THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TRANSPORTATION

INTRODUCTION
The potential environmental impacts of any transportation proposal should always be
examined and quantified where necessary. The National Environmental Statute 1995
provides the following, among others, as projects to be considered for an environmental
impact assessment (EIA):
1. General⎯
(a) an activity out of character with its surrounding;
(b) any structure of a scale not keeping with its surrounding;
(c) major changes in land use.
2. Urban Development including⎯
(a) designation of new township;
(b) establishment of industrial estates;
(c) establishment or expansion of recreational areas;
(d) establishment or expansion of recreational townships in mountain areas, national
parks and game reserves;
(e) shopping centres and complexes.
3. Transportation including⎯
(a) all major roads;
(b) all roads in scenic, wooden or mountainous areas;
(c) railway lines;
(d) pipelines;
(e) water transport.
Et cetera.
In evaluating the impacts on transportation projects, the following questions should be
asked:
(1) Is there a potential impact on the environment and is it positive or negative?
(2) How serious is such a change?
(3) What is its magnitude?
(4) How certain is the effect to occur?
(5) What further assessment is required?
An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) should consist of a systematic examination of
likely effects on the physical and social environment. It should be based on the 3-way
comparisons of:
(1) Existing baseline;
(2) Future without the proposed road; and
(3) Future with the proposed road.
The design of all transportation schemes should always include environmental impacts,
their political acceptability and success frequently depend on environmental
considerations.

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PRINCIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS FROM TRANSPORTATION
Table 1 lists the principal adverse environmental impacts from transportation schemes.
Table 1: The environmental effects of transportation

Vehicular impacts Noise

Vibration
Air pollution
Litter
Physical damage
Anxiety
Roadway impacts Visual intrusions and aesthetics
Severance
Land consumption/property demolition
Changes in land access and land values
Planning blight
Effects on wildlife, plants and on the aquatic ecosystem
Impacts on historic and cultural resources

NOISE
Noise is unwanted sound. Noise can interfere with speech communication, can disturb
sleep and relaxation and interfere with the ability to perform complex tasks. Research in
many countries has shown that traffic noise is one of the principal environmental
nuisances in urban areas. However, the number of complaints received by local
authorities about traffic noise is usually considerably less than those concerning industrial
noise or even noise from neighbours, probably because no one person or organisation is
seen as responsible for traffic noise and also because it seldom results in any long-term
damage.

Noise Criteria
Loudness, defined as an observer’s auditory impression of the strength of sound, is
determined by its magnitude (sound pressure level in decibels) and its pitch (frequency in
cycles per second). Traffic nose (and industrial noise) can be appropriately measured in
what is referred to as A-weighted decibel (dBA) units.

An increase of 2 or 3 dBA is just noticeable; an increase of 10 dBA approximates to a

doubling of loudness.

Decibel Addition
When dealing with decibels, the addition rules in Table 2 are applied.
Table 2: Rules of adding decibels

DIFFERENCE (dB) ADD TO HIGHER (dB)

0 or 1 3
2 or 3 2
4 to 9 1
10 or more 0

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Example
Add 80 dB + 77 dB.
Solution
The difference between 80 dB and 77 dB is given by 80 – 77 = 3 dB.
The rule from the table above dictates that we add 2 dB to the higher (80 dB).
Therefore 80 + 77 = 80 +2 = 82 dB.
The Environmental Legislation of Uganda, 2004 lists the maximum permissible noise
levels for accelerating vehicles as in Table 3.
Table 3: Maximum permissible levels for accelerating vehicles
MAXIMUM SOUND
VEHICLE CATEGORY
LEVEL (dBA)
1 Vehicle intended for carriage of passengers and equipped with not 78
more than nine seats including the driver’s seat
2 Vehicles intended for carriage of passengers, and equipped with not
more than nine seats, including the driver’s seat and having
maximum permissible mass of more than 3.5 tonnes⎯
a with an engine power of more than 150 KW 80
b with an engine power of less than 150 KW 83
3 Vehicles intended for carriage of passengers and equipment with
more than nine seats including the driver’s seat: vehicles intended for
carriage of goods⎯
a with a maximum permissible mass not exceeding 2 tonnes 79
b with a maximum permissible mass exceeding 2 tonnes but not 80
exceeding 3.5 tonnes
4 Vehicles intended for the carriage of goods and having a maximum
permissible mass exceeding 3.5 tonnes⎯
a with an engine power of less than 75 KW 81
b with an engine power of not less than 75 KW but less than 150 KW 83
c with an engine power of not less than 150 KW 84

Major Factors Affecting Traffic Noise

The noise generated by a stream of traffic depends on the following factors:
(a) traffic volume and speed;
(b) traffic composition (percentage of heavy commercial vehicles);
(c) road gradient;
(d) traffic flow conditions (free flowing or stop and go);
(e) road surface type irregularities.
Research has shown that for free-flowing traffic with at least 5% heavy vehicles, the
traffic noise level drops to a minimum average speed of 30 to 40 km/h irrespective of
traffic volume.
The noise level at the reception point is influenced by:
(a) the distance from the road to the reception point;
(b) the height of the reception point above the road;

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(c) the intervening ground surface conditions;
(d) obstructions (including noise barriers) between the road and the reception point; and
(e) the presence of nearby buildings, walls or ground surfaces which reflect noise.
The wind speed and direction will also influence the noise level but this is frequently
omitted from consideration.

Methods of Reducing Impact of Traffic Noise

In order to reduce traffic noise, the maximum noise levels emitted by vehicle engines
must be defined and enforced. However, the growth in vehicle numbers, especially, old
used vehicles from manufacturing countries, is likely to negate the benefits accrued from
any measures to be taken. In countries where the importation of used vehicles is
restricted, the problem only lies in the cumulative numbers of the new vehicles. In this
case, other measures are necessary, particularly in noise sensitive areas as near schools
and/or hospitals. One such method is the use of road surfacings (porous asphalt) which
can significantly reduce tyre noise. Table 4 summarises methods for reducing traffic
noise levels.
Frequently the only options available to reduce excessive noise are construction of
barriers or provision of building insulation. The maximum barrier reduction attainable
rarely exceeds 10 dBA (equivalent to half the loudness) and this usually requires long and
high barriers. The installation of double-glazed windows can reduce the external sound
level by 30 – 35 dBA. Higher levels of sound insulation (up to about 40 dBA) can be
achieved by comprehensive building insulation. However, the cost of such sound
insulation is very high.
Table 4: Methods for reducing the impact of traffic noise
Road planning Avoidance of noise sensitive areas
The creation of special environment areas
Road design Siting roads in cuttings and tunnels
Construction of noise barriers
Use of ‘quiet’ road surfacings
Traffic management Concentration of traffic on the principal road network
Restrictions on heavy vehicles
Smoothing of traffic flow and administration of stops
Building design Shielding of noise sensitive buildings (by intervening buildings).
Single aspect housing.
Dwelling insulation.

TRAFFIC INDUCED VIBRATIONS IN BUILDINGS

Vibrations from passing traffic are a common concern of environmental nuisance,
particularly those living beside main roads. Traffic induced vibrations may be airborne or
groundborne and are almost entirely associated with heavy vehicles.

Airborne Vibrations
Airborne vibrations are caused by lower frequency sound (50 – 100 Hz) produced by
large vehicle engines and exhausts. The resonant frequencies of rooms may be excited by
acoustic coupling through windows and doors. This produces annoying rattling of doors,
windows and small objects in the front rooms of buildings. At the most exposed locations
acoustically induced floor vibrations can become perceptible. The presence of such
airborne vibrations can be deteced by noting whether the front room windows and doors
rattle a heavy vehicle passes.

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Groundborne Vibrations
Groundborne vibrations are caused by varying forces between the tyres of heavy vehicles
and road surfaces which result from irregularities in the road surface. They can become
perceptible in buildins located within a few metres of the carriageway when heavy
vehicles pass over irregularities of the order of 20 mm in the road surface.
Groundborne vibrations are of lower frequency than airborne vibrations (8 – 20 Hz) and
enter buildings through foundations. Both compression and shear waves are produced in
the ground which can result in sturctural damage to poorly maintained buildings.
Consequently, groundborne vibrations are potentially more serious than airborne
vibrations. Their presence can be felt as short duration impulsive vibrations, particularly
in the middle of upper floors of buildings. However, there is no evidence to support the
assertion that traffic vibrations can cause significant damage to buildings although severe
nuisance to occupants can occur.
The presence and magnitude of groundborne vibrations depen on the characteristics of
passing heavy vehicles (axle load, suspension design, speed), the road surface and the
intervening ground.

Vibration Measurement and Thresholds

Vibration measurements involve the use of accelerometers, velociy picup and laser
systems. They are usually expressed in terms of the peak particle velocity (ppv). The
following threshold values are recommended:
Perception 0.5 mm/s
Annoyance 1 mm/s
Structural damage 10 mm/s
A structural value of 5 mm/s for structural response is often associated with road traffic or
construction vibration.

Methods of Reducing Impact of Vibrations

The action required depends on the type of vibration. The installation of better windows
might be the best remedy for reducing airborne vibrations since it is seldom practical to
ban heavy vehicles. Infact some roads (eg. the Kampala Northern Bypass, Mbarara
Northern Bypass, Jinja Bypass and ring roads in major cities) are specifically designed
and built for purposes of diverting heavy vehicles and other transiting traffic from the
Central Business District (CBD).
Groundborne vibrations do not normally arise of road surfaces and buildings are
maintained to a reasonable standard – the removal of existing road surface irregularities
may eliminate them. Speed and weight restrictions on heavy vehicles can also be useful.
The isolation of buildings by resilient mounts or filled trenches is expensive and would
normally only be considered for the preservation of historic buildings in poor structural
condition.

The Assessment of Noise and Vibration Impacts

• Identify roads with predicted traffic volume changes of 50% (percentile noise
change).
• Collect information on noise and vibration complaints.
• Identify buildings/areas especially sensitive to noise or vibration.
• Mark sensitive locations on a map.

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• Estimate the number of houses subject to traffic volume changes > 50% within 50 m,
100 m, 200 m and 300 m bands from the centrelines of each road involved.
• Assess the number of properties with increases and decreases of 1-2 dBA, 3-5 dBA, 5-
10 dBA and > 15 dBA in each of the following ambient noise level bands: <50 dBA,
50-65 dBA, 66-70 dBA and >70 dBA.
• Note any traffic induced vibration impacts.

AIR POLLUTION FROM VEHICLES

The major sources of atmospheric pollution caused by motor vehicles (75%) are from the
exhaust gases. With increasing vehicle numbers, vehicle pollution is causing serious
concern especially in urban areas. In Kampala alone there are more than 100,000 vehicles
on the roads and most of them are old used vehicles imported ‘as is’ into the country.
Vehicle emissions give out high proportions of the total amount of carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, lead and small particulate matter in the atmosphere. Table 5 indicates the
relative contributions to each pollutant (to air pollution) from road traffic in urban areas.

Table 5: Urban air pollution traffic contribution

TRAFFIC
POLLUTANT COMMENTS
CONTRIBUTION
Carbon Monoxide 75 – 85% Suspected link with asthma
Nitrogen dioxide 40 – 47% Suspected link with asthma
Benzene Almost all (94%) Proven carcinogen
Particulates (soot) 10 – 50% from road vehicles Proven carcinogen
PM-10 (particles with diameter Virtually all Estimated that many people die
less than 10 microns each year as a result
Ozone Almost entirely vehicle Suspected link with asthma
related Eye irritation
Lead Almost 100% Affects intelligence of children
Note that lead is taken up in biological chains and is a proven cause of behavioural
problems in children. Therefore there is need to institute a policy of reducing the amount
of lead in petrol engines (there is no lead in diesel fuel).
Nitric Oxide and Sulphur Oxides contribute to acid rain. Under conditions of bright
sunlight and still air, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides can combine to form secondary
products such as Ozone or photochemical smog which causes eye irritation, is injurious to
plants and is almost entirely caused by motor vehicles.
There is considerable circumstantial evidence connecting the soiling of buildings and
diesel particulate emissions. However, tiny particles having a diameter of 10 microns or
less (PM-10) in vehicle exhausts which can easily enter our respiratory systems are
particularly worrying; it has been estimated that many people die each year as a result.

Vehicle Air Pollution Prediction

A number of computer based models are available for the prediction of vehicular air
pollution. The input parameters are typically the traffic volume, the mean speed, the road
layout and the prevailing meteorological conditions 9wind direction and velocity,
temperature, amount of sunlight).

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The level of carbon monoxide is a good indicator of an air pollution problem.

In predicting the likely air pollution from a proposed major transportation scheme, a
worst-case scenario, with the wind blowing from the road during the one-hour period of
maximum daily traffic flow, is frequently assumes. Predictions are made for the likely
levels of each traffic related air pollution for each pollutant.

Methods of Reducing Impact of Vehicular Air Pollution

The reduction of vehicular air pollution depends primarily on reducing the pollution from
individual vehicles. Other methods for reducing vehicular air pollution include:
• the improvement of vehicular flow conditions – vehicle emissions are almost totally
associated with decelerating, idling and accelerating vehicles (aggressive acceleration
being a significant contributing factor);
• better engine maintenance – estimated to reduce pollution from current petrol engines
by one third;
• the planting of trees and shrubs; and
• the restriction of traffic from highly polluted areas such as city centres.
Air quality requirements may eventually require controls of car use throughout our urban
centres.

PHYSICAL DAMAGE
Heavy vehicles cause physical damage not only to the road pavement itself but also to the
roadside objects such as signs, footpaths and geteposts. This is more pronounced on
narrow roads. Cars and heavy vehicles splash pedestrians in wet weather. Adequate road
maintenance and design, heavy vehicle entry restrictions (e.g. restriction at the Kyambogo
T-junction) and enforcement are some of the best remedies.

ANXIETY
Anxiety or the feeling of not being safe are strongly associated with heavy vehicles and
with high speeds. Older people are particularly affected as are parrents who worry about
their children’s safety on the roads. Parents of young children who cycle are especially
worried.
An allied impact environmental impact is the disturbance of social life by being unable to
talk on the footpath because of passing traffic (have you found yourself shouting to a
colleague?). The implementation of traffic calming methods such as speed control and
heavy vehicle restrictions can reduce these vehicular impacts. Generally, a detailed local
study will be necessary in order to determine the necessity traffic calming and to identify
appropriate measures.

VISUAL INTRUSION AND AESTHETICS

These are mainly associated with the construction of major new roads rather than with
traffic management schemes. The most significant visual impacts include the following:
• Scenic incompatibility;
• Obscuring of existing views;
• The creation of gaps in the urban fabric;
• Loss of sunlight;
• Loss of privacy.

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The last two are particularly significant in situations where roads are built at levels higher
than the houses.
Depending on the viewpoint of the observer, these impacts may vary. The impact on the
adjacent property occupiers is usually considered the most significant.
Large articulated vehicles passing in front of residences and overnight lorry parking are
common forms of visual obstructions, particularly in urban areas. Street furniture
associated with traffic management such as regulatory and directional signs, traffic
signals, parking meters (they used to be many on Kampala streets, such as Diamond Trust
building) etc and road markings (e.g. thick double yellow or white lines) frequently cause
visual intrusion and may be inappropriate in certain areas.
Visual obstruction (blocking of a view), loss of sunlight, loss of privacy, etc., is usually
presented in qualitative terms (e.g. the number of properties with severe or moderate
visual obstruction). Computer graphics permit the view of a proposed road or bridge to
be viewed from any location (compare Virtual VIS Vs LUSAS).

SEVERANCE
Severance occurs when a new development forms either a physical or a
psychological/social boundary between different areas. It is primarily associated with
large transportation schemes such as motorways but can also result from increased speeds
or traffic volumes on existing roads.
Apart from those whose lands or properties are directly affected, severance can have a
major impact on communities, for example the separation of residents from facilities and
services, from their place of employment or from friends and relatives (there are several
examples on the Kampala Northern Bypass such as the permanent severing of vehicle
accesses: (1) from Kamuli – Naalya, (2) Kamuli – Ntebetebe, etc resulting in heavy traffic
buildups along the bypass itself and the remaining roads). Pedestrians in built up areas
are most affected. In urban areas particular attention is focused on the facilities used by
vulnerable groups in society; resulting in pedestrian delays, trip diversion and trip
suppression.
The factors giving rise to and determining potential for severance from road proposals
include:
• Facilities to which access is inhibited;
• Catchment areas for those facilities;
• Numbers and types of persons affected;
• Levels of traffic causing the severance;
• Extent of mitigation of road crossing difficulties.

CHANGES IN LAND ACCESS

Transportation proposals may result in either increased or decreased access to adjacent
properties. Normally increased access occurs which may stimulate development and lead
to increased land values. However, some businesses and residences may suffer from
increased levels of passing traffic or parking restrictions (author being victim on the
Kampala Northern Bypass).
Decreased access can cause problems for emergency and service vehicles. The severity
of these impacts should be examined by observing the routeways used.

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IMPACT IDENTIFICATION
A checklist such as Table 6 can be useful to ensure that all relevant impacts are identified.
Table 6: Typical checklist of impacts for transportation schemes
IMPACT GROUP IMPACTS
Road users Drive comfort and convenience
View from the road
Physical environment Landscape
Infrastructure
Air quality
Nature conservation
Social environment Commercial severance
Employment
Aesthetics (visual intrusion)
Culture and heritage
Occupiers of property Demolition
Severance
Noise
Visual obstruction

Note that some of impacts in Table 6 are difficult to assess in quantitative terms.

Sample Questions
1. Describe the transportation projects that must be considered for an environmental
impact assessment in Uganda in accordance with National Environmental Statute
1995.
2. Describe in detail the environmental impacts to be assessed for a proposed new road
through an urban setting with features such as Kabale (including wetlands, built up
areas, etc). Propose possible mitigation measures for the impacts you have identified.

3. Describe an environmental impact assessment you would carry out for a rural road
crossing a major highway and passing close to a major hospital.

4. Describe the environmental effects of transportation under the following headings:

(a) Vehicular impacts; and
(b) Roadway impacts.

Typical contents of an environmental impact assessment report for proposed major

road is given on the next page.

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TYPICAL CONTENTS OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
REPORT FOR A PROPOSED MAJOR ROAD

▪ A summary of the proposed road development and the principal environmental

impacts.
• Justification of the need for project;
• Road plans;
• Traffic and travel time savings;
• An evaluation of the accident potential;
• Economic evaluation

▪ The implications for the land use and development plans for the affected areas.

▪ General project description and a description of the alternatives considered

(alternative transport modes and alternative road routes). For example, three
alignments may be given and one chosen with justification. (How many alignments
were considered for the (1) Kampala Northern Bypass; and (2) Mbarara Northern
Bypass? What were the reasons for choosing the alignments that were followed? How
many alignments are being considered for the Rwakaraaba – Lake Bunyonyi Road in
Kabale?)

▪ A baseline survey of the existing environment

▪ Assessment of significant environmental effects and proposed mitigation measures.

• Human beings: – Road users: driver comfort and convenience, view from the road;
Community impact (Occupiers of property): demolition, severance, noise and
vibration;
• Flora and fauna and habitats: areas of scientific interest. Trees;
• Soil;
• Water: road drainage system. Water quality of the watercourses. Quality of
runoff. Effects on groundwater. Impact of accidental spillages;
• Air;
• Climate (microclimate effects);
• Landscape: visual intrusion. Visual obstruction. Impact on high amenity areas.
Views from the road.
• Material assets: agriculture. Property. Economic impact.
• Cultural heritage: archaeology. Buildings of architectural, artistic or historical
interest. Culture and heritage aspects. Schools, shopping centres and community
centres;
• Impacts during construction.

▪ The financial implications.

▪ A synoptic table summarising the individual impacts and costs of each of the
alternatives considered.

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