protection
from erosion. High alloyed steel can prevent consumption due to the high chromium
content. High alloy steel additionally contains limits of manganese, silicon and
carbon. It is utilized for the benefit in exceptional hot gasses and fluids on different
components at high temperatures. For example molybdenum and nickel can be added
to grant other helpful properties such as to improve formability and expanded
consumption protection.
Grades:
 ASTM A335 Gr P1, P5, P11, P22, P9, P91 Pipes

 ASTM A234 Gr.WP5, WP9, WP11 Fittings
 ASTM A182 F5, F9, F11 Forging, Flanges, and Forged Fittings
Tool Steels
Tool steel encompasses a wide variety of carbon and alloy steels that have
particular mechanical or physical properties, such as strength, hardness, workability,
abrasion, corrosion and heat resistance.
This makes them well suited to be made into tools, essentially used in the
shaping of other materials, and especially for drilling and cutting as they are able to
hold a cutting edge at elevated temperatures.
Tool steel is used to make other products, for cutting, stamping, punching and
machining other metals, plastics and wood. They are usually supplied in a soft
annealed condition, machined into the tools required, then heat-treated to improve
their hardness.
Tool steels contain differing amounts and combinations of tungsten,

molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium. (AKM Steels Specialist Steel Stockholders, 2021)
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Tool Steel Code Class Attributes
W Water hardening
O Cold worked Oil hardening
A Cold worked Air hardening
D Cold worked High Carbon, High Chromium
S Shock resisting
H Hot worked H1 to H19 are Chromium based
H Hot worked H20 to H39 are Tungsten based
H Hot worked H40 to H59 are Molybdenum based
M High Speed Molybdenum based
T High Speed Tungsten based
P Plastic mold
L Special Purpose Low Alloy
F Special Purpose Carbon / Tungsten based
Classification Of Tool Steel
Water-hardening class – Named from its essential property of having to be water

quenched. This grade of tool steel is essentially plain high carbon steel. It is
commonly used because of its low cost.
Cold-work classes – Is a group of three tool steels: oil-hardening, air-hardening, and

high carbon-chromium. The steels in the group have high hardenability and wear
resistance, with average toughness. Typically they are in the production of larger parts
or parts that have a minimum distortion requirement when being hardened. Cold work
tool steels are high carbon steels containing smaller amounts of manganese, tungsten,
molybdenum, and chromium. These are steels used to cut or form materials that are at
low temperatures. They have good dimensional stability, hardenability & wear
resistance, and average toughness and heat softening resistance. They are further
divided into 3 subgroups: Air Hardening (A series); High Carbon, high Chromium
steels (D series) and Oil hardening steels (O Series). Some of the oldest and most
commonly used tool steels sit within this subgroup: D2, D6, O2, D3, A2.
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 Both Oil quenching and Air-hardening both reduce the distortion and higher
stress caused by the quick water quenching.Because of this they are less likely
to crack.
 D-grade of tool steel in the cold-work class can contain approximately 10% to
13% chromium. This type of tool steel does retain its hardness at increased
temperature (425 °C / 797 °F max). The most typical applications for this type
of tool steel is in forging dies, die-casting die blocks, and drawing dies.
Shock-resisting class
This class has high shock resistance and good hardenability. It is designed to
resist shock at both low and high temperatures. It also has a very high
impact toughness and relatively low abrasion resistance.
High speed class
T-type and M-type tool steels are used for cutting tools when strength and
hardness must be retained at high temperatures.
High–speed steel (HSS or HS) are tool steels, commonly used for high-speed
cutting applications, for example in power-saw blades and drill bits. They are superior
to the older high-carbon steel tools in that they can withstand higher temperatures
without losing their temper (hardness). This property allows HSS to cut faster than
high carbon steel, hence the name high-speed steel. High speed steels gain their
properties from a variety of alloying metals added to carbon steel, typically including
tungsten (T series) and molybdenum (M series), or a combination of the two, often
with other alloys as well. Perhaps the most commonly used high speed steel is M2.
High speed tool steel properties

 High strength at high temperatures
 Good toughness
 High compressive strength
 Good wear resistance
Hot-working class
H-group tool steels were specifically developed to maintain strength and

hardness while exposed to prolonged elevated temperatures.Hot work tool steels are a
group of low carbon steels, known as “H-steels”, used to mainly shape and form
materials in manufacturing units that perform at high temperatures of 480 to 760°C
(900 to 1400°F), including punching, forging and shearing. They have high wear
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resistance at high temperatures, high thermal conductivity and maintain their

mechanical properties up to 540 degrees celsius. These properties are achieved by the
addition of alloy elements such as chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium,
nickel and cobalt in varying amounts. The commonly used hot work tool steel is H13.
Plastic Mold & Special purpose classes:
Plastic mould steels will ensure companies involved with injection moulding
and extrusion tools, a long production tool life and tool reliability, with a mix of good
corrosion resistance, hardness, toughness and resistance properties. They have good
dimensional stability during heating, is easy to polish and has high impact strength.
Different plastic mould steels will deliver better on each of these properties. Some
also offer improved corrosion resistance so are best suited to moulding chemically
aggressive plastics, sometimes in the food industry e.g. 1.2083, 1.2316 & 1.2085.
Other commonly used plastic mould steels are P20, P20N & P20S.
 P-Code (Plastic Mold Steel) – Designed to meet the needs of zinc die casting
and the special requirements of plastic injection molding dies
 L-Code – A low alloy special purpose tool steel.
 F-Code – Water harden-able / more wear resistant than W-type tool steel.
Powder metallurgy tool steels
Powder metallurgy tool steels are very high alloy steels (HATS) that use metal
powders and high temperature isostatic pressing (HIP) to make higher performance
materials, where a long tool life is critical for machining metals. The products have a
fine, uniform structure and provide the greatest possible combination of hardness,
toughness and wear resistance. Powder metallurgy uses “gas atomization” where a
stream of liquid steel is passed through nitrogen sprays that instantly solidify the steel
into a fine powder. That powder is then pressed into a canister at high pressure and
temperature to create a solid ingot that can then be processed normally.
Tool steel properties
The tool steel that is most appropriate for an application will depend on the
combination of properties required.
The primary tool steel properties are:
 toughness - resistance to breaking & chipping and cracking under impact or

stress
 wear resistance - resistance to abrasion & erosion from other material
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Self Assessment
Date: ________________________
a. Discuss briefly the procedure involve in steel production process.
b. List down at least three iron alloying elements and explain its effect on the
mechanical property of an iron
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HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

Steels can be heat treated to produce a large range of microstructures and
properties. Generally, heat treatment uses phase transformation during heating and
cooling to change the microstructure in a solid state. In heat treatment, the processing
is normally thermal and which modifies only the structure of the steel. In case of
thermo-mechanical treatment process of steels, the shape and structure of the steel
components also gets modified. In case of thermo-chemical process of steels, the
surface chemistry and structure of the steel gets modified. Both the thermo-
mechanical and thermo-chemical treatment processes are also important processing
approaches for heat treatment of steel and these are being considered in the domain of
heat treatment. Heat treatment processes requires close control over all the factors
affecting the heating and cooling of the steel. The atmosphere of the heating furnace
also affects the condition of the steel being heat-treated (Heat Treatment Processes for
Steel – IspatGuru, n.d.).
All the heat-treating processes consist of subjecting the steel to a definite time-
temperature cycle. This time-temperature cycle has three components namely (i)
heating, (ii) holding at particular temperature range (soaking), and (iii) cooling.
Individual cases can differ, but certain fundamental objectives are there.
Week 9 – 10
Learning Outcomes:
5.1 Explain the purpose of heat treatment
5.2 Explain the following heat treatment process and the type of steel to which
they may be applied:
 Stress relief heat treatment
 Annealing
 Normalizing
 Quenching
 Tempering
 Hardening
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Pretest
1. It is define as the surface's resistance to scratching, abrasion, or indentation.
A. toughness
B. hardness
C. brittleness
D. plasticity
2. What property of a material refers to its resistance to fracture, as measured by

the Charpy test?
A. toughness
B. hardness
C. brittleness
D. plasticity
3. What property of a material refers to he ability to mold, bend or deform in a

manner that does not spontaneously return to its original shape?
A. toughness
B. hardness
C. brittleness
D. plasticity
4. Which is not a benefit of heat treatment?
A. Reduces wear-resistant (hardness) characteristics of a metal

B. It can change a material’s physical (mechanical) properties and it aids in
other manufacturing steps
C. It relieves stresses, making the part easier to machine or weld
D. Increases strength, making the material ductile or more flexible
5. Which metal treatment process is used to increase the toughness of iron-

based alloys ?
A. hardening
B. tempering
C. annealing
D. quenching
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Definition of terms
Strength – Resistance to permanent deformation and tearing. Strength, in

metallurgy, is still a rather vague term, so is usually divided into yield
strength (strength beyond which deformation becomes permanent), tensile
strength (the ultimate tearing strength), shear strength (resistance to transverse, or
cutting forces), and compressive strength (resistance to elastic shortening under a
load).
Toughness – Resistance to fracture, as measured by the Charpy test. Toughness

often increases as strength decreases, because a material that bends is less likely
to break.
Hardness – A surface's resistance to scratching, abrasion, or indentation. In

conventional metal alloys, there is a linear relation between indentation
hardness and tensile strength, which eases the measurement of the latter.[7]
Brittleness – Brittleness describes a material's tendency to break before bending

or deforming either elastically or plastically. Brittleness increases with decreased
toughness, but is greatly affected by internal stresses as well.
Plasticity – The ability to mold, bend or deform in a manner that does not
spontaneously return to its original shape. This is proportional to
the ductility or malleability of the substance.
Elasticity – Also called flexibility, this is the ability to deform, bend, compress, or
stretch and return to the original shape once the external stress is removed.
Elasticity is inversely related to the Young's modulus of the material.
Impact resistance – Usually synonymous with high-strength toughness, it is the

ability to resist shock-loading with minimal deformation.
Wear resistance – Usually synonymous with hardness, this is resistance

to erosion, ablation, spalling, or galling.
Structural integrity – The ability to withstand a maximum-rated load while

resisting fracture, resisting fatigue, and producing a minimal amount of flexing
or deflection, to provide a maximum service life.
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The Purpose Of Heat Treatment
During manufacturing, some materials might need to be involved in

procedures that alter their grain structure. Heat treatments are a way of using
controlled heating and cooling procedures to change metal’s physical properties and
improve them to be used in a large range of industries.
These heat treatments vary depending on the metal type, and the mechanical
properties that are required for the parts’ function. It is essential that the correct heat
treatment procedures are followed to ensure the metal meets the specified strength
requirements.
Heat treatment is commonly used to alter or strengthen materials’ structure

through a heating and cooling process. It can be applied to both ferrous and non-
ferrous metals, and there are a number of different methods of heat treatment. At
Dean Group we offer many of these methods depending on the desired outcome and
cost involved in producing your castings. Each method produces different standards
of casting, with specific properties. The method chosen for heat treatment can produce
castings with various strengths, temperature resistance, ductility and surface hardness.
The Benefits Of Heat Treatment

There are many advantages of heat treatment, including:
 It can change a material’s physical (mechanical) properties and it aids in other

manufacturing steps.
 It relieves stresses, making the part easier to machine or weld.
 Increases strength, making the material ductile or more flexible.
 Introduces wear-resistant (hardness) characteristics, either just to the surface or
right through the part.
 Improves brittleness. Some metals can become weak or brittle once exposed to a
specific environment, so they need to be treated in order to overcome this.
 Can improve the electrical and magnetic properties of a metal, which will
improve its compatibility with other materials.
 Steel materials benefit greatly from heat treatments, particularly in
manufacturing processes like hot forming or after welding.
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COMMON HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS
Stress relief heat treatment
Stress relief is a heat-treatment process that relies on slow cooling to achieve

its desired effect, and it is influenced by a number of factors including the internal
stress induced into the parts from the various manufacturing methods (e.g., bending,
shearing, forging, sawing, machining, grinding, milling, turning, welding, etc.) and
prior processing. The application end use ultimately defines the allowable stress state.
Processes that depend on slow cooling (e.g., annealing, normalizing, stress

relief) do so for a number of reasons – to relieve stresses, improve chemical
homogeneity, soften a material for subsequent operations (e.g., machining), refine
grain size and for such reasons as embrittlement relief or magnetic properties.As a
general rule, the larger or more complex the part, the greater the amount of internal
stress present.
Stress relief can be differentiated from other slow-cooling processes in that it

is most often performed below the lower critical temperature . Time at temperature
depends on such factors as the complexity of the part, and enough time must be
allowed in order to achieve the desired reduction in residual-stress level. Following
stress relief, the steel is cooled at a sufficiently slow rate to avoid formation of or
reintroduction of excessive thermal stresses. No microstructural phase changes occur
during the stress-relief process. Stress relief most often requires a “still-air cool” so as
not to reintroduce stress into a material, but what does this really mean? A still-air
cool (quench) can be defined as cooling at a rate of 40°F (22°C) per minute or faster
to 1100°F (593°C) and then at a rate of 15-25°F (8-14°C) per minute from 1100-
300°F (593-150°C). Below 300°F (150°C) any cooling rate may be used.
How Do We Perform A Stress-Relief Operation?
For carbon steels, stress-relief operations are typically performed at 105-165°F

(40-75°C) below the lower critical temperature – in the range of 930-1200°F (500-
650°C). It is also important to understand that the elimination of stress is not
instantaneous, being a function of both temperature and time for maximum benefit.
Typically, one hour per inch (25 mm) of maximum cross-sectional area (once the part
has reached temperature) is required. After removal from the furnace or oven, the
parts are air cooled in still air. Rapid cooling will only serve to reintroduce stress, and
this is the most common mistake made in stress-relief operations. This cycle is
estimated to remove more than 90% of the internal stresses. Stress relief on alloy
steels is often done at (slightly) higher temperatures.
For tool steels, the process is similar. It is common to perform a stress-relief

operation in the temperature range of 500-550°C (925-1025°F), allowing the parts to
slowly cool to room temperature before subsequent operations.
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For stainless steels, the situation is more complex. Stress relief is done in the
range of 290-425°C (550-800°F), which is below the sensitization range. Stainless
stress relief depends on the form of the material, the operation being performed (e.g.,
machining) or whether a completed assembly will be stress relieved.
Annealing
Annealing is a specific process of heat treatment that alters the properties of

metal. While there are many different types of heat treatment, annealing is popular
because it increases ductability and reduces hardness. In this post, we’ll cover
everything you need to know about the process of annealing.
Annealing is a heat treatment process that is common in manufacturing

because it improves the physical and sometimes chemical properties of metal to be
both more durable and more workable. When heated during the specific process of
annealing, atoms migrate in their crystal lattice and the number of atom dislocations
goes down, leading to changes in both ductility and hardness. As the material cools it
crystallizes again.
For many alloys, including the most common in manufacturing, carbon steel,
the properties of the metal are determined by the size of the crystal grains and the
phase composition. Both change during heating and cooling. With knowledge of the
crystal grain composition and the phase diagram, annealing as a heat treatment can be
used to take the metal from hard to soft, brittle to ductile. As a result, the metal will be
more formable, an obviously favorable property in manufacturing.
What is the Benefit to Annealing?
As already shared, annealing is used to make metal more ductile and less
brittle. Here are the three main benefits to annealing:
 Annealing makes metals more formable. When metal is stronger and more
ductile, it gives manufacturers more leeway in the fabrication process. There is
less risk of material fracturing from bending or pressing.
 Annealing can also improve a metal’s ability to be machined and improve the
lifespans of tools. Hard, brittle metals can cause wear to shop tools. Annealing
metals reduces wear and the chance of damage to tools.
 Annealing removes what’s called residual stress. Residual stress is what
remains in a metal after the original cause of the stress has been removed. For
example, residual stress from roll forming could cause a structural to gape
when cut with a band-saw. Residual stress can complicate future processes and
annealing is a great way to remove it.
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What Metals Are Commonly Annealed?
Most commonly, many types of steel and cast iron are annealed in the
manufacturing industry. There are also specific types of aluminum, copper, and brass
that can be annealed. While steel is generally cooled to room temperature in still air,
copper and brass can also be quenched in water.
What Are The Steps in The Annealing Process
There are three main steps in the annealing process:
1. Recovery
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain growth
Recovery
Metal is composed of a lattice of crystal structures that are known as grains.

Sometimes, the structure of the grains themselves cause stress to the metal. During the
first phase of the annealing process, called recovery, a furnace or other type of heat
source is utilized to raise the temperature of the material to a point that removes
internal stresses.
Recrystallization
During recrystallization, further heating raises the temperature of the metal to

just below its melting point, high enough that the atoms recrystallize, and low enough
that it doesn’t melt.
Grain Growth
During the grain growth stage, new crystal grains become fully developed as
the metal cools that don’t have the metal’s original stress. The final composition–
including the ductility and hardness–is determined by the rate of cooling. Once the
metal is annealed, there may be final processing like shaping, stamping, or forming.
Normalizing
Normalizing is a heat treatment process that is used to make a metal

more ductile and tough after it has been subjected to thermal or mechanical hardening
processes. Normalizing involves heating a material to an elevated temperature and
then allowing it to cool back to room temperature by exposing it to room temperature
air after it is heated. This heating and slow cooling alters the microstructure of the
metal which in turn reduces its hardness and increases its ductility. Normalizing is
often performed because another process has intentionally or unintentionally
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decreased ductility and increased hardness. Normalizing is used because it causes

microstructures to reform into more ductile structures. This is important because it
makes the metal more formable, more machinable, and reduces residual stresses in the
material that could lead to unexpected failure. Normalizing is very similar
to annealing as both involve heating a metal to or above its recrystallization
temperature and allowing it to cool slowly in order to create a microstructure that is
relatively ductile. The main difference between annealing and normalizing is that
annealing allows the material to cool at a controlled rate in a furnace. Normalizing
allows the material to cool by placing it in a room temperature environment and
exposing it to the air in that environment.
This difference means normalizing has a faster cooler rate than annealing. The
faster cooler rate can cause a material to have slightly less ductility and slightly higher
hardness value than if the material had been annealed. Normalizing is also generally
less expensive than annealing because it does not require additional furnace time
during the cool down process.
The Normalizing Process
There are three main stages to a normalizing process.
1. Recovery stage
2. Recrystallization stage
3. Grain growth stage
Recovery Stage
During the recovery stage, a furnace or other type of heating device is used to
raise the material to a temperature where its internal stresses are relieved.
Recrystallization Stage
During the recrystallization stage, the material is heated above its

recrystallization temperature, but below its melting temperature. This causes new
grains without preexisting stresses to form.
Grain Growth Stage
During the grain growth, the new grains fully develop. This growth is
controlled by allowing the material to cool to room temperature via contact with air.
The result of completing these three stages is a material with more ductility and
reduced hardness. Subsequent operations that can further alter mechanical properties
are sometimes carried out after the normalizing process.
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What Metals Can Be Normalized?
To be normalized, a metal needs to be receptive to normalizing, meaning its

microstructure can be altered by heat treatment. Many types of alloys can be
normalized, including:
 Iron based alloys (tool steel, carbon steel, stainless steel, and cast iron)
 Nickel-based alloys
 Copper
 Brass
 Aluminum
Common Applications for Normalizing
Normalizing is used in many different industries for many different materials.

Examples include:
 Ferritic stainless steel stampings in the automotive industry may be

normalized following the work hardening that occurs during their
forming process.
 Nickel-based alloys in the nuclear industry may be normalized

following the thermal microstructure alteration that occurs
following welding.
 Carbon steel may be normalized after it is cold-rolled to reduce the

brittleness caused by work hardening.
Quenching
Quenching is a type of metal heat treatment process. Quenching involves the

rapid cooling of a metal to adjust the mechanical properties of its original state. To
perform the quenching process, a metal is heated to a temperature greater than that of
normal conditions, typically somewhere above its recrystallization temperature but
below its melting temperature. The metal may be held at this temperature for a set
time in order for the heat to “soak” the material. Once the metal has been held at the
desired temperature, it is quenched in a medium until it returns to room temperature.
The metal also may be quenched for an extended period of time so that the coolness
from the quenching process is distributed throughout the thickness of the material.
Quenching Media
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There are a variety of quenching media available that can perform the
quenching process. Each media has its own unique quenching properties.
Considerations for the type of media use include quenching speed, quenching media
environmental concerns, quenching media replacement, and quenching media cost.
Here are the main types of quenching media:
 Air
 Oil
 Water
 Brine
Air
Air is a popular quenching media used to cool metals for quenching.

Affordability is one of the main benefits of air; its affordability is a result of its
profusion on earth. In fact, any material that is heated and then allowed to cool to
room temperature simply by being left alone is considered to have been air quenched.
Air quenching is also more intentionally performed when it is compressed and forced
around the metal being quenched. This cools the part more rapidly than still air,
although even compressed air may still cool many metals too slowly to alter the
mechanical properties.
Oil
Oil is able to quench heated metals much more rapidly than compressed air.
To quench with oil, a heated part is lowered into a tank that is filled with some type of
oil. The oil can also be flushed through the part. Different types of oil are often used
depending on the application because of their varying cooling rates and flash points.
Water
Water is able to quench heated metals rapidly as well. It can cool a metal even
faster than oil. In a fashion similar to oil quenching, a tank is filled with water and the
heated metal is submerged in it. It can also be flushed through a part. One benefit of
water is that flammability of the media is not a concern.
Brine
Brine is a mixture of water and salt. Brine cools faster than air, water, and oil.
The reason for this is that the salt and water mixture discourages the formation of air
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globules when it is placed in contact with a heated metal. This means that more of the
surface area of the metal will be covered with the liquid, as opposed to air bubbles.
Quench Hardening Steel
Steel deserves a special mention when the quenching process is being

discussed because its mechanical properties are very sensitive to quenching. Through
a quenching process known as quench hardening, steel is raised to a temperature
above its recrystallization temperature and rapidly cooled via the quenching process.
The rapid quenching changes the crystal structure of the steel, compared with a slow
cooling. Depending on the carbon content and alloying elements of the steel, it can get
left with a harder, more brittle microstructure, such as martensite or bainite, when it
undergoes the quench hardening process. These microstructures result in increased
strength and hardness for the steel. However, they do leave the steel vulnerable to
cracking and with a large reduction in ductility. For this reason, some steels
are annealed or normalized following the quench hardening process.
Tempering
Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase

the toughness of iron-based alloys. Tempering is usually performed after hardening,
to reduce some of the excess hardness, and is done by heating the metal to some
temperature below the critical point for a certain period of time, then allowing it to
cool in still air. The exact temperature determines the amount of hardness removed,
and depends on both the specific composition of the alloy and on the desired
properties in the finished product. For instance, very hard tools are often tempered at
low temperatures, while springs are tempered at much higher temperatures.
When Is Tempering Used?
 Tempering is most commonly used following a quenching operation. Heating

a carbon steel and rapidly quenching it can leave it too hard and brittle.
Tempering it can restore some of its ductility.
 Tempering can reduce the hardness and relieve the stress of a welded
component. Welds can create a localized zone that has been hardened due to
the heat of the welding process. This can leave undesirable mechanical
properties and residual stress that can promote hydrogen cracking. Tempering
helps prevent this.
 Work hardened materials often require tempering. Materials can become work
hardened through processes such as punching, bending, forming, drilling, or
rolling. Work hardened materials have a high amount of residual stresses that
can be alleviated through a tempering process.
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Tempering colors
If steel has been freshly ground, sanded, or polished, it will form

an oxide layer on its surface when heated. As the temperature of the steel is increased,
the thickness of the iron oxide will also increase. Although iron oxide is not normally
transparent, such thin layers do allow light to pass through, reflecting off both the
upper and lower surfaces of the layer. This causes a phenomenon called thin-film
interference, which produces colors on the surface. As the thickness of this layer
increases with temperature, it causes the colors to change from a very light yellow, to
brown, then purple, then blue. These colors appear at very precise temperatures, and
provide the blacksmith with a very accurate gauge for measuring the temperature. The
various colors, their corresponding temperatures, and some of their uses are:
 Faint-yellow – 176 °C (349 °F) – gravers, razors, scrapers

 Light-straw – 205 °C (401 °F) – rock drills, reamers, metal-cutting saws
 Dark-straw – 226 °C (439 °F) – scribers, planer blades
 Brown – 260 °C (500 °F) – taps, dies, drill bits, hammers, cold chisels
 Purple – 282 °C (540 °F) – surgical tools, punches, stone carving tools
 Dark blue – 310 °C (590 °F) – screwdrivers, wrenches
 Light blue – 337 °C (639 °F) – springs, wood-cutting saws
 Grey-blue – 371 °C (700 °F) and higher – structural steel
Beyond the grey-blue color, the iron oxide loses its transparency, and the
temperature can no longer be judged in this way. The layer will also increase in
thickness as time passes, which is another reason overheating and immediate cooling
is used. Steel in a tempering oven, held at 205 °C (401 °F) for a long time, will begin
to turn brown, purple or blue, even though the temperature did not exceed that needed
to produce a light-straw color. Oxidizing or carburizing heat sources may also affect
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the final result. The iron oxide layer, unlike rust, also protects the steel from corrosion
through passivation.
Hardening
Metal hardening is used to improve the various mechanical properties of
metal, as well as its hardness, as the name suggests. The result is a tougher, more
durable metal item.
During the process, alloys are heated to a level past the critical transformation
temperature of the metal, and then cooled down quickly to cause the soft initial
material to turn into a structure that is harder and stronger. These alloys can be cooled
by air, or through quenching in oil, water or other liquids, depending on how many
alloying elements are found in the material. The hardened materials will then typically
be tempered or stress relieved as a means of improving their toughness even further.
When working with steel, it will usually be necessary to use heat treatments to
obtain better mechanical properties, such as improved strength or hardness. The
hardening process includes heating the components above the normalizing
temperature, then holding that temperature for at least an hour per inch of thickness.
This enables it to cool at a rate that’s fast enough to allow the material to transform
into a harder, stronger structure. Steel is an iron/carbon alloy, and some steel alloys
have other metal elements in them as well. Heating up the material past its critical
temperature causes the carbon (and some of these other elements) to go into a solid
solution.
Surface hardening
It is often necessary to harden only the surface of steels without altering the
chemical composition of the surface layers. If the steel contains sufficient carbon to
respond to hardening, it is possible to harden the surface layers only by very fast
heating for a short period, thus conditioning the surface for hardening by quenching.
Induction hardening
In induction hardening, a high-frequency current is passed through a coil
surrounding the steel, the surface layers of which are heated by electro-magnetic
induction. The depth to which the heated zone extends depends on the frequency of
the current (the lower frequencies giving the greater depths) and on the duration of the
heating cycle. The time required to heat the surface layers to above A3 temperature is
surprisingly small, frequently being a matter of only a few seconds. Selective heating
(and hence hardening) is accomplished by suitable design of the coils or inductor
blocks. At the end of the heating cycle, the steel is usually quenched by water jets
passing through the inductor coils. Precise methods for controlling the operation, that
is, rate of energy input, duration of heating, and rate of cooling, are necessary. These
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features are incorporated in induction hardening equipment, which is usually fully

automatic in operation.
Flame hardening
It is a process of heating the surface layers of steel above the transformation
temperature by means of a high-temperature flame and then quenching. In this
process, the gas flames impinge directly on the steel surface to be hardened. The rate
of heating is very fast, although not so rapid as with the induction heating. Plain
carbon steels are usually quenched by a water spray, whereas the rate of cooling of
alloy steels can be varied from a rapid water quench to a slow air cool depending on
the composition. Any type of hardenable steel can be flame hardened. For best results,
the carbon content is to be at least 0.35 %, the usual range being 0.40 % to 0.50 %.
Case Harden
Case hardening, or carburising, is a thermochemical process in which alloying

elements, mostly carbon or nitrogen, are added to the surface of a metal up to a
specific depth (the case); only the outer case becomes hard through this process. This
is useful for certain applications since it allows a component to have a ‘soft’ ductile
core with a very hard, wear-resistant outer part.
The result is that wear resistance is improved but you don’t have to compromise on
toughness. Ideal for a variety of applications where pressure, as well as wear and tear,
are a concern.
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Self Assessment
Date: ________________________
1. Discuss the importance of heat treatment of steel
2. Cite atleast two heat treatment process and discuss its benefits
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NON – FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
Non-ferrous metals tend to be more expensive than ferrous metals but are used
for their desirable properties, including light weight (aluminium), high conductivity
(copper), non-magnetic properties or resistance to corrosion (zinc). Some non-ferrous
materials are used in the iron and steel industries, such as bauxite, which is used for
flux in blast furnaces. Other non-ferrous metals, including chromite, pyrolusite and
wolframite, are used to make ferrous alloys. However, many non-ferrous metals have
low melting points, making them less suitable for applications at high temperatures.
There are a large number of non-ferrous materials, covering every metal and
alloy that does not contain iron. Non-ferrous metals include aluminum, copper, lead,
nickel, tin, titanium and zinc, as well as copper alloys like brass and bronze. Other
rare or precious non-ferrous metals include gold, silver and platinum, cobalt, mercury,
tungsten, beryllium, bismuth, cerium, cadmium, niobium, indium, gallium,
germanium, lithium, selenium, tantalum, tellurium, vanadium, and zirconium. On-
ferrous metals are usually obtained from minerals like carbonates, silicates and
sulphides before being refined through electrolysis. The difference between ferrous
and non-ferrous metals is that ferrous metals contain iron. Ferrous metals, such as cast
irons or carbon steel, have a high carbon content, which generally makes them
vulnerable to rust when exposed to moisture. However, this is not the case for
wrought iron, which resists rust due to its purity, and stainless steel, which is
protected from corrosion by the presence of chromium.
Week 11 – 12
Learning Outcomes:
6.1 Explain the purpose of the alloying elements nickel, chromium, and
molybdenum in steels used in marine engineering
6.2 Identifies the metals used in non-ferrous alloys commonly used in marine
engineering
6.3 Identify the applications of non-ferrous metals in marine engineering
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Pretest
1. Which of this is the limitation of nickel alloy?
A. Nickel alloys are readily welded by either the gas or arc methods. Nickel alloys
can be machined, forged, cast, and easily formed
B. Nickel oxidizes very slowly in the presence of moisture or corrosive gases
C. Nickel alloys can be welded, machined, and forged
D. Nickel alloys are not resistant to hydrochloric acid
2. Which of this is the limitation of Chromium alloys?
A. Chromium alloys are readily welded by either the gas or arc methods. Nickel
alloys can be machined, forged, cast, and easily formed
B. Chromium alloys oxidizes very slowly in the presence of moisture or corrosive
gases
C. Chromium alloys can be welded, machined, and forged
D. Chromium alloys are not resistant to hydrochloric acid
3. Which alloy is used mainly as an heating elements, switches, contacts,

thermocouplers, welding electrodes, and cathode ray tubes?
A. chromium
B. nickel
C. molybdenum
D. copper
4. It is used as an alloying agent in steel and cast iron (0.25 to 0.35 percent) and in
nonferrous alloys of copper, aluminum, and cobalt..
A. chromium
B. nickel
C. copper
D. molybdenum
5. Which alloying element is known for its toughness, ability to perform in high
temperature and low temperature environments, and corrosion resistance ?
A. chromium
B. nickel
C. copper
D. molybdenum
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Purpose Of The Alloying Elements
Nickel
Nickel is another popular non-ferrous alloy. Nickel is known for its toughness,
ability to perform in high temperature and low temperature environments, and
corrosion resistance. Nickel is not often used in its pure form, and like copper and
aluminum, it is often alloyed with other elements to gain superior chemical
and mechanical properties. Common applications of nickel and nickel-based alloys
include cryogenic equipment such as tanks; hot-section aerospace equipment such as
combustion chamber components; and marine equipment. Nickel is a hard, malleable,
ductile metal. As an alloy, it will increase ductility, has no effect on grain size, lowers
the critical point for heat treatment, aids fatigue strength, and increases impact values
in low temperature operations. Both nickel and nickel alloys are machinable and are
readily welded by gas and arc methods.
Uses:
Nickel is used in making alloys of both ferrous and nonferrous metal.

Chemical and food processing equipment, electrical resistance heating elements,
ornamental trim, and parts that must withstand elevated temperatures are all produced
from nickel-containing metal. Alloyed with chromium, it is used in the making of
stainless steel.
Capabilities:
Nickel alloys are readily welded by either the gas or arc methods. Nickel
alloys can be machined, forged, cast, and easily formed.
Limitations:
Nickel oxidizes very slowly in the presence of moisture or corrosive gases.
Properties:
Pure nickel has tensile strength of 46,000 psi (317,170 kPa); Brinell hardness
number 220; specific gravity of 8.9; and melting point of 2650°F (1454°C). Nickel
alloys have Brinell hardness number of 140 to 230. Monel-forged nickel has tensile
strength of 100,000 psi (689,500 kPa), and high strength and toughness at high
temperatures.
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Chromium
Chromium is a powerful alloying element in steel. It strongly increases the
hardenability of steel, and markedly improves the corrosion resistance of alloys in
oxidizing media. Its presence in some steels could cause excessive hardness and
cracking in and adjacent to welds. Stainless steels may contain in excess of 12%
chromium. Chromium is used in the manufacture of stainless steel and other specialist
steels, and non-ferrous alloys. Chromate salts are used as tanning agents, pigments,
catalysts, corrosion inhibitors and in electroplating solutions. Chromium is an alloying
agent used in steel, cast iron, and nonferrous alloys of nickel, copper, aluminum, and
cobalt. It is hard, brittle, corrosion resistant, can be welded, machined, forged, and is
widely used in electroplating. Chromium is not resistant to hydrochloric acid and
cannot be used in its pure state because of its difficulty to work.
Uses:
Chromium is one of the most widely used alloys. It is used as an alloying

agent in steel and cast iron (0.25 to 0.35 percent) and in nonferrous alloys of nickel,
copper, aluminum, and cobalt. It is also used in electroplating for appearance and
wear, in powder metallurgy, and to make mirrors and stainless steel.
Capabilities:
Chromium alloys can be welded, machined, and forged. Chromium is never

used in its pure state.
Limitations:
Chromium is not resistant to hydrochloric acid, and cannot be used in the pure
state because of its brittleness and difficulty to work.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum is a strong carbide former and is usually present in alloy steels in
amounts less than 1%. It increases hardenability and elevated temperature strength. In
austenitic stainless steels it improves pitting corrosion resistance. Pure molybdenum
has a high tensile strength and is very resistant to heat. It is principally used as an
alloying agent in steel to increase strength, hardenability, and resistance to heat.
Molybdenum is used in alloy steel and iron to improve a variety of characteristics,
such as hardenability, and resistance to high temperatures, seawater, and chemicals
Uses:
Molybdenum is used mainly as an alloy. Heating elements, switches, contacts,

thermocouplers, welding electrodes, and cathode ray tubes are made of molybdenum.
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Capabilities:
Molybdenum can be swaged, rolled, drawn, or machined.
Limitations:
Molybdenum can only be welded by atomic hydrogen arc, or butt welded by

resistance heating in vacuum. It is attacked by nitric acid, hot sulfuric acid, and hot
hydrochloric acid.
Properties:
Pure molybdenum has a tensile strength of 100,000 psi (689,500 kPa) (sheet)
and 30,000 Psi (206,850 kPa) (wire); Brinell hardness number of 160 to 185; specific
gravity of 10.2; meting point of 4800°F (2649°C); retains hardness and strength at
high temperatures; and is corrosion resistant.
Common Non-Ferrous Alloys Used In Marine Engineering
1. Copper
Having been used by humans for thousands of years, copper is still widely
used by industry. The addition of copper alloys, brass (copper and zinc) and bronze
(copper and tin) have widened the uses for this non-ferrous metal further (see below
for detail on these alloys).The properties of copper and its alloys include high thermal
conductivity, high electrical conductivity, good corrosion resistance, and high
ductility. These properties have allowed copper and its alloys to be used for heat
exchangers and heating vessels, as an electrical conductor in wiring or motors, as a
roofing material, for plumbing fittings, as well as for saucepans and statues.
2. Aluminium
Aluminum is an important metal that is used in a wide range of applications

due to its low weight and ease of machining. Despite being a relatively expensive
material, aluminum is also the base metal for many alloys. Being corrosion resistant
and a good conductor of heat and electricity (albeit less so than copper), as well as
having good ductility and malleability, aluminum can require annealing as it becomes
hard following cold working.
3. Lead
Lead has been used over the centuries for a range of applications, including for
bullets, in fuels and even in paint. However, it was found to be unhealthy when
released into the atmosphere, while other applications also caused harm to users. Lead
is the heaviest common metal and is resistant to corrosion. It also doesn’t react with
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many chemicals and is soft and malleable.Although many of its former uses are no
longer allowed, lead is still widely used for batteries, power cables, and acid tanks.
4. Zinc
Zinc has been used for centuries as an alloying element, particularly to alloy
steel for a range of purposes as well as alloying copper to create brass.Galvanising
materials with alloying elements offers them a greater resistance to rust, affording it
uses for chain-link fencing, guardrails, suspension bridges, lampposts, metal roofs,
heat exchangers, and car bodies. Zinc is also used as a sacrificial anode in cathodic
protection (CP) and as an anode material for batteries. Zinc oxide is also used as a
white pigment in paints and to disperse heat during rubber manufacture.
5. Bronze and Brass
These alloys melt at lower temperatures than ferrous materials and cast well,
making them ideal for decorative applications. Despite being softer than steel, bronze
and brass are both corrosion resistant, even in the presence of salt, and so are widely
used for fittings on boats. Brass is also resistant to ‘galling,’ when the metal wears
against itself. This means that brass can also be used for mechanical parts and
machined to create items including locks, bearings and zippers. Bronze is harder than
brass, although both are quite expensive as they rely on copper. Brass is created as an
alloy of copper and zinc, while bronze is an alloy of copper with aluminium and/or
nickel.
Applications Of Non-Ferrous Metals In Marine Engineering
Aluminum alloy
Aluminum alloys possess beneficial properties that their steel counterparts

don’t. Primarily, a ship built with aluminum alloys versus steel will be 60% lighter on
average. Another benefit is that aluminum is resistant to corrosion and it is an
inexpensive material to maintain. One disadvantage to aluminum alloys is that they
are quite expensive for the initial cost, roughly 8-10 times more expensive than steel.
The superstructures are the part of the boat that is built up above the deck. An
example of this is seen on any cruise ship. The superstructures of ships are now
commonly made with aluminum alloys. This allows for the ship to be lighter as a
whole than if the superstructures were made of steel, and the ship’s center of gravity
is lower.
Copper alloy
Ship propellers are usually constructed by a copper alloy, like brass, to

withstand the corrosive effects of saltwater. They are specifically designed to prevent
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cavitation which occurs when bubbles of water vapor collide with the propeller and
create small dents. Propellers generate the propulsion force of the ship by turning in a
fan-like motion.
Lead
Lead is commonly used in maritime paints as an anticorrosive agent. Lead is

also used in greases, as tetraethyl lead for use as an additive in fuels, and construction
of nuclear-powered vessels and submarines to provide radiation shielding.
Zinc
Zinc coating being used for an efficient solution for Marine and Offshore
corrosion prevention and cathodic protection…The hull of a ship is the watertight
body that is exposed to water. To protect the hulls, the ship builders put pieces of Zinc
on these hulls. The Zinc components used on ships are called “Sacrificial Anodes”.
Sacrificial Anodes are linked electrically to the ship’s hull. They are made of metals
more reactive than the material used for the ship’s body and systems. As such, they
shield the ship’s body and systems while the ship stays protected, giving rise to the
name ‘Sacrificial Anodes’. Zinc is used because it has a higher voltage in the water so
the current is more inclined to flow from it than from the propeller. To complete the
electrical circuit, Zinc components are connected to the items they are intended to
protect. Zinc is bolted right to the shaft or underwater housing.
Bronze
Copper alloys such as manganese bronze are used for centre-boards, rudders
and propellers, and naval brass is used for propeller shafts and miscellaneous deck
fittings.
Naval brass
Naval brass is known to be a tough metal alloy. It can hold its form under
extreme heats, extreme pressures, and through severe wear and tear. This makes it an
ideal material from which to create ships. Ships see some of the most severe
conditions, so they require a metal that can hold its ground and integrity. Naval brass
is used in propeller shafts, marine hardware, decorative fittings, shafting, propeller
shafts and turn buckles.
Copper-nickel alloys
Seawater is used for cooling, tank cleaning and heating, ballasting, waste
disposal, firefighting and by distillation as a source of fresh water for boiler feed
water and sanitary hot and cold water. All require piping systems which essentially
consist of pumps, valves, pipes and fittings. In cooling systems, heat exchangers are
also required. Applications for copper-nickel alloys include condensers, coolers and
other heat exchangers, seawater desalination plant systems for compressed air,
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sanitary systems, bilge, ballast water, brine, fire mains and sprinklers, fuel oil, lube
oil, warm water heating, grey and black water, hydraulic lines and tank heating.
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Self – Assessment
Date: ________________________
Discuss the marine applications/uses of the following nonmetal elements.
a.copper
b. zinc
c. aluminum
d.lead
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114
PLASTIC , RUBBERS AND COMPOSITES

Plastics are materials made from long molecules (Polymers). Generally
Plastics contain numerous chemical additives to refine their mechanical properties.
Plastics are widely used throughout industry. Plastics are widely used because they
can be formed using mass production methods into complicated shapes at a very low
cost. The range of properties available from plastics materials has made them the
prime choice for many aplications. Plastics are light, and durable. They generally are
not able to withstand high temperatures and they are not as strong as metals.
Rubber, elastic substance obtained from the exudations of certain tropical

plants (natural rubber) or derived from petroleum and natural gas (synthetic rubber).
Because of its elasticity, resilience, and toughness, rubber is the basic constituent of
the tires used in automotive vehicles, aircraft, and bicycles.
The development of composite materials as well as the related design and

manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of
materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical
and physical properties which can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular
application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to wear, corrosion, and
high-temperature exposure. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical
engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic
(unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an
entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions
are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical
and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well
adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of
parts, reducing manufacturing costs.
Week 13
Learning Outcomes:
7.1. Explain the structure, properties and characteristics of composites,

rubbers ,plastics and polymers
7.2. Identify the application of composites on board
7.3. Identify the application of rubbers and plastics on board
7.4. Discuss the limitations of the materials mention above
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Pretest
1. Which material is basically a combination of two or more materials, each of which

retains its own distinctive properties?
A. Steel
B. Composite
C. Rubber
D. Plastic
2. Which of this is not a characteristic of a composite material?
A. transluscent
B. they are highly insulating materials
C. fire resistant
D. High low thermal conductivity
3. Which is not a characteristic of a rubber?
A. elasticity
B. elasticity
C. water repellent
D. electrical conductor
4. This material is is a polymer just like synthetic fibers which can be molded into
desired shape and size.
A. plastic
B. rubber
C. composite
D. metal
5. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a plastic?
A. Strong and ductile

B. Good conductors
C. Easily molded into different shapes and sizes
D. Good transparency and wear resistance
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COMPOSITES
Structure
A composite material is basically a combination of two or more materials,

each of which retains it own distinctive properties. Multiphase metals are composite
materials on a microscale, but generally the term composite is applied to materials
that are created by mechanically bonding two or more different materials together.
The resulting material has characteristics that are not characteristic of the components
in isolation. The concept of composite materials is ancient. An example is adding
straw to mud for building stronger mud walls. Most commonly, composite materials
have a bulk phase, which is continuous, called the matrix; and a dispersed, non-
continuous, phase called the reinforcement. Some other examples of basic composites
include concrete (cement mixed with sand and aggregate), reinforced concrete (steel
rebar in concrete), and fiberglass (glass strands in a resin matrix).
Properties
A composite material incorporates high strength, high modulus fibers in a

matrix (polymer, metal, or ceramic). The fibers may be oriented in a manner to give
varying in-plane properties (longitudinal, transverse-stress, strain, and modulus of
elasticity). The lay-up of the composite laminates is such that a center line of
symmetry and no bending moment exist through the thickness. The laminates are
tabbed, with either aluminum or fiberglass, and are ready for tensile testing. The
determination of the tensile properties of resin matrix composites, reinforced by
continuous fibers, is outlined in ASTM standard D 3039, Tensile Properties of
Oriented Fiber Composites. The tabbed flat tensile coupons are placed into the grips
of a tensile machine and load-deformation curves plotted. The load-deformation data
are translated into stress-strain curves for determination of mechanical properties
(ultimate tensile strength and modulus of elasticity).
Characteristics
 low thermal conductivity

 they are highly insulating materials because they have such a structure which
dooes not allow electricity to pass through
 design flexibility – they are versatile
 transluscent – they allow light to pass diffusely (polyester resins)
 fire resistant – use of special phenolic resins has allowed us to create the only
fully tested fire resistant composite doors
 colorful – almost any shade of colors can be incorporate into the product
 chemical and weather resistant – they have good weaathering properties and
resist the effects of wide range of chemicals
 light weight – due to two different materials having different properties
composites are light weight
 high strength to weight ratio – composites have the applications in the field
where high strength and light weight togethere are required
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What are the Different Types?
Some common composite materials include:
Ceramic matrix composite: Ceramic spread out in a ceramic matrix. These are
better than normal ceramics as they are thermal shock and fracture resistant
Metal matrix composite: A metal spread throughout a matrix
 thermosets – epoxy and polyester , with the former most commonly used
 thermoplastics – polyetheretherketone, touhger than thermosets but lower
resistance to temperature
 ceramics – silicone carbide , aluminum oxide and mullite
Reinforced concrete: Concrete strengthened by a material with high tensile

strength such as steel reinforcing bars
Glass fibre reinforced concrete: Concrete which is poured into a glass fibre
structure with high zirconia content
 glass – high strength , low stiffness, high density, low cost

 Graphite – high strength , hugh modulus , less dense than glass
 boron - high strength and stiffness , high density, high cost , has tungsten
filament at its center
 aramids(KEVLAR) – highest strength to weight ratio of all fibers , high cost
Matrix materials:
 Translucent concrete: Concrete which encases optic fibres

 Engineered wood: Manufactured wood combined with other cheap materials.
One example would be particle board. A speciality material like veneer can
also be found in this composite
 Plywood: Engineered wood by gluing many thin layers of wood together at
different angles
Engineered bamboo Strips of bamboo fibre glued together to

make a board. This is a useful composite
due to the fact it has higher compressive,
tensile and flexural strength than wood
Parquetry A square of many wood pieces put
together often out of hardwood. It is sold
as a decorative piece
Woodplastic composite: Either wood fibre or flour cast in plastic
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Cement-bonded wood fibre Mineralised wood pieces cast in cement.

This composite has insulating and
acoustic properties
Fibreglass Glass fibre combined with a plastic
which is relatively inexpensive and
flexible
Carbon Fibre reinforced polymer Carbon fibre set in plastic which has a
high strength-to-weight ratio
Sandwich panel A variety of composites that are layered
on top of each other
Composite honeycomb A selection of composites in many
hexagons to form a honeycomb shape.
Papier-mache Paper bound with an adhesive. These are
found in crafts
Plastic coated paper Paper coated with plastic to improve
durability. An example of where this is
used is in playing cards
Syntactic foams Light materials created by filling metals,
ceramics or plastics with microballoons.
These ballons are made using either
glass, carbon or plastic
Application on Board
Composite materials have been used in the marine industry for a number of
years. The more traditional applications for composites include gratings, ducts,
shafts, piping, hull shells, etc for several decades. Wood and ferrocement are some of
the other composites techniques that are still being used for marine applications.
Ferrocement
Ferrocement is probably the earliest use of composites in the Marine industry,
used for developing low-cost barges. A steel frame formed of reinforcing rod that is
covered with chicken wire, is used as a 'template' to form the hull by pouring cement
around the template. It is then plastered with ferrocement and then cured. Although it
is an inexpensive composite, armature corrosion is a common problem under
chemically aggressive marine conditions. However, there are still a number of ferro
boats in use today.
Glass reinforced plastic

Glass fibers became available just after the development of polyester resins.
Soon, glass reinforced plastic boats came into existence since the early 1950s and
continue to be a significant composite construction technique in Marine applications
today.
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Wood/Adhesive Composites
Wartime requirements led to the development of 'hot molded' and 'cold
molded' boat building techniques based on laying thin wood veneers over a frame. On
the other hand, high-performance, urea-based adhesives have also been widely
developed for molding marine hulls and in aircraft manufacture to help speed up the
production process and reduce dependency on Aluminum and steel.
Aramid fiber Composites

Aramid fibers are being widely used to strengthen sailing yacht structures like
keel and bow sections. Also, Aramid Fiber composites also have improved shock
absorption characteristics, perfect for ocean racing applications.
Carbon fiber
Carbon fibers are increasingly used for sailboats, furniture on super-yachts and
high strength interior moldings as they offer vessel stability benefits and high
performance with minimal weight. Carbon fiber is also seen as a trendy material,
often substituted for not only superior material characteristics but the aesthetics
component of the woven material.
Carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composites are increasingly being used in the
hull of boats covered with honeycomb or foam, in structural frames, keels, masts,
poles and boom, and even in carbon winch drums and shafting. The use of composites
can contribute to improved performance and minimize the risk of failure in extreme
sailing conditions. Racing yachts employ advanced polymer composites more
extensively than any other marine structures to save weight and improve durability.
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RUBBERS
Structure
Natural rubber is a polymer of isoprene. The chemical name of isoprene is 2-

methyl-1, 3-butadiene and its chemical formula
is CH2=C(CH3)−CH=CH2CH2=C(CH3)−CH=CH2. Isoprene is a liquid that is
colorless and volatile. As we can see from the formula it has two double bonds. Thus,
it is an unsaturated hydrocarbon. The main sources of isoprene are plants and animals.
The structure of isoprene is given below.
Natural rubber is an example of elastomer. Elastomer, as the name suggests is

a polymer that has elastic properties. That is, it can return to its original shape after it
is deformed or stretched. This property of elastomers comes from the ability of the
rubber to stretch apart the chains and when the tension is released, the chain can come
back to its original position.
As we know that isoprene has two double bonds, when it is polymerised it

retains one of the double bonds. By mixing sulphur and rubber, the properties of
rubber such as toughness, elasticity, heat, and cold resistance are increased. This
process is known as vulcanization. The vulcanization of rubber causes the shorter
chains to link in a crossed way with the longer chains through the sulphur. (Fournier
Rubber & Supply Co., 2020)
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Basic Properties of Rubber
Rubber is an elastic material that can be produced naturally from various plant
sources or synthetically through a variety of chemical processes. It has been in use for
thousands of years, during which time it has been produced in numerous variations
with distinct characteristics that make them suitable for different applications.
It serves as an essential raw material in the production of everything from

automobile tires to surgical gloves. However, successfully producing these
components necessitates choosing the right type of rubber for the given part design
and application environment. For this reason, we’ve provided an overview of some of
the most commonly available rubber types, outlining what they are, their key
properties, and their typical uses.
 Elasticity: The molecular structure of rubber materials allows them to

return to their normal shape after being compressed or stretched. This
characteristic is apparent in rubber bands. Stretching or compressing a
rubber band temporarily pulls or pushes the individual molecules out of
alignment with each other. As the molecules are attached to one another,
they return to their original position once the stretching or compressing
force is removed.
 Thermal contraction: While most materials expand when heated, rubber
contracts. This unusual phenomenon results from how the rubber
molecules respond to heat. When heat is applied, the already-tangled
molecules become more tangled and twisted. When heat is removed, the
molecules return to their resting state and the rubber regains its original
shape.
 Durability: Most rubbers are highly durable, resisting damage and
degradation from abrasive and tearing forces, impact, low temperatures,
and water. They also exhibit a relatively slow heat buildup rate.
Characteristics
 water repellent
 resistant to alkalies
 resistant to weak acids
 elasticity
 toughness
 impermeability
 adhesiveness
 electrical resistance
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Applications Onboard
 watertight doors seals
 window seals
 hatch seals
 finish trim
 bumpers
 sound and vibration dumper
 insulation
Seals and Insulation
Ships and boats need high-quality rubber products – including for watertight
compartment sealing. Parts such as a latch seal on a ship’s deck, a porthole or window
seal that’s close to the waterline, or an access hatch seal for an engine room serve
important functions. Depending on the type of marine engine, the door seal on a fuel
tank must be able to resist specific petroleum products such as gasoline and diesel
fuel.
Bumpers and Trim
All types of ship – whether they be civilian sailboats and yachts, or naval
aircraft carriers – need door, window, and edge finish trim. Bumpers are also needed,
especially for smaller vessels. The rubber used for these applications needs to be
durable and weatherproof to ensure safety at all times.
Insulation
There are two main types of insulation within ships – acoustic and thermal.
Both types are typically made from a rubber insulate designed to meet the specific
needs of the brief. Thermal insulation absorbs heat from the ship’s engine
compartment. Usually, silicone rubber is used for this as it’s capable of resisting high
temperatures whilst simultaneously providing unparalleled sound-proofing. In some
applications, it may be necessary to combine several different types of rubber
insulation in order to achieve the desired level of acoustic and thermal insulation.
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Molded Rubber Diesel Engine Impellers

Impellers are rotating devices that force liquids, gases, and vapors in a specific
direction. Basic molded rubber impellers are a series of vanes attached to a central
hub for mounting onto the diesel engine shaft. To achieve maximum speed Pierce-
Roberts designers custom molded rubber impellers to a precise number of vanes and
vane angles. In addition to precision, Pierce-Roberts elastomer compounds have a
long flex life in both fresh and salt water. Flexible rubber part impellers can also
usually be replaced in minutes without disconnecting the pump or piping system.
Molded Rubber Gaskets

Gaskets prevent fluid or gas leaks by providing a barrier between two
surfaces. Window gaskets are used to seal a glass or plastic window in a sheet metal
opening. Pierce-Roberts manufactures rubber window gaskets in a variety of shapes
and styles.
Hatch cover molded rubber gaskets are used in submarines for military and
scientific research. The hatch cover gasket is the last barrier between the exterior
water and the interior of the submarine and its crew.
We custom mold rubber gaskets for one or two-piece construction. Pierce-
Roberts specializes in manufacturing die cut gaskets and extruded rubber gaskets to
exact specifications. Pierce-Roberts rubber gaskets are able to maintain a strict seal
during extreme pressure and temperature changes.
Types Of Rubber
Natural Rubber
Natural rubber—also known as India or gum rubber—is derived from the

milky liquid (i.e., latex) present in the Hevea brasiliensis tree. Some of the material’s
key characteristics are high tear and tensile strength, resilience, and resistance to
abrasion, friction, extreme temperatures, and water swell. Typical uses include
adhesives, flooring and roofing, gloves, insulation, and tires.
Neoprene Rubber
Neoprene rubber—also called chloroprene—is one of the oldest types of

synthetic rubber. Compared with natural rubber and other synthetic rubbers, it
exhibits an exceptionally low susceptibility to burning, corrosion, and degradation.
This quality makes it the perfect base material for adhesives and corrosion-resistant
coatings. Its ability to maintain good mechanical properties over a wide temperature
range also suits it for use in high-pressure gaskets, belts, and window and door seals.
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Silicone Rubber
Silicone rubber—also referred to as polysiloxane—is known for its

malleability, biocompatibility, and resistance to extreme temperatures, fire, ozone,
and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. It is available in both solid and liquid forms in a
variety of colors. Its chemically inert nature makes it ideal for use in parts and
products that demand biocompatibility (such as gloves, respiratory masks, implants,
and other medical products) and chemical resistance (such as baby care items,
cosmetic applicators, and food containers and instruments).
Nitrile Rubber
Nitrile rubber—also known as Buna-N rubber or nitrile butadiene rubber

(NBR)—demonstrates several desirable mechanical and chemical properties, such as
resistance to compression set, heat, oil and gas, and wear. These traits make it suitable
for use in automotive gaskets and seals, O-rings, and engine hoses. It is also used in
medical products (e.g., surgical gloves) since it lacks the allergenic proteins of latex-
based rubbers and maintains its structural integrity better than silicone rubber.
EPDM Rubber
Ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) rubber is a synthetic rubber that

exhibits excellent durability, resisting damage and degradation from extreme
temperatures and weather conditions. These qualities make it suitable for use in
outdoor parts and products, such as roofing sealants, hoses, and seals. Its superior
noise and thermal insulation properties also suit it for use in automobile systems.
Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR)
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is a copolymer of styrene and butadiene

characterized by its superior hardness and durability. It demonstrates better abrasion,
alcohol, compression set, and water swell resistance than some of the more expensive
synthetic rubbers, which makes it ideal for use in seals integrated into hydraulic brake
systems. Other common uses include cutting boards, gaskets, and shoe soles.
Butyl Rubber
Butyl rubber—also known as isobutylene isoprene—offers one of the highest

levels of gas impermeability. This quality, combined with the material’s excellent
flexibility, makes it suitable for the manufacture of airtight components, such as inner
tubes, sport balls, and sealants. As a liquid compound, it is also often used as an
additive in diesel and petroleum fuels and chewing gums.
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Fluorosilicone Rubber
Fluorosilicone rubber—also called FVMQ—is highly resistant to extreme

temperatures (-100–350 degrees Fahrenheit), transmission fluids, petroleum oils and
fuels, synthetic lubricants, fire, and ozone. These properties make it an ideal material
for aircraft fuel systems and other highly specialized industrial applications.
Plastics
Plastic is a polymer just like synthetic fibers which can be molded into desired
shape and size when soft and can be hardened to produce durable articles. The term
‘Plastic’ was derived from the word ‘Plastikos’ which means ‘to mould’ in Greek, and
it is used to refer to a wide range of semi-synthetic or synthetic organic polymers.
Different types of plastics are known to possess different physical and chemical
properties. Many articles like chairs, tables, buckets, toys, balls, etc are made of
plastic material. (VEDANTU, n.d.)
Structure
Plastics are mostly carbon-based atoms. Silicones are an exception since they
based on the silicon atom. The carbon atom is capable of linking to other atoms with
up to four chemical bonds. In plastics, the carbon atoms also link to hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, chlorine, or sulfur. When the linking of these atoms results in long chains,
like pearls on a string of pearls, the polymer is termed as ‘Thermoplastic’.
Thermoplastics are meltable. All thermoplastics have repeating units,i.e. the smallest
identical section of the chain. About vast majority of plastics are 92% thermoplastics.
To make unit cells a group of atoms is used called ‘Monomers’.Upon the combination
of monomers, we get polymers or plastics. All the monomers contain double bonds
between carbon atoms such that the carbon atoms can subsequently react to form
polymers. The plastic behavior of polymers is influenced by their arrangement of
molecules on a large scale. In other words, polymers are either amorphous or
crystalline. The arrangement of molecules in the amorphous state is random and are
intertwined. In crystalline state, the arrangement of molecules is in a
closely identifiable manner. On the other hand, semicrystalline materials exhibit
crystalline regions, called crystallites, within an amorphous matrix.
The chemical structure of the plastics can change, with the use of copolymers,
and the chemical binding of different elements and compounds and on the other hand,
the use of crystallizability can change the processing, aesthetic, and performance
properties of plastics. Alteration of plastics can also happen by adding additives.
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Properties and Characteristics

Plastic comes in all shapes and sizes. There is soft and flexible plastic as well as
very hard plastic that is nearly as strong as metal. These various properties can be
obtained by modifying the production process, for example by varying the
temperature or pressure at which the plastic is processed or adjusting the types of
monomers which are used. Manufacturers can add all kinds of chemicals and keep
tinkering with the molecular structure of plastic. The word plastic literally means
‘malleable’, meaning that you can squeeze the material into a shape and that it retains
that shape after cooling. The plastic industry is constantly looking for new types of
plastic and applications. There are thousands of patented plastics that all differ from
one another. Examples of synthetic polymers are polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE),
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Below are the common properties and characteristics:
 Strong and ductile.

 Poor conductors of heat and electricity.
 Resist corrosion and are resistant to many chemicals.
 They are light in weight and are chemically stable.
 Easily molded into different shapes and sizes.
 Good insulation and low thermal conductivity.
 Good impact resistance and they do not rust.
 Good transparency and wear resistance.
 Poor dimensional stability and can be easily deformed.
 Low processing cost.
2 Types of Plastics
Depending on physical properties, plastics are divided into two types:
Thermoplastic and thermosetting
Thermoplastic: Plastics that can be deformed easily upon heating and can be
bent easily. Linear polymers and a combination of linear and cross-linked polymers
come under thermoplastics. Example: PVC, nylon, polythene, etc.
Thermosetting: Plastics that cannot be softened again by heating once they are
moulded. Heavily cross-linked polymers come under the category of thermosetting
plastics. Example: Bakelite, melamine, etc. Bakelite is used for making electrical
switches whereas melamine is used for floor tiles.
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Sample of Plastics
ABS (AcronitrileButedeneStyrene)
Tough, stiff, abrasive resistant and can be metal plated. Good stain resistance
but are attacked by chlorinated solvents, esters, keytones and concentrated acids and
alkalis. Some greases can cause stress cracking. The properties of ABS depend on the
proportions of the three constituents. . ABS can be injection moulded, extruded,
rotationally moulded and thermoformed. Typical applications include boat hulls,
telephones, piping/fittings, and domestic durables.
(Plasticised) PVC (PolyVinylChloride )
Flexibility and properties depend on the nature and content of plasticisers.

Used for cable/wire insulation, soles of footwear, and coating linen liners of industrial
gloves.
(UnPlasticised) UPVC (PolyVinylChloride )
Hard/tough/ strong and stiff with good weathering properties. It is weather

resistant and self extinguishing, can be transparent and the surface is scuff and
abrasion resistant. UPVC can be extruded, injection moulded, blow moulded,
rotationally moulded and thermoformed. It is mostly used for making pipe/pipe
fittings, bottles, and window frames .
Polyethylene
Tough at low temperatures with excellent chemical and electrical insulation

properties. Detergents can cause stress cracking. Can be extruded, injection moulded,
blow moulded, rotationally moulded and thermoformed. LDPE- Low Density
Polyethylene(918-935 kg/m3 is very tough and flexible with excellent chemical
resistance. Used for pipes and low loss electrical wire coverings. HDPE- High
Density Polyethylene (935- 965 kg/m3 is much stronger and stiffer. It is used for
tanks, pipes dustbins etc.
Polypropylene
Excellent fatigue resistances, chemical and electrical properties. Good

temperature resistance and useful strength and stiffness. It is attacked by strong
oxidising agents. Can be extruded, injection moulded, blow moulded, rotationally
moulded and thermoformed.
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Amorphous Thermoplastics
Acrylics
Completely transparent and optically clear. Stable to outdoor weathering and

do not discolour or degrade under UV light. Acrylics are stiff, strong and do not
shatter. Some solvents can cause stress cracking.Acrylics can be extruded, injection
moulded, and thermoformed. The are used for viewing panels, light housings, lenses
and illuminated signs.
Polycarbonates
Tough, transparent, stiff and strong. Good electrical insulation properties.

Polycarbonates have moderate outdoor weather resistance. Dissolved by chlorinated
paraffins, cresol,dioxane. Attacked by hydrocarbons. Polycarbonates can be injection
moulded, extruded, blow moulded, and vacuum formed. Typical applications include
street lamp covers, safety helmets.
Polysulphones
Strong, stiff with excellent creep and dimensional properties over a wide range
of temperatures. Can be transparent. They do not easily burn and do not present a
smoke hazard. They are attacked by ketones chlorinated solvents and hydrocarbons.
They can be extruded, injection moulded and thermoformed. Polysulphanes are used
for passenger service units in aircraft and electrical components requiring high service
temperatures.
Crystalline Thermoplastics
Nylon...Polyamines
Nylon materials are stiff, strong,tough and abrasion resistant. Absorption of

moisture increases toughness, decreases stiffness and affects dimensional stability.
Concentrated mineral acid attacks nylon. Nylon can be injection moulded, rotationally
moulded and extruded. Applications for nylons include insulators, and engineering
components such as gears, bushes, and bearings. Glass filled nylon is used to make
power tool housings etc.
Polyacetals
Stiff, strong, resist high temperatures and are extremely resilient. These
materials are abrasion resistant and have low coefficient of friction. Polyacetals are
attacked by strong acids. Applications include pipe fittings, light-duty beam springs,
meat hooks, gears, bearings etc.
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Thermoplastic Polyester.
This material has similar physical properties to nylon 66 but have much lower
moisture absorption. Is attacked by ethylene dichloride and is susceptible to
hydrolysis in prolonged contact with hot water. Processed by injection moulding.
PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene)
PTFE resists all common aggressive environments, has exceptional low

coefficient of friction, first class electrical properties and can be used at temperatures
up to 250 deg C. It can be processed only be a special sintering techniques.
Complicated shapes are generally machined from sintered blanks. PTFE is used for
bearings, bearing surfaces treatments, high frequency cable insulation, coating for
cooking utensils etc etc.
Application Onboard
The use of polymers—plastics—in marine engineering and shipbuilding has

increased so greatly that today they are used for boats, hatch covers, sonar domes,
electrical conduit, weather shields and even propellers; to these applications may be
added plastic gear wheels, ropes, anti‐corrosive coatings, anode shields, adhesives,
decorative panels and components of furnishings.
Limitation of composite materials
Composite materials offer numerous advantages over traditional materials, such as

metals and polymers. However, like any other material, they also have certain
limitations that need to be taken into account. Here are some of the key limitations of
composite materials:
1.Cost: Composite materials can be more expensive to produce compared to

conventional materials. The manufacturing processes involved, such as layup,
curing, and post-processing, often require specialized equipment and skilled labor.
The cost of raw materials, such as carbon fibers or high-performance resins, can
also be relatively high, making composites less economically viable for certain
applications.
2.Design Complexity: The design and engineering of composite structures can be

more complex compared to traditional materials. Composite materials are
anisotropic, meaning their mechanical properties vary with direction. This
anisotropy necessitates careful consideration of fiber orientation, stacking sequence,
and ply thickness during the design process. Designing complex shapes and
integrating different components can pose challenges and require advanced
manufacturing techniques.
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3.Manufacturing Limitations: Composite manufacturing processes, such as resin

infusion, autoclave curing, or filament winding, can be time-consuming and require
controlled environments. The need for specific equipment, temperature, and
pressure control can limit the scalability and efficiency of composite production.
Additionally, defects like voids, delamination, or fiber misalignment can occur
during manufacturing, affecting the mechanical properties and structural integrity of
the final product.
4.Environmental Sensitivity: Composite materials are susceptible to environmental

factors that can degrade their properties over time. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV)
radiation, moisture, extreme temperatures, and chemicals can lead to degradation of
resins, matrix materials, and fiber-matrix interfaces. This sensitivity requires proper
selection of protective coatings, maintenance, and monitoring to ensure long-term
durability and performance.
5.Limited Damage Visibility: Unlike metals that exhibit visible signs of damage, such
as deformation or cracking, composites can suffer from internal damage that is not
readily visible. Delamination, fiber breakage, or matrix cracking may occur beneath
the surface, making it challenging to detect and assess the extent of damage without
sophisticated inspection techniques like X-ray, ultrasonic, or infrared imaging.
6.Recycling and Disposal Challenges: Composite materials are typically difficult to

recycle due to the complexity of separating and recovering the different constituents
(fibers, resins, additives). The heterogeneous nature of composites makes it
challenging to reclaim and reuse the materials effectively. Proper disposal of
composite waste is also a concern, as their non-biodegradable nature raises
environmental sustainability issues.
Limitation of rubber materials
Rubber materials possess unique properties that make them valuable in various
applications, including their high elasticity, flexibility, and resistance to wear and tear.
However, like any other material, rubber also has limitations that should be
considered. Here are some of the key limitations of rubber materials:
1.Temperature Sensitivity: Rubber materials are sensitive to temperature variations.

Extreme heat or cold can affect their mechanical properties, leading to changes in
elasticity, hardness, and strength. At high temperatures, rubber can experience
softening, which reduces its load-bearing capacity. Conversely, at low
temperatures, rubber becomes stiff and brittle, increasing the risk of cracking or
failure.
2.Chemical Compatibility: Rubber materials can be sensitive to certain chemicals,

oils, solvents, and fuels. Exposure to aggressive substances can cause swelling,
degradation, or loss of mechanical properties. It is important to select the
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appropriate rubber formulation or consider protective coatings when using rubber in

environments with chemical exposure.
3.Aging and Oxidation: Over time, rubber materials can undergo aging and oxidation
processes that can result in a decrease in performance. Oxygen, ozone, and
ultraviolet (UV) radiation can accelerate the degradation of rubber, leading to
surface cracking, loss of elasticity, and a decrease in overall mechanical strength.
Proper storage and the use of protective additives can help mitigate the effects of
aging.
4.Limited Mechanical Strength: While rubber materials exhibit high elasticity and
flexibility, they generally have lower mechanical strength compared to metals or
other rigid materials. Rubber can deform under high loads or stresses, and its
resistance to tensile, compressive, or shear forces may be limited. Reinforcing
techniques, such as adding fillers or using composite structures, can enhance the
strength of rubber materials.
5.Poor Dimensional Stability: Rubber materials have poor dimensional stability,

meaning they can experience significant changes in shape or size due to factors like
temperature, humidity, or stress. This lack of dimensional stability can pose
challenges in applications where precise tolerances or tight sealing is required.
6.Limited Temperature Range: Rubber materials typically have a limited temperature

range in which they can operate effectively. Extreme temperatures, either high or
low, can cause rubber to lose its elasticity and mechanical properties. Specialized
rubber formulations, such as high-temperature or low-temperature rubbers, may be
required for applications operating outside the typical temperature range.
7.Environmental Impact: Rubber materials, especially synthetic rubbers, have

environmental concerns associated with their production and disposal. The
extraction of raw materials, energy consumption, and waste generated during
manufacturing can have an ecological footprint. Additionally, the disposal of rubber
waste can be challenging due to its non-biodegradable nature, although recycling
and repurposing efforts are underway.
Limitation of plastic materials
Plastic materials have revolutionized various industries due to their versatility,

low cost, and ease of manufacturing. However, they also have certain limitations that
need to be considered. Here are some of the key limitations of plastic materials:
1.Limited Temperature Resistance: Many plastic materials have a relatively low

melting point and can deform or melt when exposed to high temperatures. This
restricts their use in applications requiring high-temperature resistance.
Additionally, plastic materials can become brittle at low temperatures, leading to
reduced impact resistance and increased risk of cracking or breaking.
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2.Environmental Impact: Plastics, especially single-use or non-biodegradable plastics,

have significant environmental concerns. Improper disposal and inadequate
recycling infrastructure have led to plastic pollution, affecting ecosystems and
wildlife. The long degradation time of plastics in the environment is a major
challenge, necessitating the development of more sustainable alternatives and
improved waste management practices.
3.Chemical Compatibility: Plastic materials can be susceptible to chemical attack or

degradation when exposed to certain substances. Some chemicals, solvents, or fuels
can cause swelling, softening, or even dissolution of plastic components. Careful
consideration of chemical compatibility is necessary when selecting plastics for
applications where exposure to aggressive substances is expected.
4.Mechanical Strength and Stiffness: While plastics offer a wide range of mechanical
properties, they generally have lower strength and stiffness compared to metals.
This limitation restricts their use in high-load or structural applications where
rigidity and strength are crucial. However, the incorporation of reinforcing fibers or
fillers can enhance the mechanical properties of certain plastics.
5.UV Degradation: Many plastic materials are susceptible to degradation caused by

ultraviolet (UV) radiation exposure. Continuous exposure to sunlight or UV
radiation can lead to discoloration, embrittlement, and loss of mechanical properties.
UV stabilizers or additives can be used to mitigate the effects of UV degradation in
plastic applications requiring outdoor exposure.
6.Poor Flame Resistance: Most plastics are combustible and can contribute to the
spread of fires. Their flammability limits their use in applications where fire safety
is a primary concern. Flame retardant additives can be incorporated into plastic
formulations to improve their fire resistance, but these additives may introduce
other environmental or health considerations.
7.Recycling and Disposal Challenges: While recycling efforts for plastic materials
have increased, there are still challenges associated with their recycling and
disposal. Some plastic types are not easily recyclable due to complex chemical
compositions, mixing of different plastics, or lack of recycling infrastructure. Proper
disposal and recycling practices are necessary to mitigate the environmental impact
of plastic waste.
Limitation of polymer materials
Polymer materials have gained significant popularity due to their wide range
of applications, cost-effectiveness, and ease of processing. However, they also have
certain limitations that need to be considered. Here are some of the key limitations of
polymer materials:
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1.Temperature Sensitivity: Polymer materials can have limited resistance to high

temperatures. They may soften, deform, or even melt at elevated temperatures,
affecting their mechanical properties and structural integrity. This limitation
restricts their use in applications requiring high-temperature resistance, such as in
certain automotive or aerospace components.
2.Mechanical Strength: While polymers offer a diverse range of mechanical

properties, their strength and stiffness are generally lower compared to metals and
ceramics. This limitation makes them less suitable for load-bearing or structural
applications where high strength and rigidity are essential. Reinforcement
techniques, such as fiber reinforcement or composite structures, can enhance the
mechanical properties of polymers.
3.Chemical Compatibility: Polymer materials can be vulnerable to chemical attack or

degradation when exposed to certain chemicals, solvents, or fuels. Some substances
can cause swelling, softening, or even dissolution of polymers. It is important to
carefully consider the chemical compatibility of polymers with the intended
environment to ensure long-term performance and prevent degradation.
4.Environmental Impact: Many polymer materials, especially non-biodegradable

plastics, have significant environmental concerns. Improper disposal, inadequate
recycling infrastructure, and their long degradation time contribute to plastic
pollution and its detrimental effects on ecosystems and wildlife. Efforts are being
made to develop biodegradable polymers and improve recycling technologies to
address these environmental challenges.
5.UV Degradation: Polymer materials can be susceptible to degradation caused by

ultraviolet (UV) radiation exposure. Continuous exposure to sunlight or UV
radiation can lead to discoloration, embrittlement, and loss of mechanical properties.
UV stabilizers or additives can be incorporated into polymer formulations to
mitigate the effects of UV degradation in applications requiring outdoor exposure.
6.Poor Flame Resistance: Many polymers are combustible and can contribute to the
spread of fires. Their flammability limits their use in applications where fire safety
is a primary concern. Flame retardant additives can be incorporated into polymer
formulations to improve their fire resistance, but these additives may introduce
other environmental or health considerations.
7.Processing Limitations: While polymers offer excellent processability, certain

processing techniques, such as injection molding or extrusion, may have limitations.
High melt viscosity, shrinkage during cooling, and difficulty in achieving intricate
shapes with precise tolerances can pose challenges during manufacturing. Advanced
processing techniques and equipment are continually being developed to overcome
these limitations.
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Self – Assessment
Date: ________________________
Discuss characteristics and cite onboard applications of the following:
a.composite
b. rubber
c. plastic
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136
ADHESIVES
Adhesive, any substance that is capable of holding materials together in a
functional manner by surface attachment that resists separation. “Adhesive” as a
general term includes cement, mucilage, glue, and paste—terms that are often used
interchangeably for any organic material that forms an adhesive bond. Inorganic
substances such as portland cement also can be considered adhesives, in the sense that
they hold objects such as bricks and beams together through surface attachment, but
this article is limited to a discussion of organic adhesives, both natural and synthetic.
Week 14
Learning Outcomes:
8.1. Identify the different types of adhesives

8.2. Explain the procedure of surface preparation where adhesive shall be
used
8.3. Identify the application of adhesives on board
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Pretest
1. It is a type of adhesive which is applied to one of the parts to be joined, which is
then immediately glued to the second part?
A. Contact Adhesives
B. Wet adhesive
C. Reactive Adhesives
D. Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives
2. Which of this is an example of wet adhesive?
A. Cement
B. Paint
C. Electrical tape
D. Glue with solvent
3. This adhesives are applied to both parts to be joined.
A. Wet adhesive
B. Pressure sensitive adhesive
C. Contact adhesive
D. Reactive adhesive
4. This type of adhesive are set by means of chemical, physical or catalytic processes
A. Wet adhesive
B. Pressure sensitive adhesive
C. Contact adhesive
D. Reactive adhesive
5. This type of adhesive does not require solvent, mixing or dosing.
A. Two-Component Reactive Adhesives

B. Hot melt adhesive
C. Single-component reactive adhesives
D. Contact Adhesives
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Discussion
TYPES OF ADHESIVES
Wet Adhesives
Wet adhesives are only applied to one of the parts to be joined, which is then
immediately glued to the second part. The parts must be fixed together as adhesion
only occurs when the solvents have evaporated. In case of so-called (solvent-free"
adhesives, water is the carrier substance. Open-poured materials encourage the drying
of wet adhesives.
Glues with solvents are used for a wide range of jobs. In particular these
include jobs involving a particularly fast application sped, when paper curling must be
avoided or when non-porous materials are being glued. These adhesives consist of
resins or rubbers that are converted to liquid form using traditional solvents e.g.
alcohol, acetone or methylacetate. The glue sets as a result of the evaporation of the
solvent. The solvent must therefore be able to escape through the material. This is the
case with wood, cardboard and leather. In the case of non-permeable, airtight
materials such as metal, porcelain or hard plastics, the glued surface must be as long
and narrow as possible so that the solvent can escape out the sides. Many plastics are,
to varying extents, corroded or even dissolved by solvents. Therefore, when glueing
plastics you must always note the corresponding instructions on the packaging.
Contact Adhesives
Contact adhesives are applied to both parts to be joined. After the flash-off
time, which varies depending on the solvent, the parts to be joints are pressed together
with a high level of force. The parts to be joined bond immediately. Loads can be
applied to the workpiece after a short period of time.
UHU contact adhesives, such as UHU All Purpose Adhesive Power or UHU
greenit, are applied using the double-sided bonding method. They are particularly
well-suited to the glueing of thick materials that are solvent-permeable. Contact
adhesive enable the creation of instant bonds, that become very strong after a short
period of time. They remain elastic even once dry, and are therefore particularly
suitable for materials that must remain flexible at the glued joint (e.g. soles of shoes,
leather belts). Contact adhesives are also used in large surface processing (e.g. the
veneering of tables). Solvent-free UHU contact adhesives are also available.
What is "contact bonding"?
Contact bonding is a procedure whereby a thin and even layer of adhesive is

painted over both surfaces to be glued together. The parts are not immediately joined
together, but are kept apart (so that the solvent can evaporate) until the glued surfaces
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feel "dry to the touch". Only then are the parts placed gently on top of one another,
aligned and briefly and forcefully pressed together. Here it is the pressing force and
not its duration that is important. If contact bonding is performed correctly, the
positioning of the parts can no longer be corrected.
Reactive Adhesives
Reactive adhesives are adhesives that set by means of chemical, physical or

catalytic processes. Depending on the reactive behavior, they can have one or two
components.
Single-component reactive adhesives
Single-component reactive adhesives react with air humidity, UV light or

atmospheric oxygen (aerobic adhesives), or with the exclusion of air, e.g. with metal
ions (anaerobic adhesives) Single-component adhesives are applied onto one of the
surfaces to be glued. The reaction starts immediately as a result of the second reactive
component in the atmosphere or on the surface to be glued. Single-component
reactive adhesives react with air humidity, UV light or atmospheric oxygen (aerobic
adhesives), or with the exclusion of air, e.g. with metal ions (anaerobic adhesives)
Single-component adhesives are applied onto one of the surfaces to be glued. The
reaction starts immediately as a result of the second reactive component in the
atmosphere or on the surface to be glued. Single-component reactive adhesives
contain a non-active hardener, which does not reactive while in the packaging under
normal conditions. A reaction only begins when the hardener comes into contact with
the second reactive component. Depending on the type of adhesive, the reaction is
started by air humidity, UV light or atmospheric oxygen (aerobic adhesives).
Two-Component Reactive Adhesives
Two-component reactive adhesives consist of components in liquid, paste or

powder-form, which must generally be precisely mixed in the stated proportions. The
processing time (pot life) is limited, with setting commencing immediately. The glued
joint must be fixed in place until fully set, with the setting time dependent on the type
of adhesive and the ambient temperature. Two-component reactive adhesives consist
of components in liquid, paste or powder-form, which must generally be precisely
mixed in the stated proportions. The processing time (pot life) is limited, with setting
commencing immediately. The glued joint must be fixed in place until fully set, with
the setting time dependent on the type of adhesive and the ambient temperature.
Here's How It Works:
In the case of two-component adhesives, binders and hardeners are mixed

thoroughly at the specified ratios and must be used within the stated processing time
(between one hour and several hours depending on the type of adhesive). A
temperature of approximately 20°C is ideally suited for bonding.
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Hot-Melt Adhesives
Hot-melt adhesives come in cartridge, pen, powder, granulate, mesh or film

form. They are solvent free, with no mixing or dosing generally required.
Hot-melt adhesives melt under temperature. This takes place either directly within the
glued join (e.g. by ironing the edges) or using a glue gun, from which hot glue is
applied to the parts to be bonded. Hot-melt adhesives melt at temperatures between
110°C and above 220°C with some other systems.
Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives
Pressure-sensitive adhesives are products that remain permanently adhesive.

These materials are used in instances where the adhesion is not intended to be
permanent and subsequent separation is desired. Pressure-sensitive adhesives are
mainly used on adhesive films and tapes, on double-sided sticky tape and sticky pads,
as well as on sticky notes, self-adhesive labels and films.
Surface Preparation for Adhesive Bonding
Preparations
We recommend working in a well-ventilated area or workshop that offers

enough space to handle all the necessary materials. Use protective cloths or papers to
cover up furniture. Examine parts to be joined and test the fit. Clear away any
fragments or particles obstructing a seal. Wear latex or nitrile gloves (not PVC, nylon,
or cotton) to protect your skin
Pretreatment
Pretreating the substrate surface before using the adhesive will assist in
ensuring you get the most efficient and effective bond possible.
There are three methods of pretreatment: physical, mechanical or chemical:
 Physical methods require special The substrate surface is cleaned and then
exposed to high-energy charges such as flame, plasma or corona discharge.
 Mechanical treatments include sandpaper, brushes or some other type of
scraper to remove any contaminants like paint or rust. After sanding or
abrading the surface clean, a solvent is used to remove the dust or leftover
chemicals.
 Chemical pretreatments, like acid etching or dipping the substrate into some
other type of chemical to clean the surface, are an effective method also.
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Bonding Primers
You need to prepare the surface of the substrates to achieve optimal bonding.
Preparation may require using a detergent or solvent to clean the materials as
thoroughly as possible and remove the dust, grease, and oil. Once it is clean, consider
using a bonding primer. This will give you a faster set time for just the right type of
bond.
Primers, also known as adhesion promoters, modify the surface energy. This
will ensure a chemical reaction occurs between the adhesive and the surface, and it
can also protect the surface from contamination after the post-treatment process.
Primers come in many types and are designed for the type of adhesive it will come
into contact with, such as this primer for water-based adhesives. Therefore, you must
ensure the primer you are using fits the adhesive you want to use.
Bonding Accelerators
In addition to bonding primers, you can also use an accelerator to help
promote adhesion.
Types of Surfaces
Three of the most common substrates that are often bonded together using
adhesives are metal, wood and plastic. Each surface has its own properties and should
be prepped differently before applying adhesives.
Metals
Metals, in addition to a reputation for strength and durability, are often tough
to work with and can be difficult to cut and mold into the desired shape. Usually,
chemical cleaning using solvents or other methods work better for metal surface
preparation than detergents or soaps.
Wood
Wood surfaces in woodworking shops and manufacturing facilities, where

wood is one of the primary substrates, are often contaminated with bits of resin and
wax. To prepare wood surfaces for adhesives, pretreatment is strongly recommended.
You also need to dry the wood first prior to pretreatment.
Plastic
Dust, dirt, oil and grease can easily contaminate plastic. These contaminants
can also migrate around the surface due to the nature of the plastic material. To
prepare plastic surfaces for adhesives, liquid solvents should be used along with
abrasion and chemical surface modification.
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Detergent and Solvents

The efficacy of a detergent or solvent depends on the substrate and the sorts of
contaminants you want to remove.
Detergent works reasonably well on most types of dirt and oil. Some soaps or
other detergent-based cleaning products may react with metals causing an unfavorable
chemical reaction that can weaken the bond or the metal. If you use detergents, rinse
the metal thoroughly and dry it well.
Certain solvents are better than others at removing specific classes of

contaminants. For example, if you have a lot of wax, resins or lubricant buildups, use
a hydrocarbon solvent. For cutting or protective oils, ketones are an excellent choice.
Alcohols remove fingerprints very well.
You should always wipe your substrates with solvent prior to pretreating the
surfaces. If you don’t, abrading the surface will only push some of the oil or grease
into the wood or plastic, making the substrate more difficult to clean and resistant to
the adhesive.
Always Be Prepared
Preparing your surface for adhesive bonding is an important part of ensuring a
secure and strong bond. These surface treatment processes should be tailored to the
surface you are working with as well as the adhesive you are using.
Application Of Adhesive On Board
Deck Caulking
Adhesives and sealants for deck caulking have to fulfill the highest
requirements regarding UV, salt water and fresh water resistance. The joints have to
allow permanent absorption of movement. At the same time, they need to be easy to
process and to sand
Bedding of Deck Floorings
Deck floorings are subject to volume changes as well as to thermal changes in

length caused by temperature differences. To satisfy these requirements, bedding
compounds need to have high flexibility on the one hand and great strength to keep
the deck flooring in place on the other hand.
Window Bonding
For a modern design, bonded windows and structural façade systems are
becoming increasingly popular on boats and ships. They enable architectural freedom,
modern design and novel types of constructions.
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Weather Sealing
Due to strong movements and torsions, boat and ship windows require stable
and flexible sealings.
Outside Bonding and Sealing
Whether for design or safety requirements, many attachments on boats and

ships need to be bonded or sealed. Körapop Marine for outside applications offers
very good resistance against weathering and UV radiation.
Inside Bonding and Sealing
To avoid mechanical fixings and cracking noises, many materials on the inside
of a boat are bonded or sealed.
Panel Production
Adhesive are use to produce sandwich panels and decorative panels made
from different materials. Sandwich elements significantly reduce net weight without
losing their intrinsic properties. Materials as diverse as wood, metal, plastics or
ultramodern composites with a foam or honeycomb core are used in this context.
Structural Bonding
In modern ships made from GRP or aluminium, the deck-hull connection and
the mounting of the flybridge constructions are some of the components that must
endure high mechanical stress. By using adhesives, vibrations are reduced, different
elongations are balanced and shocks are absorbed.
Complimentary Products
Primers and Cleaners The reliable adhesion of the glue on the surface of the
material is a decisive factor for successful execution. To ensure this, the surface needs
to be thoroughly cleaned beforehand. Apart from that, the adhesion between substrate
and glue can also be optimized by the application of a primer
144
Self – Assessment
Date: ________________________
1. Differentiate a Two-Component Reactive Adhesives form a Single-

Component Reactive Adhesives
145
2. Discuss the Procedures in surface preparations of a material prior to

application of adhesives
146
SELECTING ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Think of material selection as a matter of functionality. As an example, a
bridge constructed with foam girder supports rather than steel ones, is not functional if
that bridge is intended for vehicles. In order for a product to function, it must be made
of the right materials; and the functionality of the material is defined by its
mechanical properties. Therefore, the material must have the applicable mechanical
properties to function as designed. These are, in total, the demonstrative physical
properties that materials exhibit upon the application of any type of external force.
A material’s mechanical properties then are the key to custom engineering

solutions for product design and development. For a product to function as designed,
such factors as understanding a material’s mechanical forces or load requirements, its
modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, elongation, hardness, fatigue limit, wear and
tear, and thermal properties and more, must be evaluated in relation to the product
application requirements.
Application failures arise from an improper material selection. Simply put, if

an application demands high tensile strength, a material with higher tensile strength
must be selected. If the product is to be used outside, such factors as temperature
range and the effect of ultraviolet light must be considered. If proper material
selection is not adhered to, the product’s functionality will be at best highly
unpredictable and at worst, dangerous. (H. Loeb Corporation, 2020)
Week 15-16
Learning Outcomes:
9.1 Explain the following factors required for selecting materials:

a. properties of material
b. availability of material
c. processing of material
d. cost of material
9.2 Determine what materials are used for constructing major parts of the
following Equipment:
a. diesel engines crank shaft, Cylinder liner and head, Piston, exhaust
valve
b. Steam turbines casing rotor blade, Nozzle reduction gear.
c. gas turbine: turbine casing, Rotor, compressor gas generator
d. boilers water tube, furnace, steam, water drum super heater
e. pumps: Impeller, casing, shaft, casing ring, sleeve, gear screw,
piston/bucket ring
f. heat exchangers: heating tube, cooling tube, shell
g. compressors: piston ring, valve, cylinder block, cylinder liner
h. purifiers: spindle, gravity disc/ring dam, bowl body
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Pretest
1. Which factor in selecting a material affects the cost and time for installation?
A. Material cost
B. Availability
C. Processing
D. Properties of materials
2. This factor can be neglected when performance is given the top priority.
A. Material cost
B. Availability
C. Processing
3. It is the process of transforming raw material into a finished product.
A. Material cost
B. Availability
C. Processing
4. Which of the following factors supports the statement “How the material functions
or responds to an increase or decrease in temperature or heat must also be a factor in
material selection”?
A. Material cost
B. Availability
C. Processing
5. It is an ability of a material to deform plastically (that is, stretch) without fracturing

and retain the new shape when the load is removed.
A. Conductivity
B. Ductility
C. Tougness
D. Hardness
148
Discussion
To ensure the integrity of design and prevent any susceptibility to product

failure, the material selection process assures that a design technically fits the desired
properties. Mechanical properties of materials can change and often do once the
material is subjected to variable conditions—the impact of the working environment,
temperature fluctuation, rate of load, or general wear and tear can alter a material’s
properties. Consider that a material tested at room temperature may not perform the
same at temperatures above or below room temperature. A custom engineering
solution would carefully select the appropriate material to suit those possible
conditions.
Availability
It is always advisable to acquire easily available materials. The availability of

materials also determines the cost and time for installation. Availability of raw
materials also affects the cost and the time of construction because certain
materials are available at a particular place and are difficult to transport. In that
case, not only the transportation costs will be very high but it will also delay the
work. On the other hand, if the material is locally available it decreases the
transportation cost. It’s also a time saver and construction work can also be done
smoothly.
Material Cost
Cost is a critical fact to consider when selecting materials for a certain design
for most products because they are facing a severe competition in the market. So you
may see that most of the metal or other valuable materials are replaced by plastics in
most of the designs which they are applicable such as mechanical engineering
designs. The cost factor can be neglected when performance is given the top priority.
When estimating costs, all the associated cost factors must be considered to get a
more reasonable value. It may involve the transportation, processing, etc. costs.
These are the main facts to consider when selecting a material for a design, but
there are a number of other factors which become essential depending on the
particular product. In some occasions particular properties of the material may
become the dominant factor over other properties. For example, electrical
conductivity is vital for an electrical application so it must be given the priority. In
mechanical engineering, designing for light weight is important for certain body parts
of vehicles where aluminum is used instead of steel. An inability to meet the
maximum operating temperature may be the reason to exclude the most profitable
material for a certain high temperature design. Once a short list of materials is
selected, the best possible candidate that gives the maximum performance with
minimum cost must be determined.
149
Manufacturability/processing
The manufacturability of the material for your product must be considered,

too. Transforming raw material into a finished product is one aspect of its
manufacturability, but the material must be engineered in such a way as to make the
product easy to manufacture. Although the material is well capable of using for the
design, it may be difficult to manufacture. This is particularly applicable in
mechanical engineering design. If this selection criteria is neglected the manufacture
process might be very costly making it unprofitable as a commercial product. So
before selecting the materials this fact also must be considered. These facts are widely
varied with the type of manufacturing method. For an example, when producing a
gear its dimensions must be very accurate. Otherwise the application may not provide
the expected performance. To make the dimensions more accurate it has to be
machined in the production. So the selected material must able to be machined with a
minimum cost. Otherwise there is no point of selecting that material for that particular
gear.
Properties of materials
How the material functions or responds to an increase or decrease in

temperature or heat must also be a factor in material selection. The mechanical and
physical properties of materials are determined by their chemical composition and
their internal structure, like grain size or crystal structure. Mechanical properties may
be greatly affected by processing due to the rearrangement of the internal structure.
Metalworking processes or heat treatment might play a role in affecting some physical
properties like density and electrical conductivity, but those effects are usually
insignificant. Mechanical and physical properties are a key determinant for
which alloy is considered suitable for a given application when multiple alloys satisfy
the service conditions. In almost every instance, the engineer designs the part to
perform within a given range of properties. Many of the mechanical properties are
interdependent – high performance in one category may be coupled with lower
performance in another. Higher-strength, as an example, maybe achieved at the
expense of lower ductility. So a broad understanding of the product’s environment
will lead to the selection of the best material for the application.
A description of some common mechanical and physical properties will

provide information that product designers could consider in selecting materials for a
given application.
1. Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is a measure of the quantity of heat that flows through a
material. It is measured as one degree per unit of time, per unit of cross-sectioned
area, per unit of length. Materials with low thermal conductivity may be used as
insulators, those with high thermal conductivity may be a heat sink. Metals that
exhibit high thermal conductivity would be candidates for use in applications like heat
exchangers or refrigeration. Low thermal conductivity materials may be used in high
temperature applications, but often high temperature components require high thermal
conductivity, so it is important to understand the environment. Electrical conductivity
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is similar, measuring the quantity of electricity that is transferred through a material of

known cross-section and length.
2. Corrosion Resistance
Corrosion resistance describes a material’s ability to prevent natural chemical
or electro-chemical attack by atmosphere, moisture or other agents. Corrosion takes
many forms including pitting, galvanic reaction, stress corrosion, parting, inter-
granular, and others (many of which will be discussed in other newsletter
editions). Corrosion resistance may be expressed as the maximum depth in mils to
which corrosion would penetrate in one year; it is based on a linear extrapolation of
penetration occurring during the lifetime of a given test or service. Some materials
are intrinsically corrosion resistant, while others benefit from the addition of plating
or coatings. Many metals that belong to families that resist corrosion are not totally
safe from it, and are still subject to the specific environmental conditions where they
operate.
3. Density
A common question we get is, is hardness a physical property? Density, often
expressed as pounds per cubic inch, or grams per cubic centimeter, etc., describes the
mass of the alloy per unit volume. The density of the alloy will determine how much a
component of a certain size will weigh. This factor is important in applications like
aerospace or automotive where weight is important. Engineers looking for lower
weight components may seek alloys that are less dense, but must then consider the
strength to weight ratio. A higher density material like steel might be chosen, for
example, if it provides higher strength than a lower density material. Such a part
could be made thinner so that less material could help compensate for the higher
density.
4. Ductility / Malleability
Ductility is the ability of a material to deform plastically (that is, stretch)
without fracturing and retain the new shape when the load is removed. Think of it as
the ability to stretch a given metal into a wire. Ductility is often measured using a
tensile test as a percentage of elongation, or the reduction in the cross sectional area of
the sample before failure. A tensile test can also be used to determine the Young’s
Modulus or modulus of elasticity, an important stress/strain ratio used in many design
calculations. The tendency of a material to resist cracking or breaking under stress
makes ductile materials appropriate for other metalworking processes including
rolling or drawing. Certain other processes like cold-working tend to make a metal
less ductile.
Malleability, a physical property, describes a metal’s ability to be formed
without breaking. Pressure, or compressive stress, is used to press or roll the material
into thinner sheets. A material with high malleability will be able to withstand higher
pressure without breaking.
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5. Elasticity, Stiffness
Elasticity describes a material’s tendency to return to its original size and
shape when a distorting force is removed. As opposed to materials that exhibit
plasticity (where the change in shape is not reversible), an elastic material will return
to its previous configuration when the stress is removed.
The stiffness of a metal is often measured by the Young’s Modulus, which
compares the relationship between stress (the force applied) and strain (the resulting
deformation). The higher the Modulus – meaning greater stress results in
proportionally lesser deformation – the stiffer the material. Glass would be an
example of a stiff/high Modulus material, where rubber would be a material that
exhibits low stiffness/low Modulus. This is an important design consideration for
applications where stiffness is required under load.
6. Fracture Toughness
Impact resistance is a measure of a material’s ability to withstand a shock. The
effect of impact – a collision that occurs in a short period of time – is typically greater
than the effect of a weaker force delivered over a longer period. So a consideration of
impact resistance should be included when the application includes an elevated risk of
impact. Certain metals may perform acceptably under static load but fail under
dynamic loads or when subjected to a collision. In the lab, impact is often measured
through a common Charpy test, where a weighted pendulum strikes a sample opposite
of machined V-notch.
7. Hardness
Hardness is defined as a material’s ability to resist permanent indentation (that
is plastic deformation). Typically, the harder the material, the better it resists wear or
deformation. The term hardness, thus, also refers to local surface stiffness of a
material or its resistance to scratching, abrasion, or cutting. Hardness is measured by
employing such methods as Brinell, Rockwell, and Vickers, which measure the depth
and area of a depression by a harder material, including a steel ball, diamond, or other
indenter.
8. Plasticity
Plasticity, the converse of elasticity, describes the tendency of a certain solid
material to hold its new shape when subjected to forming forces. It is the quality that
allows materials to be bent or worked into a permanent new shape. Materials
transition from elastic behavior to plastic at the yield point.
9. Strength – Fatigue
Fatigue can lead to fracture under repeated or fluctuating stresses (for example
loading or unloading) that have a maximum value less than the tensile strength of the
material. Higher stresses will accelerate the time to failure, and vice versa, so there is
a relationship between the stress and cycles to failure. Fatigue limit, then, refers to
the maximum stress the metal can withstand (the variable) in a given number of
cycles. Conversely, the fatigue life measure holds the load fixed and measures how
many load cycles the material can withstand before failure. Fatigue strength is an
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important consideration when designing components subjected to repetitive load

conditions.
10. Strength – Shear

Shear strength is a consideration in applications like bolts or beams where the
direction as well as the magnitude of the stress is important. Shear occurs when
directional forces cause the internal structure of the metal to slide against itself, at the
granular level.
11. Strength – Tensile

One of the most common metal property measures is Tensile, or Ultimate,
Strength. Tensile strength refers to the amount of load a section of metal can
withstand before it breaks. In lab testing, the metal will elongate but return to its
original shape through the area of elastic deformation. When it reaches the point of
permanent or plastic deformation (measured as Yield), it retains the elongated shape
even when load is removed. At the Tensile point, the load causes the metal to
ultimately fracture. This measure helps differentiate between materials that are brittle
from those that are more ductile. Tensile or ultimate tensile strength is measured in
Newtons per square millimeter (Mega Pascals or MPa) or pounds per square inch.
12. Strength – Yield

Similar in concept and measure to Tensile Strength, Yield Strength describes
the point after which the material under load will no longer return to its original
position or shape. Deformation moves from elastic to plastic. Design calculations
include the Yield Point to understand the limits of dimensional integrity under
load. Like Tensile strength, Yield strength is measured in Newtons per square
millimeter (Mega Pascals or MPa) or pounds per square inch.
13. Toughness
Measured using the Charpy impact test similar to Impact Resistance,
toughness represents a material’s ability to absorb impact without fracturing at a given
temperature. Since impact resistance is often lower at low temperatures, materials
may become more brittle. Charpy values are commonly prescribed in ferrous
alloys where the possibilities of low temperatures exist in the application (e.g.
offshore oil platforms, oil pipelines, etc.) or where instantaneous loading is a
consideration (e.g. ballistic containment in military or aircraft applications).
14. Wear Resistance

Wear resistance is a measure of a material’s ability to withstand the effect of
two materials rubbing against each other. This can take many forms including
adhesion, abrasion, scratching, gouging, galling, and others. When the materials are
of different hardness, the softer metal can begin to show the effects first, and
management of that may be part of the design. Even rolling can cause abrasion
because of the presence of foreign materials. Wear resistance may be measured as the
amount of mass lost for a given number of abrasion cycles at a given load.
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Materials used for constructing major parts of the following Equipment:
diesel engines crank shaft
The main material commonly used to fabricate diesel engine crankshafts is forged
steel. Forged steel provides the necessary strength, durability, and resistance to high
loads and cyclic stresses that crankshafts experience during engine operation.
Cylinder Liners
Cylinder liners, also known as cylinder sleeves, are cylindrical inserts that provide a
wear-resistant surface within the engine block. The primary materials used for
cylinder liners are:
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a. Cast Iron: Cast iron is widely used for cylinder liners due to its excellent wear
resistance, thermal conductivity, and ability to retain lubricating oil on its surface.
The most common type of cast iron used is gray cast iron, which is known for its
good damping properties and ability to withstand high thermal and mechanical
stresses.
b. Alloyed Cast Iron: In some cases, alloyed cast iron, such as ductile iron (nodular
cast iron), may be used for improved strength, toughness, and resistance to thermal
cycling. Alloyed cast iron liners can withstand higher loads and pressures and offer
better durability compared to gray cast iron.
Cylinder Heads
Cylinder heads are critical engine components that house the combustion chambers,
valves, and other related parts. The main materials used for cylinder heads include:
a. Aluminum Alloys: Aluminum alloys are widely used in cylinder head construction
due to their lightweight nature, good thermal conductivity, and excellent
machinability. The specific aluminum alloy used can vary, but commonly used
alloys include aluminum-silicon (Al-Si) alloys, such as the A356 or 319 grades.
These alloys offer a good balance of strength, corrosion resistance, and heat
dissipation properties.
b. Cast Iron: Some diesel engines, particularly larger or heavy-duty applications, may
use cast iron cylinder heads for their enhanced durability and resistance to high-
temperature and high-pressure conditions. Cast iron cylinder heads provide good
thermal stability and can withstand the stresses associated with diesel engine
operation.
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Piston
The main material used to fabricate diesel engine pistons is aluminum alloy.
Aluminum alloys offer a favorable combination of properties, making them suitable
for piston applications in diesel engines.
exhaust valve
The main material used to fabricate exhaust valves for diesel engines is usually a
high-temperature alloy steel. The exhaust valves in diesel engines are subjected to
high temperatures, corrosive gases, and significant mechanical stresses. Therefore, the
material must possess specific characteristics to withstand these conditions
effectively.
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Steam Turbine Casings
Steam turbine casings are large, high-pressure vessels that enclose the turbine stages
and provide a containment structure for steam flow. The materials commonly used for
steam turbine casings include:
a. Carbon Steel: Carbon steel is often used for the outer shell or casing of steam
turbines. It offers good strength, rigidity, and corrosion resistance. Carbon steel
casings can be fabricated using welding or forging processes, depending on the
turbine design and requirements.
b. Alloy Steel: Alloy steels, such as chrome-molybdenum (Cr-Mo) steels, are used in
more demanding applications that require higher temperature and pressure
capabilities. These steels provide enhanced strength, creep resistance, and resistance
to thermal and mechanical stresses.
c. Stainless Steel: In some cases, stainless steel is used for steam turbine casings,
especially in applications where corrosion resistance is a critical consideration.
Austenitic stainless steels, such as 304 or 316 grades, are commonly employed due to
their excellent corrosion resistance properties.
Steam Turbine Rotor Blades
Steam turbine rotor blades are crucial components that convert the energy of the
steam into mechanical work. The materials used for rotor blades should exhibit high
strength, resistance to creep, and good dimensional stability. The following materials
are commonly employed for steam turbine rotor blades:
a. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel alloys, such as martensitic or austenitic grades, are
commonly used for steam turbine rotor blades. These alloys offer excellent corrosion
resistance, high strength, and good temperature stability.
b. Nickel-Based Superalloys: Nickel-based superalloys, such as Inconel or Nimonic

alloys, are frequently employed in the manufacture of steam turbine rotor blades,
particularly for high-temperature applications. These alloys exhibit superior high-
temperature strength, creep resistance, and resistance to oxidation and thermal fatigue.
c. Coatings: Rotor blades may also feature protective coatings to enhance their
performance and longevity. For example, thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) can be
applied to provide insulation and protect against hot gas corrosion. These coatings
typically consist of ceramic materials, such as yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ).
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Nozzles
Nozzles in steam turbines are responsible for directing and controlling the flow of
steam to the turbine blades. The materials commonly used for nozzle construction
include:
a. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel alloys, such as austenitic or martensitic grades, are
frequently employed for nozzle construction. Stainless steel offers good corrosion
resistance, strength, and temperature stability, making it suitable for the high-
temperature and high-pressure environment of steam turbines.
b. Nickel-Based Superalloys: In some cases, nickel-based superalloys, such as Inconel

or Nimonic alloys, are used for nozzle fabrication, particularly in applications where
higher temperature capabilities are required. These alloys exhibit excellent high-
temperature strength, creep resistance, and resistance to oxidation and thermal fatigue.
c. Ceramic Materials: Ceramic materials, such as silicon nitride or silicon carbide, are
occasionally used for nozzle construction, especially in advanced turbine designs.
Ceramics offer exceptional high-temperature stability, hardness, and wear resistance,
making them suitable for demanding operating conditions.
Reduction Gears
Reduction gears are crucial components in steam turbines that transmit power from
the turbine rotor to auxiliary equipment, such as generators or pumps. The materials
used for reduction gears are selected based on factors such as load requirements,
operating speed, and durability considerations. Common materials used for reduction
gears include:
a. Alloy Steel: Alloy steels, such as chromium-molybdenum (Cr-Mo) or nickel-

chromium-molybdenum (Ni-Cr-Mo) steels, are commonly employed for reduction
gears. These steels offer excellent strength, toughness, and fatigue resistance, making
them suitable for handling high loads and transmitting power efficiently.
b. Carburizing Steel: Carburizing steels, such as 8620 or 9310 steel, are used in some
cases where enhanced wear resistance and surface hardness are required. Carburizing
is a heat treatment process that introduces carbon into the surface of the steel,
resulting in improved hardness and wear resistance.
c. Case-Hardened Steel: Case-hardened steels, such as 17CrNiMo6 or 20CrNiMo, are

utilized when a combination of toughness and surface hardness is desired. These
steels undergo a heat treatment process called carburizing and subsequent quenching,
resulting in a hard outer layer while maintaining a tough core.
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Gas Turbine Casings
Gas turbine casings enclose the various stages of the turbine and provide structural
integrity. The materials commonly used for gas turbine casings include:
a. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel alloys, particularly those with high-temperature

capabilities, such as austenitic or martensitic grades, are frequently employed for gas
turbine casings. Stainless steel offers excellent corrosion resistance, strength, and
temperature stability required for the harsh operating environment of gas turbines.
b. Nickel-Based Superalloys: Nickel-based superalloys, such as Inconel or Waspaloy

alloys, are commonly used in gas turbine casings, especially in areas subject to high
temperatures and mechanical stresses. These alloys exhibit superior high-temperature
strength, creep resistance, and resistance to oxidation and thermal fatigue.
c. Titanium Alloys: Titanium alloys are sometimes utilized for gas turbine casings,
particularly in applications that require lightweight materials and high corrosion
resistance. Titanium alloys offer excellent strength-to-weight ratio, good corrosion
resistance, and high-temperature stability.
Rotors
Gas turbine rotors are the rotating components that convert the energy of the gas flow
into mechanical work. The materials commonly used for gas turbine rotors include:
a. Nickel-Based Superalloys: Nickel-based superalloys, such as Inconel or Rene

alloys, are widely employed for gas turbine rotors. These alloys possess excellent
high-temperature strength, creep resistance, and resistance to corrosion and fatigue,
making them suitable for the demanding conditions experienced by gas turbine rotors.
b. Steel Alloys: High-strength steel alloys, such as chromium-molybdenum (Cr-Mo)

or nickel-chromium-molybdenum (Ni-Cr-Mo) steels, are sometimes used for gas
turbine rotors, particularly in smaller or less demanding applications. These alloys
offer a good balance of strength, toughness, and fatigue resistance.
Compressor Gas Generators
Compressor gas generators, also known as compressor stages, play a vital role in
compressing the incoming air for combustion. The materials commonly used for
compressor gas generators include:
a. Aluminum Alloys: Aluminum alloys, such as aluminum-silicon (Al-Si) alloys or

aluminum-lithium (Al-Li) alloys, are frequently used for compressor gas generators.
These alloys offer lightweight properties, good corrosion resistance, and high thermal
conductivity required for efficient heat transfer and compressor performance.
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b. Titanium Alloys: Titanium alloys are also employed for compressor gas generators,
especially in areas that require lightweight materials and high corrosion resistance.
Titanium alloys possess good strength-to-weight ratio, excellent corrosion resistance,
and high-temperature stability.
Boilers
Water Tubes
Water tubes are the main components responsible for carrying the water and steam in
a boiler. The materials commonly used for water tubes include:
a. Carbon Steel: Carbon steel, specifically low-carbon steel or mild steel, is

commonly used for water tubes in boilers. It offers good strength, affordability, and
weldability. Carbon steel tubes are suitable for lower-pressure and lower-temperature
applications.
b. Alloy Steel: Alloy steels, such as chromium-molybdenum (Cr-Mo) or nickel-

chromium-molybdenum (Ni-Cr-Mo) steels, are employed in high-pressure and high-
temperature boiler applications. These steels offer enhanced strength, corrosion
resistance, and creep resistance.
c. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel, particularly austenitic or ferritic grades, is used for
water tubes in boilers where corrosion resistance is a critical requirement. Stainless
steel tubes offer excellent corrosion resistance, high-temperature strength, and
durability.
Furnace
The furnace is the combustion chamber where the fuel is burned to generate heat. The
materials commonly used for furnace construction include:
a. Refractory Materials: Refractory materials, such as firebricks or refractory

castables, are used to line the inner walls of the furnace. These materials are selected
for their high-temperature resistance, insulating properties, and ability to withstand
thermal expansion and contraction.
b. Carbon Steel: Carbon steel, with appropriate heat-resistant properties, is commonly

used for the structural components of the furnace. It provides good strength and
rigidity at elevated temperatures.
Steam/Water Drum
The steam drum or water drum is a vessel where the water is separated from the
steam in a boiler. The materials commonly used for steam/water drums include:
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a. Carbon Steel: Carbon steel, typically low-carbon steel or mild steel, is commonly
used for steam/water drums. It offers good strength and corrosion resistance at
moderate temperatures.
b. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel, especially austenitic grades, may be used in

steam/water drums to enhance corrosion resistance and durability in boilers operating
at high temperatures or with corrosive water conditions.
Superheater
The superheater is a section in the boiler where steam is heated to a higher

temperature for specific applications. The materials commonly used for superheaters
include:
a. Alloy Steel: Alloy steels, such as chromium-molybdenum (Cr-Mo) or nickel-

chromium (Ni-Cr) alloys, are commonly used for superheater tubes. These alloys
provide excellent high-temperature strength, creep resistance, and resistance to oxidation.
b. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel, particularly austenitic or ferritic grades, may be used
for superheater tubes to enhance corrosion resistance and high-temperature strength.
Pumps
Impeller
The impeller is a rotating component responsible for imparting energy to the fluid
being pumped. The materials commonly used for impellers include:
a. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel, particularly austenitic or duplex grades, is

commonly used for impellers. Stainless steel offers good corrosion resistance,
strength, and durability.
b. Cast Iron: Cast iron, such as gray cast iron or ductile cast iron, is used for impellers
in applications where corrosion resistance is not a significant concern. Cast iron
impellers provide good strength and cost-effectiveness.
c. Bronze or Brass: Bronze or brass alloys are utilized in certain applications where
corrosion resistance and good mechanical properties are required. These materials are
commonly used in smaller pumps or for specific fluid compatibility.
Casing
The casing encloses the impeller and provides support and containment for the
pumped fluid. The materials commonly used for pump casings include:
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a. Cast Iron: Cast iron, particularly gray cast iron or ductile cast iron, is commonly
used for pump casings. Cast iron casings offer good strength, rigidity, and cost-
effectiveness.
b. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel casings are employed in applications where

corrosion resistance is essential. Austenitic or duplex stainless steel is commonly used
to provide excellent corrosion resistance and durability.
c. Bronze or Brass: Bronze or brass alloys may be used in certain pump applications
that require corrosion resistance and good mechanical properties.
Shaft
The shaft is a rotating component that transmits power from the driver to the impeller.
The materials commonly used for pump shafts include:
a. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel, particularly martensitic or duplex grades, is

commonly used for pump shafts. Stainless steel offers good corrosion resistance,
strength, and fatigue resistance.
b. Carbon Steel: Carbon steel is used for pump shafts in certain applications where
corrosion resistance is not a primary concern. Proper coatings or surface treatments
can be applied to enhance the corrosion resistance of carbon steel shafts.
Casing Ring, Sleeve, Gear, Screw, Piston/Bucket Ring
The materials used for casing rings, sleeves, gears, screws, and piston/bucket rings
can vary depending on the specific pump design and application. Common materials
include:
a. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel alloys are frequently used for these components due
to their corrosion resistance, strength, and durability.
b. Bronze or Brass: Bronze or brass alloys may be employed in certain pump

components that require good mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.
c. Cast Iron: Cast iron can be used for some pump components where cost-
effectiveness and mechanical strength are primary considerations.
Heat Exchangers
Heating Tubes
Heating tubes are the tubes through which hot fluids flow, transferring heat to the
fluid being heated. The materials commonly used for heating tubes include:
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a. Copper: Copper tubes are widely used for heating applications due to their excellent
thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance. They are suitable for both low and
high-pressure systems.
b. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel tubes, particularly austenitic or duplex grades, are
commonly used for heating tubes when higher corrosion resistance is required.
Stainless steel offers good thermal conductivity and durability.
c. Carbon Steel: Carbon steel tubes may be used for heating tubes in certain
applications where cost-effectiveness and moderate corrosion resistance are
acceptable. Proper coatings or treatments can enhance the corrosion resistance of
carbon steel tubes.
Cooling Tubes
Cooling tubes are the tubes through which a cooling medium flows, absorbing heat
from the fluid being cooled. The materials commonly used for cooling tubes include:
a. Copper: Copper tubes are commonly used for cooling applications due to their high
thermal conductivity and good corrosion resistance. They are suitable for both low
and high-pressure systems.
b. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel tubes, particularly austenitic or duplex grades, can be
used for cooling tubes when higher corrosion resistance is required. Stainless steel
offers good thermal conductivity and durability.
c. Aluminum: Aluminum tubes are employed in some cooling applications due to

their lightweight properties and good heat transfer characteristics. Aluminum tubes
are particularly suitable for air-cooled heat exchangers.
Shell
The shell is the outermost enclosure of the heat exchanger that houses the heating and
cooling tubes. The materials commonly used for heat exchanger shells include:
a. Carbon Steel: Carbon steel shells are commonly used for heat exchangers due to
their strength, durability, and cost-effectiveness. They offer good resistance to
mechanical stress and can be coated or painted for additional corrosion protection.
b. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel shells, particularly austenitic or duplex grades, may
be used when higher corrosion resistance is required. Stainless steel offers good
durability and resistance to various corrosive environments.
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c. Other Materials: In some cases, exotic materials such as titanium or nickel alloys
may be used for heat exchanger shells in highly corrosive or specialized applications.
These materials offer excellent corrosion resistance but are typically more expensive.
Compressors
Piston Rings
Piston rings are used to seal the gap between the piston and the cylinder wall,
ensuring efficient compression. The materials commonly used for piston rings
include:
used for piston rings due to its excellent wear resistance, thermal stability, and
compatibility with cylinder wall materials.
b. Steel: Steel rings, including carbon steel or alloy steel, are also used for piston
rings. Steel rings offer good strength, durability, and resistance to high temperatures
and wear.
c. Coatings: In some cases, piston rings may be coated with materials like chromium
or ceramic to enhance wear resistance, reduce friction, and improve sealing
performance.
Valves
Valves are responsible for controlling the flow of gas or fluid in the compressor. The
materials commonly used for compressor valves include:
a. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel, particularly austenitic or martensitic grades, is

commonly used for compressor valves due to its corrosion resistance, strength, and
durability.
b. Titanium Alloys: In certain high-performance compressors, titanium alloys may be

used for valve components due to their lightweight properties, corrosion resistance,
and high-temperature stability.
c. Coatings: Valve components may also be coated with materials like hard chrome or
ceramic to enhance wear resistance and reduce friction.
Cylinder Block
The cylinder block houses the cylinders and provides support for the piston and other
components. The materials commonly used for compressor cylinder blocks include:
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used for cylinder blocks due to its excellent strength, durability, and heat dissipation
properties.
b. Aluminum Alloys: Aluminum alloys may be used in certain compressor

applications where weight reduction is desired. Aluminum cylinder blocks offer good
strength-to-weight ratio and thermal conductivity.
Cylinders
Cylinders are the main working chambers where the compression of gas or fluid
takes place. The materials commonly used for compressor cylinders include:
used for compressor cylinders due to its excellent strength, durability, and thermal
stability.
b. Steel: Steel cylinders, including carbon steel or alloy steel, may be used in high-
pressure or high-temperature compressor applications. Steel offers good strength,
toughness, and resistance to thermal and mechanical stresses.
c. Aluminum Alloys: Aluminum alloys may be used in certain compressor

applications where weight reduction is desired. Aluminum cylinders offer lightweight
properties and good thermal conductivity.
Purifiers
Spindle
The spindle is a rotating component that drives the separation process in the purifier.
The materials commonly used for purifier spindles include:

commonly used for purifier spindles. Stainless steel offers good corrosion resistance,
strength, and durability.
b. Carbon Steel: Carbon steel, with appropriate corrosion-resistant properties, may be

used for purifier spindles in certain applications. Proper coatings or surface treatments
can enhance the corrosion resistance of carbon steel spindles.
c. Other Materials: In some specialized purifier applications, exotic materials such as

titanium or nickel alloys may be used for spindles, offering enhanced corrosion
resistance or specific mechanical properties.
Gravity Disc/Ring Dam
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The gravity disc or ring dam is responsible for controlling the separation of different
components in the purifier. The materials commonly used for gravity discs or ring
dams include:

commonly used for gravity discs or ring dams. Stainless steel offers good corrosion
resistance, strength, and durability.
b. Carbon Steel: Carbon steel may be used for gravity discs or ring dams in certain
applications where corrosion resistance is not a primary concern. Proper coatings or
treatments can enhance the corrosion resistance of carbon steel components.
Bowl Body
The bowl body is the main housing that contains the separation process in the
purifier. The materials commonly used for purifier bowl bodies include:

commonly used for purifier bowl bodies. Stainless steel offers excellent corrosion
resistance, strength, and durability.
b. Carbon Steel: Carbon steel may be used for bowl bodies in certain purifier
applications where cost-effectiveness and moderate corrosion resistance are
acceptable. Proper coatings or surface treatments can enhance the corrosion resistance
of carbon steel bowl bodies.
c. Other Materials: In some specialized purifier applications, materials such as

titanium or nickel alloys may be used for bowl bodies to provide enhanced corrosion
resistance or specific mechanical properties.
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Self – Assessment
Date: ________________________
1.Explain why the following factors need to be considered inselecting engineering

materilas:
a.Avalability
b.Cost
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c.Processing/ Manufacturability
d.Properties of material
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DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Destructive testing is a testing method that analyzes the point at which a
component, asset, or material fails. Inspectors subject the material they are testing to
different destructive test methods, which will deform or destroy the material
completely, in order to gain insights about how the material performs under pressure.
Destructive testing methods can identify physical properties of a component, like
toughness, hardness, flexibility, and strength. Destructive testing aims to deform or
destroy a material to analyze its point of failure.
Week 17
Learning Outcomes:
10.1 Explain the different destructive testing methodologies and their
importance
 Tension
 Compression
 Torsion
 Bending
 Hardness
 Fatigue
 Creep
 Impact
10.2 Determine the various failure and fracture of materials based on the
testing methodologies above
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Pretest
1. Which destructive testing provides information about the tensile strength, yield
strength, and ductility of the metallic material?
A. Compression Test
B. Tensile test
C. Bend
D. Creep Test
2. It is a testing which identifies the chemical and physical property of a material.
A. Destructive testing
B. Non-destructive testing
C. Bend
D. Creep Test
3. It is defined as a high temperature progressive deformation at constant stress.
A. Compression Test
B. Tensile test
C. Bend
D. Creep Test
4. The purpose of this test is to measures the behavior of materials subjected to simple
beam loading
A. Compression Test
B. Tensile test
C. Bend
D. Creep Test
5. Which test requires a material or product responds to forces that push, squash,
crush and flatten the test specimen
A. Compression Test
B. Tensile test
C. Bend
D. Creep Test
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Different Destructive Testing Method
Destructive testing is undertaken in order to understand a specimen’s

performance or material behaviour, these procedures are carried out to the test
specimen’s failure. Destructive testing procedures can either follow specific standards
or can be tailored to reproduce set service conditions.
Tensile Test
Tensile testing is a destructive test process that provides information about

the tensile strength, yield strength, and ductility of the metallic material. It measures
the force required to break a composite or plastic specimen and the extent to which
the specimen stretches or elongates to that breaking point. The main principle of the
tensile test is denotes the resistance of a material to a tensile load applied axially to a
specimen. Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials
science test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure
Compression Test
A compression test is a mechanical test in which a material or product

responds to forces that push, compress, squash, crush and flatten the test specimen.
Compression testing is a fundamental mechanical test, similar in nature to tensile and
bend tests. Compression tests characterize material and product strength and stiffness
under applied crushing loads. These tests are typically conducted by applying
compressive pressure to a test specimen using platens or specialized fixtures with a
testing machine that produces compressive loads.
During a compression test, properties of the material including sample stress

and strain are measured and various calculations made. Data is plotted as a stress-
strain diagram. Data is used to determine qualities such as compressive strength,
elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield strength, and modulus of elasticity.
Many samples are placed between two plates or platens that distribute the
applied load across the entire surface area of two opposite faces of the test sample.
The plates are compressed together by a compression-capable test machine, causing
the sample to flatten. The sample's deflection or strain is measured by the machine or
by a deflectomer or extensometer.
Bend
Bend testing, sometimes called flexure testing or transverse beam testing,

measures the behavior of materials subjected to simple beam loading. It is commonly
performed on relatively flexible materials such as polymers, wood, and
composites. At its most basic level a bend test is performed on a universal testing
machine by placing a specimen on two support anvils and bending it through applied
force on 1 or 2 loading anvils in order to measure its properties. Bend or flex tests
apply force with either a single upper anvil at the midpoint, which is a 3-point bend
171
test, or two upper anvils equidistant from the center, a 4-point bend test. In a 3-point
test the area of uniform stress is quite small and concentrated under the center loading
point. In a 4-point test, the area of uniform stress exists between the inner span
loading points (typically half the length of the outer span). Depending on the type of
material being tested, there are many different flex fixtures that may be appropriate.
 Close bend test - is bent over on itself and flattened. No allowance is

made for spring back, and the material is satisfactory if the test can be
completed without the metal tearing or fracturing.
 Angle bend test - material is bent over a former and the nose radius of
the former and the angle of bend (θ˚) are fixed by specification. Again no
allowance is made for spring back.
 180 ˚ bend test - a development of the angle bend test using a flat former as
shown. Only the nose radius of the former is specified.
Brinell Hardness Test
In this test, hardness is measured by pressing a hard steel ball into the surface
of the test piece, using a known load. It is important to choose the combination of load
and ball size carefully so that the indentation is free from distortion and suitable for
measurement.
Vickers Hardness Test
This test is preferable to the Brinell test where hard materials are concerned, as
it uses a diamond indenter. (Diamond is the hardest material known - approximately
6000 HB.) The diamond indenter is in the form of a square-based pyramid with an
angle of 1 36˚ between opposite faces.
Rockwell Hardness Test
Although not as reliable as the Brinell and Vickers hardness tests for
laboratory purposes, the Rockwell test is widely used in industry as it is quick, simple
and direct reading. Universal electronic hardness testing machines are now widely
used which, at the turn of a switch, can provide either Brinell, Vickers or Rockwell
tests and show the hardness number as a digital readout automatically. They also give
a "hard copy‘ printout of the test result together with the test conditions and date.
Shoe Scleroscope
The test piece must be small enough to mount in the testing machine, and
hardness is measured as a function of indentation. However, the scleroscope is not
like other types of hardness tests based their measure on the ratio of applied load
divided by the resulting impression are [ like Brinell and Vicker well] or by the depth
of impression [ like Rock well].
172
Creep Test
Creep is high temperature progressive deformation at constant stress. "High

temperature" is a relative term dependent upon the materials involved. Creep rates are
used in evaluating materials for boilers, gas turbines, jet engines, ovens, or any
application that involves high temperatures under load. Understanding high
temperature behavior of metals is useful in designing failure resistant systems. The
objective of a creep test is to predict the life span of a material under certain operating
conditions. For a creep test, the specimen is subjected to increased temperature
conditions for an extended period of time and loaded with a constant tensile force or
tensile stress.A creep test involves a tensile specimen under a constant load
maintained at a constant temperature. Measurements of strain are then recorded over a
period of time.
Impact Test
Impact tests are used in studying the toughness of material. A material's

toughness is a factor of its ability to absorb energy during plastic deformation. Brittle
materials have low toughness as a result of the small amount of plastic deformation
that they can endure. The impact value of a material can also change with
temperature. Generally, at lower temperatures, the impact energy of a material is
decreased. The size of the specimen may also affect the value of the Izod impact test
because it may allow a different number of imperfections in the material, which can
act as stress risers and lower the impact energy.
Impact tests consist of striking a suitable specimen with a controlled blow and
measuring the energy absorbed in bending or breaking the specimen. The energy
value indicates the toughness of the material under test.
Fatigue Testing
A fatigue test helps determine a material’s ability to withstand cyclic fatigue

loading conditions. By design, a material is selected to meet or exceed service loads
that are anticipated in fatigue testing applications. Cyclic fatigue tests produce
repeated loading and unloading in tension, compression, bending, torsion or
combinations of these stresses. Fatigue tests are commonly loaded in tension –
tension, compression – compression and tension into compression and reverse.
What is the Purpose of Fatigue Testing?
Usually the purpose of a fatigue test is to determine the lifespan that may be
expected from a material subjected to cyclic loading, however fatigue strength and
crack resistance are commonly sought values as well. The fatigue life of a material is
the total number of cycles that a material can be subjected to under a single loading
scheme. A fatigue test is also used for the determination of the maximum load that a
sample can withstand for a specified number of cycles. All of these characteristics are
extremely important in any industry where a material is subject to fluctuating instead
of constant forces.
173
How to Perform a Fatigue Test?

To perform a fatigue test a sample is loaded into a fatigue tester or fatigue test
machine and loaded using the pre-determined test stress, then unloaded to either zero
load or an opposite load. This cycle of loading and unloading is then repeated until the
end of the test is reached. The test may be run to a pre-determined number of cycles
or until the sample has failed depending on the parameters of the test.
Torsion Testing
Torsion testing involves the twisting of a sample along an axis and is a useful
test for acquiring information like torsional shear stress, maximum torque, shear
modulus, and breaking angle of a material or the interface between two materials.
Typically a longitudinal sample is placed in a torsion tester and one end of the sample
is twisted around the long axis until failure, during which the force, or in the case of
rotation the torque, and the displacement, or in the case of rotation the angular
displacement, are recorded. Torsion testing is appropriate for materials that may
experience a torsional load like a metallic bone screw, an intramedullary rod, rubber
tubing that may become twisted, or to measure the shear strength of a bond between
an implant and native tissue like bone.
174
Self - Assessment
Date: ________________________
1. Discuss the importance of destructive test in inspecting a material
2. Cite at least three destructive test method and explain its purpose/usage.
a.
b.
c.
175
176
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Today modern nondestructive tests are used in manufacturing, fabrication, and
in-service inspections to ensure product integrity and reliability, to control
manufacturing processes, lower production costs, and to maintain a uniform quality
level. During construction, NDT is used to ensure the quality of materials and joining
processes during the fabrication and erection phases, and in-service NDT inspections
are used to ensure that the products in use continue to have the integrity necessary to
ensure their usefulness and the safety of the public. (Introduction to Nondestructive
Testing, n.d.)
Week 18
Learning Outcomes:
11.1 Explain the objectives of non-destructive testing

11.2 Explain the different non-destructive testing methodologies:
 Visual Inspection
 Dye-penetrant
 Magnetic Methods
 Thermal and Electrical Test
 X-Ray Methods of Radiography
 Ultrasonic Testing
11.3 Determine the non-destructive testing defects according to types
methodologies used
177
Pre - Test
1. What test is used in determining characteristics of a material without destroying the
serviceability of the part or system?
A. Destructive testing
C. Bend
D. Creep Test
2. Which test is used to detect visible flaws such as deformation, welding defects and
corrosion ?
A. Eddy Current (Electromagnetic) Testing (Et)

C. Visual inspection
D. Creep Test
3. Which is not an advantage of a visual test ?
A.Reduction in repair costs because of constant monitoring at every step

of fabrication
B. Understanding of different degradation phenomena
C. Very high cost and slow QC/QA technique
D. Documentation of the observations using measurement tools
4. It is also known as liquid penetrant inspection.

B. Remote Visual Inspection
D. Dye penetrant inspection
5. This type of test uses electromagnetic testing that uses measurements of the
strength of electrical currents to determine locations of defects.

B. Remote Visual Inspection
D. Dye penetrant inspection
178
Discussion
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or

evaluating materials, components or assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in
characteristics without destroying the serviceability of the part or system. In other
words, when the inspection or test is completed the part can still be used.
Visual Inspection (VT)
Visual Testing (VT) is based on the inspection for flaws that are visible to the
naked eye and is the most commonly used NDT method across all industries. It allows
for a feasible and fast control of quality at every step of the fabrication or
maintenance process. Visual Testing (VT) is used to detect visible flaws such as
deformation, welding defects and corrosion. Many tools can be used during the
inspection such as a ruler, gauges, cameras, etc.
Advantages:
 Reduction in repair costs because of constant monitoring at every step

of fabrication;
 Understanding of different degradation phenomena;
 Documentation of the observations using measurement tools;
 Very cost efficient and quick QC/QA technique.
3D Scan
3D scanner inspection and the application of 3D technology are new

techniques that were introduced in various areas, such as the inspection of surfaces
and metrology. 3D scanners along with their dedicated software allow for the integrity
analysis of components and facilitate a precise assessment of their dimensions. In
refineries, 3D scanning is used to characterize corrosion and mechanical
damages, offering efficient acquisition and analysis. The acquired data can easily be
combined with ultrasound data for a complete profile of the part section, 3D providing
the surface data while ultrasound provides the volumetric profile.
Advantages:
 Portable
 Fast
 High accuracy, precision and resolution;
 Ease of use
 Versatile.
179
Remote Visual Inspection (RVI)
Remote Visual Inspection (RVI) is the evolution of the traditional visual testing and it
is based on the use of flexible borescopes, video scopes or similar equipment.
This technique evaluates the discontinuities or other degradation phenomena not

accessible in-situ to the naked eye. The observations can then be evaluated based on
the different codes or norms. A typical application is the inspection of the suction
roller holes in the paper industry, or piping in the petrochemical and power generation
industries.
Advantages:
 Evaluation of small dimension flaws;

 Reaches difficult to access areas;
 Comprehension of various degradation phenomena.
Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI)
This non-destructive testing technique, also known as liquid penetrant

inspection (LPI), is a cost-effective method used to locate surface breaking flaws such
as cracks, porosity, laps, seams and other surface discontinuities. Dye penetrant
inspection can be applied to both ferrous and non-ferrous materials and all non-porous
materials (metals, plastics or ceramics. It is commonly used to detect defects in
castings, forgings and weldments. Intertek works with all industry sectors including
aerospace, power generation, petrochemical and oil and gas, and we can provide dye
penetrant inspection on-site at our customer’s premises or at our accredited
laboratories. In the laboratory, dye penetrant inspection is particularly suitable for the
inspection of batch quantities of machined parts, and components up to one ton in
weight and two meters in diameter can be accommodated at our UKAS-accredited
laboratory in the UK. The method is also useful for testing on-site as it is portable,
and when applying certain techniques such as visible color contrast there is no need
for additional resources such as electricity or water. This makes it a highly convenient
for inspecting surface discontinuities.
Magnetic Methods
Process of inducing electric currents or magnetic fields or both inside a test
object and observing the electromagnetic response defects inside the test object
creates a measurable response
Eddy Current (Electromagnetic) Testing (Et)
Eddy Current Non-Destructive Testing is a type of electromagnetic testing that

uses measurements of the strength of electrical currents (also called eddy currents) in
180
a magnetic field surrounding a material in order to make determinations about the

material, which may include the locations of defects.
How to Conduct Eddy Current Testing
To conduct Eddy Current Testing, inspectors examine the flow of eddy

currents in the magnetic field surrounding a conductive material to identify
interruptions caused by defects or imperfections in the material.
Remote field testing testing (NDT) of steel tubes and pipes.
Magnetic flux leakage test (MFL) is also used for smaller steel tubes and
pipes
Wire rope testing MFL applied to steel cables, to detect broken

strands of wire.
Magnetic particle inspection is a form of MFL where small magnetic particles

in the form of a powder or liquid are sprayed on
the magnetized steel test object and gather
at surface-breaking cracks.
AC Field Measurement similar to eddy current applied to steel is to

detect and size cracks in welds
Pulsed eddy current enables the detection of large-volume metal loss

in steel objects from a considerable stand-off,
allowing steel pipes to be tested without
removing insulation.
Magnetic Particle Testing
To conduct a magnetic particle test, inspectors start by magnetizing the

material they want to inspect. If the magnetized object has no defects, the magnetic
field will transfer throughout the material without any discontinuities or interruptions.
But when the current encounters defects in the material it will be interrupted, causing
it to spread out from that point and create what is called a flux leakage field where the
defect is located. Once the material is magnetized and defects have created these
secondary flux leakage fields, inspectors spread magnetic particles over the surface.
The particles will be drawn to the secondary field, gathering around it and making it
visible to the naked eye. The particles inspectors use are typically either black or
coated with some kind of fluorescent dye to make them easier to see. These particles
can be used in the form of powder or put into a liquid.
181
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing is the process of transmitting high-frequency

sound waves into a material in order to identify changes in the material’s properties.
• very short ultrasonic waves ranging from 0.1-15 MHz up to 50 MHz are
launched into materials to detect internal flaws
• tests the thickness of the test object
How to Conduct Ultrasonic Testing
In general, Ultrasonic Testing uses sound waves to detect defects or imperfections on

the surface of a material created. One of the most common Ultrasonic Testing
methods is the pulse echo. With this technique, inspectors introduce sounds into a
material and measure the echos (or sound reflections) produced by imperfections on
the surface of the material as they are returned to a receiver.
X-Ray Methods of Radiography
Radiography Non-Destructive Testing is the act of using gamma- or X-

radiation on materials to identify imperfections.
How to Conduct Radiography NDT Testing
Radiography Testing directs radiation from a radioactive isotope or an X-ray

generator through the material being tested and onto a film or some other kind of
detector. The readings from the detector create a shadowgraph, which reveals the
underlying aspects of the inspected material. Radiography Testing can uncover
aspects of a material that can be hard to detect with the naked eye, such as alterations
to its density.
Acoustic Emission Testing (AE)
Acoustic Emission Non-Destructive Testing is the act of using acoustic

emissions to identify possible defects and imperfections in a material. Inspectors
conducting Acoustic Emission Tests are examining materials for bursts of acoustic
energy, also called acoustic emissions, which are caused by defects in the material.
Intensity, location, and arrival time can be examined to reveal information about
possible defects within the material.
Dye Penetrant Testing (PT)
Dye Penetrant Penetrant Non-Destructive Testing (also called Liquid

Penetrant Testing) refers to the process of using a liquid to coat a material and then
looking for breaks in the liquid to identify imperfections in the material.
182
How to Conduct Penetrant Testing
Inspectors conducting a Penetrant Test will first coat the material being tested
with a solution that contains a visible or fluorescent dye. Inspectors then remove any
extra solution from the material’s surface while leaving the solution in defects that
“break” the material’s surface. After this, inspectors use a developer to draw the
solution out of the defects, then use ultraviolet light to reveal imperfections (for
fluorescent dyes). For regular dyes, the color shows in the contrast between the
penetrant and the developer.
Leak Testing (LT)
Leak Non-Destructive Testing refers to the process of studying leaks in a

vessel or structure in order to identify defects in it. Inspectors can detect leaks within
a vessel using measurements taken with a pressure gauge, soap-bubble tests, or
electronic listening devices, among others.
183
184
Self – Assessment
Date: ________________________
1. Discuss the objective of a non-destructive test in inspecting a material.
2. Cite at least three non-destructive test method and explain its purpose/usage.
a.
b.
c.
185
186
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EMAT

3AE JORY S. TIANO

Engineering Materials provides underpinning knowledge and understanding,

CO1. Distinguish appropriate materials for the construction and

Student Name: ________________________________

2. Mechanical Properties and Fracture Mechanics 33 - 56

3. Thermal Conductivity of Materials 57 - 66

4. Ship's Iron and Steel 67 - 88

5. Heat Treatment Of Metal 89 - 104

6. Non-Ferrous Metals And Alloys 105 - 114

7. Plastics , Rubbers And Composites 115 - 137

8. Adhesives 138 - 147

9. Selecting Engineering Materials 148 - 169

10. Destructive Testing 170 - 177

11. Non-Destructive Testing 178 - 187

REFERENCES 188 - 189

Matter is made up of microscopic units called atoms. Chemical elements are

Metallurgy is defined as a process that is used for the extraction of metals in

1. It is the negatively charge component of an atom.

2. It is the negatively charge component of an atom.

3. What are the components of an atomic nucleus?

A. Electron and neutron

4. Which of the following describe a solid state of matter?

A. particles are tightly or closely packed

5. Which of the following best describes a tensile strength of a metal?

A. the ability of a solid material to deform under stress

Nature Of Fundamental Particles

A quark is a fast-moving point of energy. There are several varieties of quarks.

Each up quark has a charge of +2/3.

Protons contain two up quarks and one down quark.

Neutrons contains one up quark and two down quarks.

A compound is a substance consisting of two or more

Atoms are extremely small. The radius of a typical atom

This is an incandescent light bulb. Let's examine

Atomic nucleus consist of electrically positive protons and electrically

Protons and Neutrons

1. All matter is composed of atoms.

Depending on temperature, pressure and a substance’s properties, a

 In solids, particles are tightly or closely packed.

 In a liquid state of matter, particles are less tightly packed as compared to

 In gases, particles are far apart from each other.

 The rate is diffusion is higher than solids and liquids.

 Plasma is a not so generally seen form of matter. Plasma consists of particles

The Properties An Components Of Carbon And Its Effect On Metallurgy

Carbon steel is an iron-carbon alloy, which contains up to 2.1 wt.% carbon.

 Tensile strength, or the amount of load a material can withstand before

Types of carbon steel and their properties

Examples & Applications

As a result of their high strength, resistance to wear and toughness, medium-carbon

Crystal Structures Of Metallic And Non-Metallic Materials

Materials are made up of a wide variety of atomic structures. However, metals

One of the most common crystalline structures is face-centered cubic (FCC).

The body-centered cubic (BCC) crystalline structure is another abundant type

Many metals are comprised of the BCC crystalline structure. As previously

Hexagonal close-packed (HCP) is a crystalline structure that is somewhat

The HCP crystalline structure is found in several different

Structures of the Nonmetals

The structures of the nonmetals differ dramatically from those of metals.

Descriptions of the physical properties of three nonmetals that are

Carbon occurs in the uncombined (elemental) state in many forms, such as

Diamond, is a very hard crystalline material that is colorless and transparent

Graphite, is a soft, slippery, grayish-black solid that conducts electricity.

(a) Carbon atoms in graphite have unhybridized p orbitals. Each p orbital is

Recently, new forms of elemental carbon molecules have been identified in