Unravelling the Complex Mandala of

Tantric Sewu

Dr Uday Dokras Phd B.Sc., B.A. (managerial

economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN

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 I N T R O D U C T I O N

Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers to the traditions of Esoteric

Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the 7th century along the
maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra as well as
in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were spread by pilgrims and Tantric masters who received
royal patronage from royal dynasties like the Sailendras and the Srivijaya. This tradition was
also linked by the maritime trade routes with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism
in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China and Japan, to the extent that it is hard to
separate them completely and it is better to speak of a complex of "Esoteric Buddhism of
Mediaeval Maritime Asia." Many key Indian port cities saw the growth of Esoteric
Buddhism, a tradition which coexisted alongside Shaivism. The diffusion of Esoteric
Buddhism in the region began with the arrival of Indian Buddhist monks in the 7th century.
These include the central Indian Atikuta (fl. 650s), the Chinese Punyodaya (fl 650s), Yijing
(635-713), the South Indian Dharmaruci/Bodhiruci (d. 727),
Nagabodhi, Vajrabodhi and Bianhong (the 8th-century teacher of Kukai). The Chinese
Buddhist monk Yijing reports that in the 7th century, there was a Buddhist center in Java
named Kalinga (Heling) to which Chinese monks traveled to study.

Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism in the region, with
monumental architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The capital of the Buddhist
empire of Srivijaya in Palembang, Sumatra was another major center.Another source of this
Indonesian Tantric tradition was Sri Lanka's Abhayagiri vihāra, a well-known center of
Vajrayana study and practice, which even established a branch monastery in Central Java in
the 8th century with Sailendra patronage.

A stronghold of Esoteric Buddhism, the empire of Srivijaya (650 CE–1377 CE) patronized
Buddhist monks and institutions and thus attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of
Asia. These included the Chinese monk Yijing, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra
on his way to study at Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695, and the Bengali Buddhist
scholar Atisha (982-1054 CE) who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana
Buddhism in Tibet. Yijing praised the high level of Buddhist scholarship in Srivijaya and
advised Chinese monks to study there before making the journey to the great institution of
learning, Nalanda Vihara, India. He wrote:

In the fortified city of Bhoga, Buddhist priests number more than 1,000, whose minds are
bent on learning and good practice. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just
as in India; the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to
the West in order to hear and read the original scriptures, he had better stay here one or two
years and practice the proper rules
Yijing was also responsible for the translation of a large number of Buddhist scriptures from
Sanskrit into Chinese. He translated more than 60 sutras into Chinese such as the Golden
Light Sutra. The Account of Buddhism sent from the South Seas & Buddhist Monks
Pilgrimage of Tang Dynasty are two of Yi Jing's best travel diaries, describing his
adventurous journey to Srivijaya and India, the society of India and the lifestyles of various
local peoples.

In Java, the 8th century Shailendra dynasty promoted large-scale Buddhist building projects
such as Borobudur. Later central Javanese bronze and silver Buddhist images show Tantric
themes such as mandalas and the Five Tathagatas.

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In the 13th century Buddhism thrived in Eastern Java, the Singhasari kingdom of
King Kertanegara of Singhasari patronized Vajrayana. Buddhism continued to thrive under
the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire (1293–1527). Their capital Trowulan had many
annual festivities for Buddhism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism. Some of their kings were
Vajrayana practitioners, such as King Adityawarman (1347–79) whose inscriptions state he
was "always concentrated on Hevajra".A feature of Javanese Buddhism was the deification
and worship of kings as Buddhas or Bodhisattvas. Important Buddhist deities included
Prajnaparamita, Tara, Bhairava and Lokesvara.

The fall of Majapahit and the rise of Muslim states such as the Sultanate of Malacca saw the
decline of Buddhism in the region. Many escaped to the island of Bali after the end of
Majapahit rule fleeing persecution, where Buddhism was merged into Balinese Hinduism.
This process of merging Buddhism and Hinduism predated the fall of the Majapahit however,
and many textual sources from the later Hindu-Buddhist kingdom state that Hinduism and
Buddhism are both two paths to the same reality and also equate the five Buddhas with five
forms of Shiva. Likewise, some Majapahit temples depict both Buddhist and Shaiva
elements.

Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia; the
most common of which is the stone Candi which shows Indic influences as has been
interpreted as a symbol of Mount Meru.The Sailendras built many Buddhist structures in
Java, including the massive stupa of Borobodur, as well as Candi Sukuh,
Candi Mendut, Candi Kalasan and Candi Sewu. The Srivijayans also built Buddhist temple
complexes in Sumatra, such as Muara Takus and Bahal temple and also in the Malay
Peninsula, such as in their regional capital at Chaiya. Majapahit also built Candis, such
as Jabung, and Penataran.Other architecture types include punden, small terraced sanctuaries
built on mountains and pertapaan, hermitages built on mountain slopes. The decline of
Buddhist states and the rise of Islamic states in the region during the 13th–16th centuries saw
the steep decline of this tradition.

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Mandala of Hindu Buddhist Temple Design

The world famous Javanese temple of Borobudur is located at the western most end of a
straight line which includes two satellite temples, Mendut and Pawon. Originally, the three
buildings were probably connected by a processional path running along this line. It is known
that the alignment points, at the horizon, where the sun sets in the days of the zenith
passageshad a likely orientation and intentional and related to a ritual procession which
connected the three temples, mimicking the path of the sun in the sky. 1 Further Lokesh
Chandra, in his study Chandi Mendut and Pawon: A new interpretation, observed that the
Chandi Mendut and Pawon belong to the system of carya-tantras. The prevalence of the
carya-tantras in Indonesia is proved by the San Hyan Kamahayanan Mantranaya (SHKM),
which is a tantric text from Indonesia including 42 Sanskrit verses, each verse followed by an
Old Javanese commentary.2
Caryā Tantras ( Carya means Performance, or Conduct) are meant for practitioners of
middle ability. According to Tsongkhapa, it is for "those who balance external activities and
internal meditative stabilization without relying on very many activities." The kind of desire
it uses is the weakest kind, comparable to a couple looking at each other. They are also
known as Upa tantra, or Ubhaya tantra.
Although these tantras maintain numerous external ritual actions, the emphasis is now upon
obtaining liberation through meditation. It is thus seen as maintaining a balance between
inner and outer actions. It is externally similar to Kriyā tantra, and internally similar to Yoga
tantra.
The main elements of Conduct tantra are:
To practice and train thoroughly in a vast range of deeds related to activations, which are sets
of outer (physical and verbal) [actions] such as mudras and other characteristic focuses as
taught in action tantra, and thus [to have] objects of practice that accord with that tantra; to
cultivate inner (mental) contemplation that accords with yogatantra and to practice [deity
yoga] in what is like a friend-to-friend relation-ship with the deity. Conduct tantra is known
to have five initiations: water, diadem, vajra, bell, and name. In this class of
tantras, Vairochana is a principal deity.
The presence of Buddha Vairocana is often evident in tantras of this class where he is often
depicted in the centre of a mandala with four other Buddhas of his retinue placed to the four
quarters, the cardinal directions. Importantly, during the Caryā tantra class and literary
period, there developed the salient innovation wherein the sadhaka is to cultivate
identification with the deity in meditative absorption (known as "self generation"). This class
of literature was also important to Chinese Zhenyan Buddhism and tantric masters such
as Śubhakarasiṃha (637-735), Vajrabodhi (671–741) and Amoghavajra (705–774). In
Tibetan Buddhism, this tantra class includes practice lineages for
the Mahãvairocanãbhisaṃbodhitantra ('Awakening of Great Vairocana'), for
the Vajrapãṇyabhiṣekamahãtantra (Vajrapāṇi Initiation Tantra) and for Manjushri.

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1
Archaeoastronomy of the Sun path at Borobudur,Giulio Magli, 2017
2. CHANDI MENDUT AND PAWON: A NEW INTERPRETATION, LOKESH CHANDRA
Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Deel 136, 2/3de Afl. (1980), pp. 313-320 (8 pages)

Guarisco, Elio (trans.); McLeod, Ingrid (trans., editor); Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Taye, Kon-
Sprul Blo-Gros-Mtha-Yas (compiler) (2005). The Treasury of Knowledge: Book Six, Part
Four: Systems of Buddhist Tantra. Ithaca, New York, USA: Snow Lion
Publications. ISBN 1-55939-210-X explain Jamgon Kongtrul's codification of this class as
follows:

Conduct tantra, where conduct encompasses both outer ritual activity and inner
contemplation, involves training in a vast range of deeds while entering the inner reality that
presents itself in visual and audible divine representations. The notion here is that of being
close to the state of a perfect divine being, a state not yet fully realized. This limited view is
overcome by visualizing oneself as the deity, understanding that form to be the appearance
aspect of emptiness.
In Caryā yoga, the yogi visualizes themselves as the 'commitment being'
(Sanskrit: samayasattva) and visualizes the 'gnosis being' (jñānasattva), who is envisioned in
the relationship of a spiritual friend, in front of them. Various "meditations with signs" are
part of this practice including: bija (seed syllable) and mandala visualization, mudra (hand
seals), repetition of mantras, etc. as found in Action tantra. Conduct yoga also includes a
special "yoga without signs", described by Kongtrul as follows:
The special yoga without signs is cultivated in conjunction with three minds: the minds of
entering, abiding, and emerging, the essence of which is the ultimate awakening mind itself.
The mind of entering is the realization of the unborn nature of all phenomena (the aggregates,
etc.) gained by examining them in terms of the four extremes; the mind of abiding, the direct
realization of the unborn nature as the essence of the nonconceptual state; and the mind of
emerging, the ensuing great compassion directed to-ward suffering beings who lack such
realization.
The role of royal patronage and religious institution
The Borobudur monument combines the symbolic forms of the stupa (a Buddhist
commemorative mound usually containing holy relics), the temple mountain (based
on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and the mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol of the
universe, combining the square as earth and the circle as heaven). The style of Borobudur
was influenced by Indian Gupta and post-Gupta art.In all the regions of Southeast Asia, the
arts flourished under the patronage of the kings. About the time of the birth of Christ, tribal
groups gradually organized themselves, after some years of settled life as rice cultivators, into
city-kingdoms, or conglomerations of villages. A king was thus little more than a paramount
tribal chieftain. Since the tribes had been accustomed to worshiping local spirits, the kings
sought a new spirit that would be worshiped by the whole community.

One reason that the gods of Hinduism and Buddhism were so readily acceptable to Southeast
Asia was this need for new national gods. The propagation of the new religions was the task
of the kings, and consequently the period from the 1st to the 13th century was a great age of
temple building all over Southeast Asia.

Architecture, sculpture, and painting on the temple walls were the arts that flourished. In the
ancient empires of eastern Indochina and the islands, scholars of Sanskrit, the language of the
sacred works of Hinduism, became part of the king’s court, producing a local Sanskrit

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literature of their own. This literary activity was confined to the hereditary nobility and never
reached the people, except in stories from the great Hindu
epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. Because the Hindu religious writings in Sanskrit were
beyond the reach of the common people, Hinduism had to be explained to them by Hindu
stories of gods and demons and mighty men. On the other side of the peninsula, in the Pyu-
Burmese empire of Prome, which flourished before the 8th century, there was no such
development—first, because Hinduism was never widely accepted in Burma and, second,
because the more open Burmese society developed neither the institution of a god-king nor
that of a hereditary nobility. Although Pali scholars surrounded the king in later Pagan, Pali
studies were pursued not at the court but at monasteries throughout the kingdom so that even
the humblest villager had some faint contact with Pali teachings. While the courts of the
kings in Cambodia and Java remained merely local centres of Sanskrit
scholarship, Pagan became a centre of Pali learning for Buddhist monks and scholars even
from other lands. As in the case of stories from the Indian epics, stories of the Jatakas (birth
stories of the Buddha) were used to explain Buddhism to the common people, who could not
read the scriptures written in Pali. Just as scenes from the great epics in carving or in fresco
adorned the temples in Cambodia and Java, scenes from the Jatakas adorned the Pagan
temples.
.

The patronage of the king and the religious enthusiasm of the common people could not have
produced the great temples without the enormous wealth that suddenly became available in
the region following the commercial expansion. With the Khmer and Javanese empires, the
wealth was produced by a feudalistic society, and so the temples were built by the riches of
the king and his nobles, combined with the compulsory labour of their peasants and slaves,
who probably derived some aesthetic pleasure from their work because of their religious
fervour. Nonetheless, their monuments, such as Borobudur, in Java, and Angkor Wat, in
Cambodia, had an atmosphere of massive, all-conquering power. At Pagan, where wealth was
shared by the king, the royal officials, and the common people, the temples and the
monasteries were built by all who had enough not only to pay the artisans their wages but
also to guarantee their good health, comfort, and safety during the actual construction. The
temples were dedicated for use by all monks and lay people as places of worship, meditation,
and study, and the kings of Pagan did not build a single tomb for themselves. The Khmer

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temple of Angkor Wat and the Indonesian temple of Borobudur were tombs in that the ashes
of the builders would be enshrined therein; the kings left stone statues representing them as
gods for posterity to worship, whereas at Pagan there was only one statue of a king, and it
depicted him on his knees with his hands raised in supplication to the Buddha. Consequently,
the atmosphere that pervaded the temples of Pagan was one of joy and tranquillity.

The mandala is likened by some to a "floor plan of the universe." The type most familiar in
the West is an intricately patterned painting on cloth or paper that often takes the general
form of a circle within a square.

The word "mandala" comes from the Sanskrit verbal root "mand" (meaning to mark off,
decorate, set off) and the Sanskrit suffix "la" (meaning circle, essence, sacred center).
The mandala's symbolic power can be traced back to millennia-old roots in Indian temple
architecture, which created sacred spaces linking the worshiper to the larger cosmos. In these
temples, time and space were represented in a vocabulary of circles and squares. Similarly, a
mandala helps believers visualize the universe and their place in it, often in relation to a
specific deity found in the center of the image.

The evolution of the symbol has happened throughout Asia under the influence of various
religious and artistic traditions over a period of several thousand years-some complex; others
quite simple offerering proof of the continuing vitality of the mandala and its role in Buddhist
devotions. The mandala is of significant importance in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Both
religions adopt the mandala as a peaceful and creative symbol. Hence, the speculative project
finds a balance to build a memorial, which will signify peace and harmony of the Tamil
community. The scale of the mandala here is monumental imposing the idea of spirituality
and peace. Contemplating the mandala does not only provide insight into reality, the Cosmos
but also communion with it.

Mandala is the mystery that pervades all existence. Mandala alleviates suffering individually
as well as in society. Contemplation can help overcome antagonism, conflict, stress and even
war. Bindu as a symbolism is the beginning of the process that culminates into a mandala.
In Buddhism, the mandala is a ritual instrument, much like a mantra, used to assist meditation
and concentration. Throughout history, these pictorial temples--intricate, two-dimensional,
multi-colored patterns of concentric circles, squares, and other shapes--have signified the
human need for wholeness, order, and balance. But while many people of the West accept
mandalas as representative of a cosmic force, few understand they are meant to be blueprints
as well. Indeed, a Tantric Buddhist meditator studies a two-dimensional mandala like an
architect, building up in his mind the image of a palace encompassing the sacred principles of
Buddhist philosophy.

MANDALA AND BUDDHIST TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

The mandala in Buddhism is a cosmic model depicting Buddha’s dwelling place as the center
of the universe. Like in the Hindu temples, the structuring of the Buddhist temples has also
been predominantly based on the spiritual model of the mandala. Illustrations can be seen
both in the form of two-dimensional mandalas as well as three-dimensional mandalas. The
two-dimensional mandalas which are drawings composed of squares and concentric circles
could be temporarily painted on various material or drawn on the ground or sand or other
natural substances using coloured powder. Customs involving ceremonious gatherings along
with prayers and chantings while drawing the mandalas are believed to alleviate difficulties

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and be of greater good to an individual or a community. These ceremonies could even last up
to a number of days.

Three-dimensionally, the mandala diagram becomes a visual model of the built environment.
In the Buddhist worship place, the central space is significant having a statue of the Buddha
fronted by a worshipping space surrounded by walls. This is encircled by a circumambulating
space. The circumambulation pathway is a space of psychological awakening before reaching
the spiritual pinnacle

MANDALA AND HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Although there have been various arguments by authors of Indian temple architecture like
Stella Kramrisch and Michael W. Meister about the applicability of the Vastu Purusha
Mandala as a governing device for temple architecture, it is safe to say that for formulating
the layout of the temple, the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been an imperative tool. Though the
8 x 8 grid or the Manduka Vastu Mandala has been used in various temples of Indian
architecture, it is to be noted that regional differences have played a major influence on the
workability of the mandala design throughout India.

Customarily, mandalas were spaces for the symbolic consciousness of universal theories
which help in the awakening of the individual psyche. The mandalas can be thought of as
diagrams that function as a cue to reach a contemplational state which is the primary aim of
the tradition. The form of the temples that are based on the regulating lines of the mandala
were meant to create spaces that bring about a “physical and spatial” communion between
God and man.

A mandala (emphasis on first syllable; Sanskrit मण्डल, maṇḍala – literally "circle") is a

geometric configuration of symbols with a very different application. In various spiritual
traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a
spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid
to meditation and trance induction. It is used as a map (in Shintoism) in the Indian
religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism or Japanese religion of Shintoism representing
deities, or in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines.
In New Age, the mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents
the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe, but it
originally meant to represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life
itself, a cosmic diagram that shows the relation to the infinite and the world that extends
beyond and within minds and bodies. The basic form of hinduism mandalas is a square with
four gates containing a circle with a center point and it is called also a yantra. Each gate is in
the general shape of a T. Mandalas often have radial balance.

A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It
may be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or
meditative rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent
the abode of the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the
practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar,
"Yantras function as revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the
spiritual aspect of human experience."

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Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not
representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes:
Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Because of the relationship that exists
in the Tantras between the outer world (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the
microcosm), every symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outer synthesis, and
is associated with the subtle body and aspects of human consciousness.

Political meaning
The Rajamandala (or Raja-mandala; circle of states) was formulated by
the Indian author Kautilya in his work on politics, the Arthashastra (written between 4th
century BCE and 2nd century BCE). It describes circles of friendly and enemy states
surrounding the king's state.

In historical, social and political sense, the term "mandala" is also employed to denote
traditional Southeast Asian political formations (such as federation of kingdoms or vassalized
states). It was adopted by 20th century Western historians from ancient Indian political
discourse as a means of avoiding the term 'state' in the conventional sense. Not only did
Southeast Asian polities not conform to Chinese and European views of a territorially defined
state with fixed borders and a bureaucratic apparatus, but they diverged considerably in the
opposite direction: the polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it could
be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative
integration.

Mount Meru
A mandala can also represent the entire universe, which is traditionally depicted with Mount
Meru as the axis mundi in the center, surrounded by the continents.

Wisdom and impermanence

In the mandala, the outer circle of fire usually symbolises wisdom. The ring of eight charnel
grounds represents the Buddhist exhortation to be always mindful of death, and the
impermanence with which samsara is suffused: "such locations were utilized in order to
confront and to realize the transient nature of life". Described elsewhere: "within a flaming
rainbow nimbus and encircled by a black ring of dorjes, the major outer ring depicts the eight
great charnel grounds, to emphasize the dangerous nature of human life". Inside these rings
lie the walls of the mandala palace itself, specifically a place populated by deities
and Buddhas.
Taking the example of the Borobudur which I may say is the sister structure of Prambanan
built 1,198 years ago in 750 AD.Whereas the Prambanan was built in 850 AD
Both were started by one kings and finished by another.

Mandala means sphere, and the text is known as Mandala-brahmana Upanishad because the
Purusha in the sphere of the Sun (Narayana) gave this knowledge to Yagnavalakya.
Mandala-brahmana Upanishad (Sanskrit: मण्डलब्राह्मण उपनिषत्), also known
as Mandalabrahmanopanisad, is one of the minor Upanishads of Hinduism and a Sanskrit
text. It is attached to the Shukla Yajurveda and is classified as one of the 20 Yoga
Upanishads. The text describes Yoga as a means to self-knowledge, the highest wisdom Its
text is structured as a teaching from Narayana (Purusha in Sun, Vishnu) to sage Yajnavalkya.
The text is notable for teaching eight step Yoga but with somewhat different conceptual
framework than most other texts. The teachings of the text combine different types of Yoga
with non-dual Vedanta philosophy.

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The date and author of this text is unknown. Some date this and other Yoga Upanishads, to
be probably from early 1st-millennium CE but Raman states that it is probably a late
Upanishad, composed after the 10th-century, because parts of it reflects Hatha Yoga
traditions. Other scholars state that the composition date of the text is uncertain, and place it
as a Hatha yoga or Raja yoga text.
.Many Hindu and Buddhist temples built in the 8th to 10th centuries are found in the
Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia, including Prambanan and Sambisari temples. Based on
petrographic and geochemical observations, both temples are built using basaltic to andesitic
lavas and pumice breccias. The rock types are relatively similar to those the basaltic to
andesitic lavas around the Quaternary age Merapi volcano, and the pumice breccia of the
Tertiary age Semilir Formation in the Piyungan area situated at the south of the Prambanan
temple. Selected rocks samples were analized using petrographic and X-ray fluorescence
methods to identify minerals, textures and geochemical characteristics. Petrographic
observations show that the rocks used to build Prambanan temple are hornblende-pyroxene
andesite and pyroxene basalts, while the rocks of Sambisari temple consist of
hornblendepyroxene andesites and pumice breccias. Hornblende-pyroxene andesite is
generally gray, showing porphyritic texture, 1-3 mm crystal size; phenocrysts are composed
by plagioclase, hornblende, pyroxene, and opaque minerals set in groundmass of plagioclase
microcrysts and volcanic glass. Pumice breccia, showing a light gray colour, moderate
sorting, fragments, consist of andesite and pumice clasts in size range 2-6 cm, embedded in
sandy to clay matrix. Most of the rocks are generally weathered or oxidized, which is
reflected by the presence of secondary iron oxide. This is probably most of the basaltic to
andesitic lavas used had a high vesicular texture, and that Yogyakarta has a tropical climate.
Rock types characteristics of Prambanan and Sambisari Temples, Yogyakarta Province,
Indonesia, author Sutarto,from IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 212
(2018) 012048

BOROBUDUR, THE ARCHITECTURAL MANDALA.

In Buddhism, the mandala represents a landscape of the universe with Buddha in its center,
and shows the different steps in the process of finding the truth.Borobudur was built on a hill,
following the layout of a giant mandala, representing the Buddhist cosmology. It consists of
nine platforms divided into three.sections:

1.The upper three are circular platforms, called Arupadhatu, and have a slightly curved oval
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shape consisting of two minor axes aligned with the cardinal points and two major axes
aligned with the intermediate directions.
2. The six lower platforms are square, called Rupadhatu,
3. Kamadhatu. a structure in the base was discovered in 1885.
4. The lower platform probably also had a structural function to prevent the collapse of the
structure. It was added after the temple was finished, as it can be seen in one of the corners,
where the older reliefs have been exposed.

Stone
King's or inscription and
Constru
Date ruler's source of Event
cted
name historical
account
The Shaivist old Malay-speaking
Sojomerto family began to settle in coastal
c. 650 Santanu inscription (c. 670– Central Java, suggested of Sumatran
700) origin (?) or native Javanese family
under Srivijayan influences (vassal)

Sojomerto Establishing ruling family, the first

Dapunta
c. 674 inscription (c. 670– time the name 'Selendra' (Shailendra)
Selendra was mentioned
700)
Carita Parahyangan,
Chinese account
on Hwi-ning visits
674—
Shima (?) to Ho-ling kingdom Ruling the kingdom of Kalingga
703
(664) and the reign
of queen Hsi-
mo (674)
703— Mandiminya Son-in-law of Shima, ruling the
Carita Parahyangan kingdom of Galuh
710 k (?)
Canggal Sanna ruled Java, but after his death
710—
Sanna inscription (732), Ca the kingdom fell to chaotic disunity
717 by usurper or foreign invasion
rita Parahyangan
Sanjaya, the nephew (or son?) of
Sanna restore the order and ascend to
Canggal throne, some early historian took this
717—
Sanjaya inscription (732), Ca event as the establishment of
760 new Sanjaya Dynasty, while other
rita Parahyangan
hold that this only the continuation of
Shailendras

Raja Sankhara Rakai Panangkaran converted from

Rakai
760— inscription, Kalasan Shaivism to Mahayana Buddhism,
Panangkara Sewu construction of Kalasan and Sewu
775 inscription (778), Ca
n temples
rita Parahyangan
Commonly Also ruled Srivijaya in Sumatra,
Kelurak construction
nown as
775— Sewu inscription (782), Li of Manjusrigrha temple, started the
INDRA construction of Borobudur (c. 770),
800 Borobudur gor inscription (c.
(Dharanind 782 or 787) Java ruled Ligor and Southern
ra) Cambodia (Chenla) (c. 790)

800— Samaragrawi Ligor inscription (c. Also ruled Srivijaya, lost Cambodia

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 Stone
King's or inscription and
Constru
Date ruler's source of Event
cted
name historical
account
812 ra 787) (802)

812— Samaratungg Completed Karangtengah Also ruled Srivijaya, completion of

833 a Boro inscription (824) Borobudur (825)

Defeated and expelled Balaputra to

Srivijaya (Sumatra)
. Construction of Prambanan
and Plaosan temple. The successors of
Pikatan,
Pramodhawa the series of Medang kings from
rdhani co- Lokapala (850—890) to Wawa (924
833— reign with Prambanan Shivagrha —929) could be
856 her and Plaosan inscription (856) considered as the continuation
husband Rak of Shailendra lineage, although
King Balitung
ai Pikatan (898—910) in
Mantyasih inscription (907)
sought ancestor only as far as
Sanjaya, thus enforced the
Sanjaya dynasty theory.
Defeated by Pikatan-
Pramodhawardhani,
Shivagrha expelled from Central Java
833— Balaputrade inscription (856), Na , took refuge in Sumatra and
850 wa landa rule Srivijaya, claim as the
inscription (860) legitimate
successor of Shailendra dynasty from
Java

Śri
Embassies to China Sending embassies, tribute and trade
c. 960 Udayadityav mission to China
(960 and 962)
arman
Haji (Hia- Embassies to China Sending embassies, tribute and trade
c. 980 mission to China
Tche) (980–983)
Sending embassies, tribute and trade
Embassies to China mission to China,
Sri Cudaman (988-992-1003), Javanese
King Dharmawangsa invasion on
c. 988 i Tanjore Inscription Srivijaya,
Warmadewa or Leiden Inscription building of temple for Chinese
(1044) Emperor, gift of village by
Raja-raja I

Sri
Embassies to China Sending embassies, tribute and trade
c. 1008 Maravijayott mission to China (1008)
(1008)
ungga

Sumatrabhu Embassies to China Sending embassies, tribute and trade

c. 1017 mission to China (1017)
mi (1017)

c. 1025 Sangrama Chola Inscription on Chola raid on Srivijaya, the capital

captured by Rajendra Chola

13
 Stone
King's or inscription and
Constru
Date ruler's source of Event
cted
name historical
account
Vijayatungg the temple of
avarman Rajaraja, Tajore

The construction of Borobudur is said to have been started by Dharanindra or commonly

known as King Indra was the ruler of the Sailendra dynasty who was the Emperor of Central
Java and Srivijaya. Dharanindra was the successor of Panangkaran, he ruled the kingdom in the period
775—800. He was mentioned as a great conqueror and credited for Sailendra's overseas campaign.
He was mentioned in Kelurak inscription (dated 782) in his formal reign name Sri Sanggrama
Dhananjaya. In this inscription he was hailed as Wairiwarawiramardana or "the slayer of courageous
enemies". The similar title also found in Ligor B inscription discovered in Southern Thailand Malay
Peninsula; Sarwwarimadawimathana, which suggest it referred to the same person. Dharanindra
seems to be a warlike character, as he embarked on military naval expedition overseas and has
brought Sailendras' control on Ligor in Malay Peninsula. After conquering and taking Ligor back
from Water Chenla, he also launched raids against Champa in 774 and 770, and conquered Southern
Cambodia in Mekong delta in early 9th century. During this time, Jayavarman II from Java (Malay
Peninsula), was probably the commander of the Srivijayan army. [3] At the behest of Maharaja
Srivijaya (Dharaindra), Jayavarman II was installed as a new Cambodia king and Angkor
Dynasty was founded.
King Indra seems to continue the builder tradition of his predecessor. He continued and completed the
construction of Manjusrigrha temple, and according to the Karangtengah inscription (dated 824)
responsible for the construction of Venuvana temple, connected to Mendut or
probably Ngawen temple. He was also probably responsible for the conception, planning and initiate
the construction of Borobudur and Pawon temple.

This great Temple was finished by finished by King Samaratungga was the head of
the Sailendra dynasty who ruled Central Java and Srivijaya in the 8th and the 9th century. He was the
successor of King Indra, and his name was mentioned in Karangtengah inscription dated 824 CE as
the constructor of a sacred Buddhist building called Venuvana (Sanksrit: bamboo forest) to place the
cremated ashes of his predecessor King Indra of Sailendra. [2] During his administration, he initiated
the construction of a massive Buddhist monument Borobudur. Samaratungga married Dewi Tara, the
princess of Srivijayan ruler Dharmasetu, which created close political alliance between the Sailendras
and Srivijaya.

Samaratungga had one son by the name of Balaputra and one daughter Pramodhawardhani. After
Samaratungga died, Pramodhawardhani married the Shivaite Rakai Pikatan from Sanjaya dynasty.
Rakai Pikatan managed to usurp Balaputra's authority over Central Java and forced the Saleidras to
flee Java for Srivijaya.
Under the reign of Samaratungga too, Jayavarman II was appointed as the governor of Indrapura in
the Mekong delta. Jayavarman later revoked his allegiance to the Sailedras and Srivijaya to form
the Khmer Empire.
Mandala of Prambanan
If the whole Prambanan temple (Shivagrha), Plaosan Temple & Sewu Temple (Manjusrigrha) has
been restored completely the shape will be like this in a Mandala Concept.

14
 Construction of
Prambanan
A temple was first built at the site around 850 CE by Rakai Pikatan and expanded extensively
by King Lokapala and Balitung Maha Sambu the Sanjaya king of the Mataram Kingdom. A
short red-paint script bearing the name "pikatan" was found on one of the finials on top of the
balustrade of Shiva temple, which confirms that King Pikatan was responsible for the
initiation of the temple construction.
The temple complex is linked to the Shivagrha inscription of 856 CE, issued by King
Lokapala, which described a Shiva temple compound that resembles Prambanan. According
to this inscription the Shiva temple was inaugurated on 12 November 856. According to this

15
inscription, the temple was built to honor Lord Shiva, and its original name was Shiva-
grha (the House of Shiva) or Shiva-laya (the Realm of Shiva).
All said and done, it is the largest Hindu temple of ancient Java, and the first building was
completed in the mid-9th century. It was inaugurated by his successor King Lokapala. Some
historians that adhere to dual dynasty theory; suggest that the construction of Prambanan
probably was meant as the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty's answer to the
Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty's Borobudur and Sewu temples nearby. Which means to mark
the return of the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty to power in Central Java after almost a century of
Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty domination. Nevertheless, the construction of this massive Hindu
temple did signifies a shift of the Mataram court's patronage.

Mahayana Buddhism to Shaivite Hinduism.

The statue of Shiva Mahadeva inside the garbagriha of the main

temple of prambanan.

16
 VISHNU TEMPLE
The Candi Vishnu temple is smaller than the impressive Shiva Mahadeva temple and sits just
north of it, reaching 33 m in height. Of course, we had to walk the steep stairs up to the top
plateau. And it was totally worth the climb as the temple is magnificent containing reliefs
telling the story of Lord Krishna who is the hero of the Mahabharata story.

17
The most impressive part of this temple is, in my opinion, the statue of a four-armed Vishnu
the Preserver in the inner chamber. It is so really big and beautifully carved.

18
19
20
 Shiv in th garbhagrih (central chamber) of
Some archaeologists propose that the statue o
the main temple was modelled afte King Balitun g, serving as a depiction of his deified self
after death. The temple compound was expanded by successive Mataram kings, such as
Daksa an Tulodon g, with the addition of hundreds o perwar temples around the chief
temple

With main prasada tower soaring up to 47 metres high, a vast walled temple complex
consists of 240 structures, Shivagrha Trimurti temple was the tallest and the grandest of its
time. Indeed, the temple complex is the largest Hindu temple in ancient Java, with no other
Javanese temples ever surpassed its scale. Prambanan served as the royal temple of the
Kingdom of Mataram, with most of the state's religious ceremonies and sacrifices being
conducted there. At the height of the kingdom, scholars estimate that hundreds
of brahmins with their disciples lived within the outer wall of the temple compound. The
urban center and the court of Mataram were located nearby, somewhere in the Prambanan
Plain.

Prambanan's architecture conforms to Hindu architectural traditions based on the Vastu

Shastra, and the temple thus reflects the Hindu conceptions of the cosmos in its design and
layout. Despite its grandeur and rich exterior ornamentation, the Javanese abandoned
Prambanan within 100 years of its completion around c. 950 CE. Although the ravages of
time and natural disasters took their toll on Prambanan, the Javanese never forgot the ruins,
and Prambanan continued to play a part in Javanese folklore. Research and the restoration of
Prambanan began in earnest in the early 20th century CE, and the temple complex was
declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991 CE. It is today one of the most visited
historical sites in Indonesia.

History & Geography

Prambanan is located some 17 km (11 miles) northeast of the Indonesian city of Yogyakarta,
near the border between the two provinces of Yogyakarta and Central Java, on the island of
Java. The ruins themselves lie 0.5 km south of the village of Prambanan.
The period in which the Javanese constructed Prambanan and neighboring temples is
shrouded in legend and mystery. Strong cultural and religious influence arrived in what is
now present-day Indonesia from the Indian subcontinent, beginning around the 1st century
CE. This influence grew rapidly from c. 400 CE onwards. Hindu and Buddhist merchants and
traders, settled in the region, intermarried with the local population, and facilitated long-
distance trade relations between the indigenous Javanese, ancient India, and the rest of
Southeast Asia. Over the centuries, the Javanese blended the culture and religions of ancient
India with their own.

Some historians contend that Prambanan's construction began under the orders of King Rakai
Pikatan (r. 830-860 CE?) at some point between c. 840-850 CE. Rakai Pikatan oversaw the
construction and design of the main temple complex, while other structures were built soon
thereafter by later kings, including Rakai Kayuwangi (r. 850-898 CE), Balitung (r. 899-911
CE), Daksa (r. 910-919 CE), and Tulodong (r. 919-924 CE). At some point, locals diverted a
nearby river to flow past the temple complex as well. Rakai Pikatan and his successors
belonged to the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty, which was the rival of the Buddhist Sailendra
dynasty for power in the “Medang” or Mataram kingdom in central Java. It is worth noting
that the Sailendra dynasty oversaw the construction of the Buddhist temple of Borobudur. As
Borobudur is located only 19 km (12 miles) from Prambanan, some scholars interpret

21
Prambanan's genesis as a direct artistic, political, and religious response to that of Borobudur
and in turn the competitive Sailendra dynasty. It is even said that Rakai Pikatan's wife,
Princess Pramodhawardhani (fl. 820-860 CE), was the daughter of King Samaratungga (r.
812-833 CE) who may have overseen Borobudur's construction. (Despite all this, other
Javanese historians see the “Sailendra” and “Sanjaya” dynasties as one and the same family,
interpreting the religious patronage of Buddhism or Hinduism as the result of a ruler's
personal belief.)

Prambanan Complex Model-Gunawan Kartapranata (CC BY-SA)

According to ancient Khmer sources, King Jayavarman II (r. 802-835 CE), the founder of
the Khmer Empire (802-1431 CE), spent much of his life in Java, and was appointed by
Samaratungga as the governor of Indrapura, which later became the capital city of Champa
around c. 875 CE. It is said that Jayavarman visited both Borobidur as well as Prambanan,
which inspired him to build the city of Angkor Wat on a grand scale. This is quite possible as
the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties exerted much political and cultural influence through
their thalassocracies in what is present-day Java, Sumatra, Malaya, and southern Cambodia in
the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries CE.

Prambanan's abandonment mirrors that of nearby Borobudur. As the center of political power
shifted from central to eastern Java under the reign of King Mpu Sindok (fl. 928 CE),
Prambanan became less important politically and culturally to the ancient Javanese. The
Sanjaya dynasty had successfully usurped power from the Sailendra dynasty, leaving the
island of Java under their near complete suzerainty. Volcanic eruptions from Mount Merapi
in the 10th century CE and countless earthquakes may have impacted Prambanan's appeal as
a place of worship and pilgrimage as well among the Hindu faithful.

22
Over time, Prambanan deteriorated and became surrounded by a dense jungle. The Dutch
explorer C. A. Lons reported his “rediscovery” of Prambanan in 1733 CE to Dutch colonial
officials, but the temple was never completely forgotten by the Javanese in their histories,
myths, and legends. A very popular Javanese legend is that of Rara Jonggrang, which is set in
Prambanan and its neighboring temples. In the legend, a Javanese princess is turned to stone
by her cruel husband. The princess is said to be beautiful image of the Hindu goddess Durga
located within the north wing of Shiva's temple at Prambanan. Restoration work began in
1885 CE, but accelerated in 1918 CE. These efforts were halted when Indonesia was invaded
in 1941 CE by the Japanese during World War II. In 1953 CE, the Temple of Shiva was
reconsecrated to Hindu believers, and Prambanan was restored once again following the 2006
CE Yogyakarta earthquake. Intermittent archaeological excavation and restoration continue
in and around Prambanan today.

Durga, Shiva Temple, Prambanan- Borobudur Buddhas are all sitting

Art & Architecture

Set in the fertile Prambanan Plain, Prambanan is but one of 30 temples built between c. 750-
950 CE in a 30 square km (11.5 square miles) area. Lying just a few kilometers to
Prambanan's north are three ancient Buddhist Temples built in the 8th century CE —
Lumbung, Bubrah, and Sewu — while 2.5 km to Prambanan's south and southeast lie the
ruins of the 9th-century CE Buddhist temples of Ratu Boko and Sojiwan, respectively. Some
3 km to Prambanan's west are also the 8th-century CE Buddhist Sari Temple, the Kalasan
Temple, which dates to c. 778 CE, and the Sambisari Temple, which dates from the 9th
century CE and is dedicated to Shiva.
Prambanan consists of six temples all situated in an elevated courtyard, which is in turn
encompassed by 224 minor temples now ruined. The greater the distance a temple is from the
main complex, the smaller it is in height and space. A small wall surrounds the smaller
temples, just as a large wall encompasses the main complex. Prambanan has a 47 m (154 ft)
tall central temple — dedicated to Shiva — which sits inside a complex of other temple
structures in a concentric mandala layout. Prambanan, in ways similar to Borobudur,
delineates the celestial hierarchy and transposes them to three distinct temple zones.
Horizontally and vertically, Prambanan exudes Hindu conceptions of heaven.

The largest three temples, the holiest sites within the main complex, are dedicated to the triad
of Hindu gods. Shiva's temple is the most prominent with Brahma's temple lying to the south
of Shiva's temple, and Vishnu's temple lying to the north of Shiva's temple. Directly parallel

23
to these magnificent temples are three smaller temples, each dedicated to mythological
animal figures that provide protection, companionship, and transportation to the
aforementioned gods: Garuda, a mythical winged creature, Hamsa the swan, and Nandi the
bull.

The Temple of Shiva is the most ornate of the three massive temples, containing a series of
elegant carvings along the inner wall, which depict the scenes from the ancient Indian
epic The Ramayana. This temple contains four rooms, including an inner sanctuary with a
statue of Shiva, while another chamber near the inner sanctuary contains a large statue of
Shiva's son, Ganesha. The southern room of Shiva's temple is dedicated to Batara Guru who,
according adherents of Javanese Hinduism, is an avatar of Shiva that gives prophecy,
presents, and other human abilities. There is also a statue of the sacred bull calf, gatekeeper,
and vehicle (vahana) of Shiva, Nandi, which sits in front of the Temple of Shiva. The walls
in the Temple of Brahma continue the narration of The Ramayana, while the Temple of
Vishnu is decorated with carvings retelling the epic battles of Krishna along its terrace.

Architecture of Prambanan Temple

According to UNESCO: Prambanan Temple Compounds presents the grandiose culture of
Siva art as a masterpiece of the classical period in Indonesia, and the region. The property is
an outstanding religious complex, characteristic of Siva expression of the 10th century.
Built in the 10th century, this is the largest temple compound dedicated to Shiva in
Indonesia. Rising above the centre of the last of these concentric squares are three temples
decorated with reliefs illustrating the epic of the Ramayana, dedicated to the three great
Hindu divinities (Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma) and three temples dedicated to the animals
who serve them. [Source: UNESCO]
Prambanan Temple Compounds consist of Prambanan Temple (also called Loro
Jonggrang), Sewu Temple, Bubrah Temple and Lumbung Temple. Prambanan Temple itself
is a complex consisting of 240 temples. All the mentioned temples form the Prambanan
Archaeological Park and were built during the heyday of Sailendra’s powerful dynasty in
Java in the 8th century AD. These compounds are located on the border between the two
provinces of Yogyakarta and Central Java on Java Island.
Prambanan Temple Compounds comprises of two groups of buildings which includes Loro
Jonggrang, Sewu complexes, Lumbung, Bubrah and Asu (Gana). The 508 stone temples of
various shapes and sizes are either in a complete and preserved condition or have been
retained as ruins.While Loro Jonggrang, dating from the 9th century, is a brilliant example
of Hindu religious bas-reliefs, Sewu, with its four pairs of Dwarapala giant statues, is
Indonesia’s largest Buddhist complex including the temples of Lumbung, Bubrah and Asu
(Gana temple).
The Hindu temples are decorated with reliefs illustrating the Indonesian version of the
Ramayana epic which are masterpieces of stone carvings. These are surrounded by
hundreds of shrines that have been arranged in three parts showing high levels of stone
building technology and architecture from the 8th century AD in Java. With over 500
temples, Prambanan Temple Compounds represents not only an architectural and cultural
treasure, but also a standing proof of past religious peaceful cohabitation.
Prambanan was designed as three concentric squares.

24
 The LARGER Temples

The SMALLER Temples

The east-facing complex measures about 110m (360 ft) on a side. It is dedicated to the
Trimurti - Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu - and the temple of each god is faced by the temple
of his vehicle. Smaller shrines, a few of which have been reconstructed, are also found in

25
the complex. Shiva, the central and largest temple, measures 34m (111 ft) on a side and
47m (154 ft) high. Each of the three major temples retains its principal statue in the central
chamber (the Shiva temple also has statues in three side chambers); most of these were not
accessible in 2008, due to the ongoing repair work.

In all there are 224 temples in the entire complex. The inner square contains 16 temples, the
most significant being the 47 meters high central Siva temple flanked to the north by the
Brahma temple and to the south by the Vishnu temple. These three ancient masterpieces of
Hindu architecture are locally referred to as the Prambanan Temple or Lorojonggrang
Temple (Slender Maiden). A square platform is divided into concentric courts by square-
plane walls. In the middle of the last enceinte stand the temples dedicated to the three great
Hindu gods and three small temples dedicated to their animal vehicles (Bull for Siva, Eagle
for Brahma and Swan for Vishnu). Other minor temples were located at the entrance gates
or outside the central enceinte (four ensembles).
The Siva temple had four statues: located in the centre chamber is the Siva statue; in the
north chamber stands the Dewi Durga Mahisasuramardhini statue; in the west chamber
stands the Ganesya statue; and the south chamber contains the statue of Agastya. Inside the
Brahma temple there is Brahma statue, and in the Vishnu temple there is the Vishnu statue.
In the Vishnu temple is carved the story of Kresnayana, while the Brahma temple houses
the continuous story of the Ramayana. The temples of Siva, Vishnu and Brahma are
decorated with reliefs illustrating the Ramayana period (history of the Hindu hero Rama,
written around 300). Krĕṣṇāyana: The Krĕṣṇa Legend in Indonesia
The neighbouring Buddhist ensemble at Sewu comprises a central temple surrounded by a
multitude of minor temples. Surprisingly, it shares many design attributes with the Hindu
Loro Joggrang Temple, perhaps indicating the degree to which such temples also reflect
state policies and control. Three other temples in ruins set between Sewu and Loro Joggrang
complete the ensemble around Prambanan: Lumbuna, Burah and Asu.
Candi Vishnu

Vishnu's temple is seen here from the vicinity of Candi Garuda, the temple of Vishnu's mount
(see plan on previous page). The tripartite division of the typical Javanese temple, into
superstructure, main structure, and substructure, or head, body, and foot, is evident here. This
form is standard during both the Central Javanese (8th to 10th centuries AD) and East
Javanese (10th to 15th centuries AD) periods.

The temple's pyramidal roof and its wide base are decorated with innumerable miniature
shrines with kalasha finials; its vertical body is divided into two tall courses, each decorated
by a band of simple rectangular frames, that form an abrupt transition from the base. The
effect is to make the body seem narrow, and therefore tall, by contrast with the much wider
base, while also providing a graceful yet solid support for the massive roof.The temple's
sculptures and decorations, including its Krishna reliefs, are illustrated on the following
pages.

A worn but still impressive statue of Vishnu occupies the cella of his temple. The four-
armed god holds the usual chakra and conch in his upper hands. A club, now broken in the
middle, extends downward at the viewer's left. The now-erased lower right attribute is

26
harder to identify, but a lotus would be typical in this murti. An offering run-off channel
extends to the viewer's right from the base of the statue.

Garuda Temple

Opposite the Vishnu temple is a small temple dedicated to his Vahana or vehicle – Garuda.
Unfortunately, the temple is empty and the statue of Garuda is missing. However, visiting
these temples is almost like visiting the garage of the gods, where their vehicle are parked.

27
 II

However between the green lies a mystery

What is tantric Buddha?

Tantra is a Hindu and Buddhist philosophy which affirms all aspects of the material world as
infused with divine feminine power. It is rooted in sacred instructional texts, composed from
around the sixth century onwards, called the Tantras. Inside the temple we find an altar-
shaped throne, and on the throne sits a colossal Buddha statue, dressed in the manner of the
southern Buddhists, having uncovered his right shoulder and arm. The hands before his breast
have the posture (mudra) of the Mahayanists, that is, the followers of the "Big Carriage"
(Great Vehicle).

28
 In the above pic Buddha is on the
left with the Buddha image in the crown. The middle Buddha is the Mahāvairocana. Prince is on the
right. This prince is not a Buddha.

Statue of Shakyauni Buddha-Central Shrine, Candi Mendut

This colossal (10 ft tall) statue of Shakyamuni, located in the interior cella of Candi
Mendut, is very special: it is the oldest (c. 800 AD, as mentioned on the previous
page), the largest, and the finest statue of the historical Buddha that still remains in
its original location in Java. The Buddha is seated in "Western" style, legs apart
(cf: Ajanta, Cave 26), displays dharmachakra mudra, and is flanked by two
bodhisattvas (following pages). In this temple, modern visitors can still experience
something of the awe and majesty that inspired the devotees who first worshiped
here, over a thousand years ago.

Note: some scholars identify this statue as Vairocana, instead of Shakyamuni. See,
for example, "The Transcendental Buddha Vairochana(?) Seated in Western
Fashion," by Martin Lerner, in The Lotus Transcendent: Indian and Southeast Asian
Art from the Samuel Eilenberg Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1991, p.
177.

29
It is explained that this is the posture that the followers “of the northern church, generally
(not always) give to the first of their five Dhyani-Buddhas”. In the Mendut temple, to the
right of Buddha, we see a buddhistic prince seated on a throne. This statute is considered
to be Buddha statute by some as mentioned earliuer and the controversy rages on. Be at it
may, this statute is richly decorated with nagas, lions, and elephants. He wears the monk's
hood and a small Buddha image in his crown. This characterises him as a Buddhist. The
other prince that we see opposite him, to the left of the Buddha, seating on an equally rich
throne, doesn't wear a monk's hood. This characterises him as not buddhistic prince. The
two kings wear the prabha, or disk of light, on the back of their heads.

30
 Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara

Central Shrine, Candi Mendut

The nine-foot tall statue of Avalokiteshvara is located to the viewer's left of Shakyamuni (see
previous page). The Bodhisattva of Compassion is identified by a small statue of Amitabha
Buddha that is carved into the top of his crown. Seated on a lotus throne in "Royal Ease," his
extended right hand holds a missing attribute, and his raised left hand holds a missing lotus
stem. To the right is the statue of Bodhisattva Avalokiteswara or the helping Buddha. Buddha
is depicted sitting with left leg bended and right leg hanging down. His right foot steps on a
small lotus pad. To the left and facing north is the statue of Maitreya, or liberating Bodhisattva
who is sitting with hands in simhakarnamudra position, which looks like vitarkamudra
position except that the fingers are clasped. The head of each statue emanates prabha or divine
rays of light.

Comparison with Ajanta Cave 26

At a distance of 750 m from the Foot Cave, is Cave 26 - a chaityagriha beside Cave 25. 26 is quite
similar to 19, but of a larger dimension and with more elaborately and exquisitely carved sculpted
figures. An inscription (AD 450 - 525) found on the wall of the front verandah records the gift of this
chaityagriha by a monk Buddhabhadra, a friend of Bhavviraja, a minister of the king of Asmaka
(Vidarbha). There is a carving of Lord Buddha seated in the bhumisparsas mudra under the Bodhi tree
at the center. On the left is Mara on an elephant accompanied by his host of demon-forces attacking
Buddha and on the right is the retreat of Mara. In the foreground are the daughters of Mara trying to
tempt Buddha by dance and music; and in the bottom right corner is the figure of the dejected
Mara.The chaityagriha consists of a hall, side aisles (pradakshina) and a rock-cut stupa with an image
of Buddha. The facade, inner pillars, triforium (between pillars and roof), and side walls are
extensively carved with images and decorative designs. The cave contains a stupa with an image of
Buddha seated on a lion throne. He is flanked by riders and flying attendants. However, the most
striking and prominent image of this cave is a large carved statue of the reclining Buddha,
representing his moment of death. Below him, his followers mourn his passing; above, celestial

31
 beings rejoice.

Bodhisattva Vajrapani-Central Shrine, Candi Mendut ( pic Right above)

Bodhisattva Vajrapani is usually paired with Padmapani, not Avalokiteshvara (previous
page); the unusual combination of Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani in this Shakyamuni Triad
must reflect either an iconographic confusion, or perhaps a transitional form or a regional
variant in the evolution of the triad from Padmapani/Vajrapani (earlier) to
Avalokiteshvara/Manjusri (later).
Interpretation of thje Buddhas of Mendut by King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Siam

King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Siam visited Borobudur in 1896 when Java was still under
Dutch rule. As a Buddhist King Rama of |Thailand (Siam) was deeply interested in the
Borobodur and also Prambanan (for the Ramayana and Mahabharata are of course Hindu
epics that are well known in Thailand). He climbed up the temple twice on that visit. The
Dutch allowed him to choose anything from the temple to bring back as souvenirs as many he
wished. He went back to Bangkok with eight containers full of Buddha statues, bas-reliefs,
door facades from Borobudur, Prambanan, and other archaeological sites nearby. Several
Buddha statues he brought from Borobudur are now used to decorate royal temples in
Bangkok including the Emerald Buddha temple in the Grand Palace; others are on display in
the National Museum in Bangkok. Many years later, King Rama VII returned some
masterpieces from Prabanan back

Bodhisattva Vajrapani-Central Shrine, Candi Mendut ( pic Right above)

Bodhisattva Vajrapani is usually paired with Padmapani, not Avalokiteshvara (previous

page); the unusual combination of Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani in this Shakyamuni Triad
must reflect either an iconographic confusion, or perhaps a transitional form or a regional
variant in the evolution of the triad from Padmapani/Vajrapani (earlier) to

32
Avalokiteshvara/Manjusri (later).

Interpretation of thje Buddhas of Mendut by King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Siam

King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Siam visited Borobudur in 1896 when Java was still under
Dutch rule. As a Buddhist King Rama of |Thailand (Siam) was deeply interested in the
Borobodur and also Prambanan (for the Ramayana and Mahabharata are of course Hindu
epics that are well known in Thailand). He climbed up the temple twice on that visit. The
Dutch allowed him to choose anything from the temple to bring back as souvenirs as many he
wished. He went back to Bangkok with eight containers full of Buddha statues, bas-reliefs,
door facades from Borobudur, Prambanan, and other archaeological sites nearby. Several
Buddha statues he brought from Borobudur are now used to decorate royal temples in
Bangkok including the Emerald Buddha temple in the Grand Palace; others are on display in
the National Museum in Bangkok. Many years later, King Rama VII returned some
masterpieces from Prabanan back to its original place during his visit to Java and Bali in
1929. He interpreted the images as follow.
He took home four Buddha statues from Borobodur that now have places of honour at the
Phra Mondop in the Grand Palace complex; although the Buddha statues he admired most
were those in Candi Mendut. If those were sent to Siam a new temple would be built for
them. He knew the head of the Netherlands Indies Archaeological Society, Dr Groneman.
When he first saw Borobodur he wrote that it was not possible to describe it in words, that it
would be better to see it from pictures but even those would not be as marvelous as seeing it
with one’s own eyes. Dr Groneman believed that the Buddha statues there were Mahayana
because Buddhism in Java was the same as in China but the King convinced him that they
were of Indian influence. On his third trip when they visited Prambana, he commented that
Dr Groneman could have given a good presentation “but it was no fun this time because he
had become my student so there was nothing on which to disagree with each other.”

1. One of the princes, who is wearing, “like he does himself, a Buddha image in his
crown,” was “perhaps the king of the buddhistic empire, under whose reign the
Barabudur was built”.

2. Further the King surmised that the other images represented the not-buddhistic father
and predecessor. (Amelia Carolina Sparavigna. The Ruins of the Buddhist Temples in the Progo Valley, Borobudur,
Mendut and Pawon, Described by Isaac Groneman in his Book of 1912.. Philica, 2017. hal-01674399)

According to the above article there were 5 Tathgathas but today only one remains flanked
by Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani. Remaining 4 are not currently presently,
destroyed probably by vagaries of time,nature or man.These once occupied the niches. A
niche is a semicircular architectural recess or platform, sometimes crowned by a semi-dome,
and either set into a building's façade or free-standing. This niche or exedra would typically
have an apsidal podium that supported the stone bench. The free-standing (open air) exedra,
often supporting bronze portrait sculpture, is a familiar Hellenistic structure, characteristically
sited along sacred ways or in open places in sanctuaries.

33
One of the four Buddha statues from the Borobodur given to Rama V during a trip to Java. All four statues
were placed in the Phra Mondop building in the Grand Palace complex in Bangkok where they can be see
still today. (photo: IO/Tamalia)

The Man who Built the THREE

Rakai Pikatan or Pangataran- Sang Prabhu Jatiningrat- Great King of Mataram was also
known as..
1. Rakai Pikatan Dyah Saladu=(Wanua Tengah inscription)
2. Rakai Pikatan Dyah Kamulyan Sang Prabhu Linggeswara
Sakabhumandala=(Wangsakerta script)
3. Rakai Mamrati Sang Jatiningrat(Wantil inscription)

He was a king of the Sanjaya dynasty Mataram Kingdom in Central Java who built
the Prambanan temple, dedicated to Shiva, which was completed in 856 AD. Rakai Pikatan
was also called Mpu Manuku.
The monarch of the Mataram Kingdom before Rakai Pikatan was Samaratungga of
the Shailendra Dynasty. He had one son, Balaputra, and one daughter, Pramodhawardhani.
Rakai Pikatan and the Sanjaya dynasty were Shivaite Hindus and is recorded in the Wantil
Inscription as having married a daughter of another religion. This is most likely
Pramodhawardhani, the Mahayana Buddhist daughter of Samaratungga.
It's believed that Pikatan fought his brother in law Balaputra, forcing him to move
to Srivijaya in 856. Other interpretations based on the Kayumwungan inscription put
Balaputra as Pramodhawardhani's uncle rather than her brother as inscriptions only list
Pramodhawaradhani as a child of Samaratungga. Hence, Balaputra went to Srivijaya not
because of force but because he had no claim as a brother of the monarch.
According to the interpretation of Loro Jonggrang legend, Pramodhawardhani's likeness was
the model for Durga's image in the Prambanan temple. Rakai built many temples surprisingly
both Hindu and Buddhist having 1 foot in each religion consequent to his marriage to a
Buddhist lady. His region boasted of a trend of having multiple temples in a single
compound.This could be also attributed to Rakai Pikatan.Temples such as Sewu which we
will deal with in details here as well as Ploasan, Sambirejo (Ijo), Lubrung, Burbah,
Prambanan and perhaps other temples that no longer exist above ground but may be
discovered ion future. One does not know.

34
 We will consider a few of these with main and ancillary temples. In this context one can
describe the following offsprings:

1. Perwara means guardian or peripheral and perwara is an Indonesian word for an

escort temple.
2. Vahana is from Sanskrit word Vahana, from Old Javanese wāhana, from
Sanskrit वाहन, from वह्, a word for wagon. Also means carrier. Hindu Gods had
Vahanas . See my paper Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu
Gods.https://www.academia.edu/44665352/Vahanas_the_vehicles_of_Hindu_Gods

3. Apit temples means dry temple may also indicate squeezed as in Malay language.

4. Patok Temple would mean a Pole or Stake- something sticking out of the ground.

Candi Plaosan, also known as the Plaosan Complex, is one of the Buddhist
temples located in Bugisan village, Prambanan district covering an area of 2,000 square
metres (22,000 square feet) with an elevation of 148 metres (486 feet) above sea level.
The Dengok River is located nearby, about 200 metres (220 yards) away

One of the twin main temple of Plaosan Lor compound/Avalokiteśvara on Plaosan main temple wall.//
Dvarapala, the giant guardian in front of Plaosan Temple.

Plaosan temple was built in the mid 9th century by the wife of Rakai Pinkatan. But whether
it was built by Rakai himself and attributed to his wife Sri Kahulunnan
or Pramodhawardhani, the daughter of Samaratungga, descendant of Sailendra Dynasty,
could be possible. The complex currently comprises two Buddhist temples, Plaosan
Lor and Plaosan Kidul and made up of 174 small buildings, 116 are stupas and 58 are
shrines. Many of the buildings have inscriptions. Two of these inscriptions denote the temple
as a gift of sanctuary by Rakai Pikatan. The dates of the inscriptions are between 825-850
AD. Although similar to the Prambanan 856 AD date, the complexes are not related. A new
building technique distinguishes Prambanan from Plaosan temples.
The main temples at Plaosan are made up of an upper and lower level, separated in three
rooms. In the lower level, multiple statues resided. Today, only two statues of Bodhisattva
seated on each sides of each rooms, flanked an empty pedestal. However, as the position of
the false windows dictate, there was only one statue rested on the bottom basal level on
central pedestal. This statue today is missing, it was probably some bronze statues
depicting Buddha with two stone Bodhisattva statues flanked it. Historians suggests that a
main temple once contains nine statues, six stone Bodhisattvas, and three bronze Buddhas
(now missing). This means there was 18 statues resided in the twin main temples.

35
On the upper walls in each rooms, there are the traces of stones indentions that once
supported wooden beams and wooden floors, creating upper rooms. There is also traces of
stones as the base of wooden stairs.Rows of exquisite carvings of Bodhisattvas divinities are
found adorning the outer walls, with the majority of them being male. Smaller and less
occurring carvings by the windows represent female figures.One exceptional example is
carved on inner wall of the room depicting a representation of a Khmer prince which is
identified by his crown.
Ijo temple is Hindu candi (temple) located 4 kilometers from Ratu Boko measuring 0.8
hectare compound at present. The main temple is on the higher ground on the hill with
several terraces. It was estimated that more than 10 Perwara or lesser temples ruins are still
buried in this terraces.

Sambirejo, Prambanan, Sleman Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Perwara temples

2 of three perwara temples.

The main temple compound located on the uppermost terrace, consists of a large main temple
facing west and three perwara temples on front of it facing east. These three perwara temples
was meant to honor Trimurti, having cella or room and there are windows perforated in the
rhombus shape. The roof is arranged in three stages adorned with rows of ratnas.

36
 The main temple, showing the three niches. One of the perwara
temples can be seen behind it.
The main temple has square ground plan with a large linga and yoni adorned
with naga serpent. The union of phallic linga and yoni symbolize the cosmic sacred union
between Shiva and Parvati as his shakti. There are three niches on each sides of inner wall in
the room, each niches flanked with a pair of devata, Hindu lesser gods and goddesses flying
toward the niches.The roof of main temple is arranged in three ascending terraces decreased
in size to the top forming stepped pyramid.
In the case of Prambanan these 224 shrines are also the "Candi Perwara", guardian or
complementary temples, the additional buildings of the main temple. Some believed it was
offered to the king as a sign of submission. The Perwara are arranged in four rows around the
central temples.
Complex of Complexes

Prambanan temple compounds, has 5 major temples complexes and more than five-hundred
temples. The major temple complex is Prambanan temple complex with 240 Hindu temples.
Another major temple complex is Candi Sewu, the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 240 temples though the striking feature is the
massive dwara balas or protectors of the temple gates. The other temples are Bubrah,
Lumbung and Asu. All these temples except Asu are at different stages of restoration by the
UNESCO working with the Indonesian Government. Do note that Asu is still buried under
the soil due to the impact of the Mount Merapi volcano and yet to be excavated.Prambanan
1
temple complex is the most popular one among these various temples.
Inside the Temple Complex

The temple complex has 240 temples. They are organized as follows
1. The 3 main temples for the 3 murtis of the Hindu religion - Siva, Vishnu and Brahma with
the Siva temple in the center.
2. Vahana or vehicle temples of the respective murtis are opposite to each one of
the murtis for a total of 3 temples. The 3 Vahana temples are Garuda, Nandi and Angsa (or
swan).
3. There are two Apit temples or flank temples on either side of the 6 temples in the center
row between the rows of Vahana and Murthy temples.
4. There are 4 Kelir temples on four cardinal directions outside the inner courtyard.
5. There are 4 Pathok temples on 4 corners of the inner courtyard.
6. Then outside all these temples are the Perwara (“waiting woman”) temples organized in 4
concentric squares with different number of temples from the inner square to outer square as
follows - 44, 52, 60, 68. According to the brilliant article by Dr Subhash Kak, the concentric
circular placement of the Prambanan temples is after a Tantric diagram followed at that time
and his technical details and knowledge is fascinating
1. The total varies from 249 to 239 ( calculated by me). Be as it may, it is a large number

37
That apart, which I do not want to focus upon and also lack the knowledge to do so, Rakai’s
contribution is bringing a synthesis of Buddhism and |Hinduism in the same compounds
while keeping things seperate

Prambanan (LEFT) and SEWU ( RIGHT) Aerial views showing the compounds and temple arrangements.

The striking feature of the Prambanan is the architecture, which is a typical representation of
the South Indian Pallava-Chola architecture. It is typical of that architecture to have very tall
Vimanas and Gopurams (towers), large courtyards and aesthetically carved bass reliefs. Also
the Prambanan temples follow the Mandala concept of the Vastu Shastra, an ancient Indian
science of architecture and construction. The inner space with the Murti temples, the Perwara
temples and the space outside Perwara temples make up the three mandala concept of the
Vastu Shastra. Today only the Murthy, Vahana, Apit and Kelir temples has been restored
while the Pathok and Perwara are not restored yet though work is in progress.

The temples of Prambanan itself are organized as per the Logam concept. The foot of each
temple represents the Boologam or the realm of the mortals. The middle realm or the body of
the temple represents Bhuvarlogam or realm for the holy people. The upper realm or the
holiest part of the temple or the topmost layer is the realm of gods called Swarkalogam. The
upper realm is completed by a Vajra (it can mean both thunderbolt or diamond) on the roof.

38
The Bas reliefs of Prambanan is very extensive and narrative. The narrative part is about
Ramayana epic and Bhagavata Puranam - stories about Vishnu and his avatars. The reliefs
also have depictions about Kalpataru, Apsaras, Devadas - all part of Hindu/Buddhist
mythology.
Expansion. Though the temple is believed to have been built by Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya
dynasty around 850 AD it was expanded by subsequent kings building the Perwara temples
surrounding the centerpiece in concentric squares.This is an indication that the large
compounds were specifically kept for later expansions without destruction or alteration to the
main temple. There was, nothing ofcourse, to stop subsequent Kings from building another
Main Temple near the older one.

At its peak, hundreds of Brahmins lived in the temple complex while the royal court with the
urban center was located nearby. The royal court was shifted either due to Mount Merapi
volcano eruption or due to power struggle throwing Prambanan into disuse. The locals knew
about the existence of the temple but did not know the background and so the folklore of
Roro Jonggrang was attached to the temple.

Candi Lumbung - Main temple renovation goes on with Perwara temples on the side

Candi Bubrah: Hundred or so meters to away is Candi Bubrah, which is a Buddhist temple
constructed in the 9th century by the Sailendra dynasty. It is named as Bubrah as it was
discovered in complete ruins. What exists today is a 12 meters x 12 meters platform where I
could see works carried on to restore this temple. As per my conversation with the workers,
the temple is made up of volcanic rocks.

39
Candi Lumbung: The next temple - Candi Lumbung was built around the same time frame
as Candi Bubrah but predates Prambanan temple. The main temple is a Buddhist temple
dedicated to Manjushri Bodhisattva. There are sixteen Perwara temples similar to the Perwara
temples of Prambanan. On top of the main temple is the stupa, typical of a Buddhist temple.
The main temple can be accessed from the 4 cardinal points. Just like other temples in the
compounds, Lumbung is going through renovation but is in a better condition than Bubrah.

Candi Sewu:is a large temple complex unlike the smaller ruins of Bubrah is the second
largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 249 temples in
its complex. The architecture resembles the Pala architecture due to the Perwara temples
arranged in a geometric fashion similar to Prambanan. But Sewu predates Prambanan by at
least a century. The original name for this temple was Manjusrigriha (meaning “house of
Manjushri”) and was dedicated to Manjushri Bodhisattva similar to the Lumbung temple
nearby.

Main chamber where the bronze statue of Manjushri is missing

The main temple itself is 30 meters in height and 29 meters in diameter and is in a 20 sided
Polygon shape. The temple was believed to have had a bronze statue of Manjushri. The main
temple is surrounded by four concentric rows of Perwara temples similar to Prambanan and
the temple complex itself follows the same Vaastu-based Mandala concept. Candi Sewu
shares its Folklore of Roro Jonggrang with the Prambanan as many associate it with this
temple complex.
There are very few Buddhist Temples in India only STUPAS, in Indonesia however we see a
trend of Buddhist Rock Fractal temples of complex design and varying sized which is
ubiquitous to the Javanese Landscape. We know that stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical
structure containing relics.(such as śarīra – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns)
that is used as a place of meditation. A related architectural term is a chaitya , which is a
prayer hall or temple containing a stupa. Let us see the evolution of Buddhist TOPOLOGY in
India in order to trace itsreplicatio and inspiration as taken into the Indonesian design
landscape.
Stupas
Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped monument, started to
be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the
Buddha. The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas,
in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Pava, Kushinagar,
and Vethapida. The Piprahwa stupa also seems to have been one of the first to be built. Guard

40
rails—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a
stupa. The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay hommage to the stupas: "And
whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap
benefits for a long time". This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone
sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical period.
Temples
Saurashtra Janapada coins from the stratigraphic phase I dated 600-300 BC provide evidence
of elaborate Apsidal Chaitya temples along with domed temples (or stupa), square, cruciform
and octagonal temple plans, these coins also provide one of the first representations of Hindu
pantheon for instance Gaja Lakshmi etc. Elliptical Hindu temples
with mandapa from Nagari, Chittorgarh and Vidisha near Heliodorus pillar have been dated
to 4th century BC or 350-300 BC.
In Buddhism, circumambulation or pradakhshina has been an important ritual and devotional
practice since the earliest times, and stupas always have a pradakhshina path around them.
Development in Gandhara (3rd century BCE-5th century CE)

ButkaraStupa/The Ahin Posh stupa was dedicated in the 2nd century CE under the Kushans,
and contained coins of Kaniska I.
The stupa underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara. Since Buddhism spread
to Central Asia, China and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara, the stylistic
evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of the stupa
(and related artistic or architectural forms) in these areas. The Gandhara stupa followed
several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of decorative
element, leading eventually to the development of the pagoda tower. The main stupa type are,
in chronological order:

1. The Dharmarajika Stupa with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa

almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar
stupas are the Butkara stupa, the Manikyala stupa or the Chakpat stupa.
2. The Saidu Sharif Stupa, pillared and quincunxial, with a flight of stairs to a dome
elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara minutiures represent this spectacular
type (1st century CE)
3. The Loriyan Tangai Stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in
many way the Classical Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE).
4. The near-pyramidal Jaulian stupa (2nd century CE).

41
 5. The cruciform type, as in the Bhamala Stupa, with flights of stairs in the four cardinal
directions (4th century CE).
6. The towering design of the second Kanishka stupa (4-5th century CE).

The Mahabodhi Temple in 150-200 CE The Mahabodhi Temple: a stepped pyramid with round stupa on
top.RIGHT PIC Model of the sikhara of a Buddhist temple; 900s// model resembling the Saidu Sharif
Stupa, with square base and four columns (1st century CE). PYRIMIDAL temples to right
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
III

Missing Pieces of the Sewu Mandala

Sewu Temple was built by the end of the eighth century at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's
reign and was completed during the reign of his successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran
(746–780 CE) was well-known as a devoted Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang
Mataram Kingdom. Modern historians disagree amongst each other as to the political and
cultural events that led to Construction of the Kedu Plain structures of Mahayana Buddhism
and Shaivism. It is possible that the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty initially began construction of a
Shivaite temple on the spot where Borobudur now sits around c. 775 CE and that they were
unable to complete their temple as they were driven out of the area by the Sailendra dynasty.
Some other theories see the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties as one and the same family and
that religious patronage simply changed as a result of personal belief. The general consensus
is that there were two rival dynasties supporting different faiths.).

The Temple of Borobudur or sometimes "Barabudur" is a Mahayana Buddhist temple located

close to Muntilan on the island of Java in Indonesia. Built during the rule of the Sailendra
Dynasty (c. 650-1025 CE), Borobudur remains the world's largest Buddhist temple.
Borobudur is located about 40 km (25 miles) to the northwest of Yogyakarta and some 86 km
(53 miles) west of the city of Surakarta in central Java. The temple lies in an area between
two volcanoes - Mt. Sundoro-Sumbing and Mt. Merbabu-Merapi - as well as two
rivers - Progo and Elo. Borobudur is situated very close to two other Buddhist
temples in the Kedu Plain: Pawon and Mendut. Scholars and archaeologists surmise
that some sort of relationship must have existed between the temples as all three are
positioned along a straight line. However, what this signifies is still a matter of
scholarly debate. What is known is that the ancient and medieval Javanese,
whether Hindu or Buddhist, associated the Kedu Plain with tremendous agricultural
production, and it was thus considered one of the most sacred places on the island of
Java. Ancient peoples regarded the two rivers as especially auspicious as they

42
evoked the sacred Ganges and Yamuna rivers in what is present-day India. Not
surprisingly, given the area's favorability, the Hindu Gunung Wukir temple
sanctuary, which dates to c. 732 CE, lies only 10 km (6 miles) west of Borobudur in
the Kedu Plain too.

The period in which the Javanese constructed Borobudur is shrouded in legend and
mystery. No records pertaining to its construction or purpose exist, and dating the
temple is based on artistic comparisons of reliefs and inscriptions found in Indonesia
and elsewhere throughout Southeast Asia. Strong cultural and religious influenced
arrived in what is now present-day Indonesia from the Indian subcontinent
beginning around the 1st century CE. This influence grew rapidly from c. 400 CE
onwards. Hindu and Buddhist merchants and traders settled in the region,
intermarried with the local population, and facilitated long-distance trading
relations between the indigenous Javanese and ancient India. Over the centuries, the
Javanese blended the culture and religions of ancient India with their own.

The name "Borobudur" itself is the subject of intense scholarly debate and is a
lingering mystery. Some scholars contend that the name stems from
the Sanskrit Vihara Buddha Uhr or the "Buddhist Monastery on a Hill," while
others, in turn, argue that Budur is nothing more than a Javanese place name. A
stone tablet dating from 842 CE makes mention of Bhumisambharabhudara or the
"Mountain of Virtues of Ten Stages of the Boddhisattva." It is probable that the name
"Borobudur" could be related to "Bharabhudara."

What about the Mandala of Prambanan ?

“Not very far from Borobudur,” writes Dr. Raghuvira an erudite member of India’s
Constituent Assembly' “is the complex Prambanam, the like of which is known neither to
India nor to any other neighboring or distant land...Here are the life-cycles of Lord Krsna
known as Krsnayana parallel to the Ramayana, the powerful dragon being torn asunder by the
superb arms of the Divine Krsna. In another place is the scene of Kumbhakarna being
awakened by conches and screeches of elephants, a portrayal of the highest order...."
Of the sculptures in Prambanam, Sir Stamford Raffles (1781-1826) the British Governor of
Java and author of History of Java says:

"In the whole course of my life I have never met with such stupendous and finished
specimens of human labor, and of the science and taste of ages long since forgot, crowded
together in small a compass as in this little spot."
(source: History of Java. volume II p. 15).

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Many civilizations in South East Asia have been closely patterned on the Indian model.
Wonderful monuments such as Angkor wat, Pagan, Prambanan and Borobudur stand
testimonial to Indian cultural influence.

Prambanan Temple is situated 18km east of Yogyakarta city in Central Java. It is the largest
Hindu temple compound in Indonesia and is dedicated to Trimurti, the three highest gods in
Hinduism. It is known locally as the Loro Jongrang temple, after the nearby village, or the
temple of Durga or the ‘Slender Virgin’.

There are a total of 237 temples in this Shivaite temple complex but many are in ruin. The
architecture is tall and pointed and the central building is the tallest at 47m high. It is
dedicated to Shiva. Hence is known as Chandi Shiva Mahadeva temple. Prambanan is a
stunningly beautiful building built in the 9thcentury during the reign of two kings, and Rakai
Pikatan Balitung. Rises as high as 47 meters (5 meters higher than Borobudur temple). The
temple complex is huge, much more spread out than Borobodur. It's a pity that the glory of
this temple is largely shadowed by the more monotonous architecture of the Borobudur
Temple nearby.

Todays temples in India or for that matter elsewhere may boast of a large compound but they
have largely one single structure which is the main and in most cases the only structure.
Many dieties are installed inside this main venue as seen in the Shivagriha of Pranbanan. The
Ram Mandir at Ayodhya is a classic example. There is need to distinguish between Ram
Janmabhoomi (lit. 'Birthplace of Rama') and Ram Mandir ( the temple od Ram) both in the
same ancient city.is the site that is hypothesized to be the birthplace of Rama, believed to be
the seventh avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu. The Ramayana states that the location of
Rama's birthplace is on the banks of the Sarayu river in a city called "Ayodhya". Modern-
day Ayodhya is in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
The Ram Mandir according to some Hindus is the exact site of Rama's birthplace is where
the Babri Masjid once stood in the present-day Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh. According to this
theory, the Mughals demolished a Hindu shrine that marked the spot, and constructed a
mosque in its place. People opposed to this theory state that such claims arose only in the
18th century, and that there is no evidence for the spot being the birthplace of Rama. Several
other sites, including places in other parts of India, Afghanistan, and Nepal, have been
proposed as birthplaces of Rama. The political, historical and socio-religious debate over the
history and location of the Babri Mosque, and whether a previous temple was demolished or
modified to create it, is known as the Ayodhya dispute. That apart, Ram Lalla Virajman, the
infant form of Rama, an avatar of Vishnu, is the presiding deity of the temple. Ram Lalla was
a litigant in the court case over the disputed site since 1989, being considered a "juristic
person" by the law. He was represented by Triloki Nath Pandey, a senior VHP leader who
was considered as Ram Lalla's next 'human' friend. According to the temple trust, the final
blueprint includes temples dedicated to Surya, Ganesha, Shiva, Durga, Vishnu and Brahma in
the temple premises.

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The period roughly between 680 AD and 930 AD was the golden period of the Hindu-
Buddhist architecture or more commonly known as the Hindu-Javanese architecture. This
was the period that the Hindu-Buddhist Mataram Kingdom flourished under couple of
dynasties, Sailendra and Sanjaya, which followed the two dharmic faiths, Hinduism and
Buddhism.The common relationship between Brihadeeswarar temple in Tanjore , Angkor
Wat and Prambanan is that they share the same South Indian architectural style – Pallava-
Chola. Though the geometrical pattern of the surrounding Perwara temples (discussed above)
of the Prambanan follow the Pala architecture as seen in the Somapura Vihara ruins in
Paharpur located in the present day Bangladesh.

Ruins of the Perwara temples at Sompura Paharpur

These various structures represent different architectures such as Pallava-Chola architecture,

Pala architecture, Gupta architecture and indigenous Javanese architecture. Temples of
Indonesia are of three different kinds - Pura, Candi and Koil. The Candi (pronounced as
Chandi) temples are more of Javanese temples, e.g., the Candi Prambanan while Koil are
those temples constructed by Indian traders from Tamil Nadu, e.g., Mariamman Koil in Aceh
in the 19th century. The third type of temples are the ones constructed by the Balinese and
Tenggerese called Pura temples in Eastern Java and Bali, e.g., Pura Luhur Poten in Mount
Bromo. All temples here are called Candi. A word is derived from the Sanskrit word
Candika, one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga and indicates the temples built in
Indonesia, during the ‘Indianized period’, between the seventh and fifteenth centuries.
Prambanan Temple Compounds.

The plan of Borobudur took form of a Mandala, a model of universe in Hindu-Buddhist

cosmology. It consists of three ascending realms, Kãmadhãtu (the realm of desire),

45
 Rüpadhãtu (the realm of form), and Arüpadhãtu (the realm of formlessness).

Reconstruction drawing of the cross section of the whole Prambanan temple compound, four
rows of perwara temples surrounding the center three main templeThe map of Prambanan
temple compound, shows concentric mandala layout

Originally there were a total of 240 temples standing in Prambanan. The Prambanan
Temple Compound consist of:

46
 3 Trimurti temples: three main temples dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma
 3 Vahana temples: three temples in front of Trimurti temples dedicated to
the vahana of each gods; Nandi, Garuda and Hamsa
 2 Apit temples: two temples located between the rows of Trimurti and Vahana
temples on north and south side
 4 Kelir temples: four small shrines located on 4 cardinal directions right beyond
the 4 main gates of inner zone
 4 Patok temples: four small shrines located on 4 corners of inner zone
 224 Pervara temples: hundreds of temples arranged in 4 concentric square rows;
numbers of temples from inner row to outer row are: 44, 52, 60, and 68
The Prambanan compound once had 240 temples standing in this Shivaite temple
complex, either big or small. Today, all of 8 main temples and 8 small shrines in the
inner zone are reconstructed, but only 6 out of the original 224 pervara temples are
renovated. The majority of them have deteriorated; what is left are only scattered
stones. The Prambanan temple complex consists of three zones; first the outer zone,
second the middle zone that contains hundreds of small temples, and third the holiest
inner zone that contains eight main temples and eight small shrines.

47
An architectural model of the Prambanan temple complex; originally there were 240 temples in this
temple compound

48
The Hindu temple complex at Prambanan is based on a square plan that contains a
total of three zone yards, each of which is surrounded by four walls pierced by four
large gates. The outer zone is a large space marked by a rectangular wall. The
outermost walled perimeter, which originally measured about 390 metres per side,
was oriented in the northeast–southwest direction. However, except for its southern
gate, not much else of this enclosure has survived down to the present. The original
function is unknown; possibilities are that it was a sacred park, or priests' boarding
school (ashram). The supporting buildings for the temple complex were made from
organic material; as a consequence no remains occur.

49
 sew
u

prambanan

50
 Iv

Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, at Mendut

Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, at Mendut is the definitive Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, This large

sizes statute inside the a ninth-century Buddhist temple, located in Mendut village, Mungkid
sub-district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. is located only three kilometres east
of Borobudur. Mendut, Borobudur, and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist temples, are located
in one straight line. There is a mutual religious relationship between the three temples,
although the exact ritual process is unknown.

The ruins of Mendut temple before restoration, 1880.

Built around the early ninth century AD, Mendut is the oldest of the three temples including
Pawon and Borobudur. The Karangtengah inscription, the temple was built and finished
during the reign of King Indra of the Sailendra dynasty. The inscription dated 824 AD
mentioned that King Indra of Sailendra had built a sacred building named Venuvana which
means "bamboo forest". Dutch archaeologist JG de Casparis has connected the temple
mentioned in the Karangtengah inscription with the Mendut temple.[

Architecture

The statue of Dhyani

Buddha Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani inside the Mendut temple

51
The plan of the temple's base is square, and measures 13.7 metre on each side, with the base
level 3.7 metre above the ground. The 26.4-metre tall temple is facing northwest. The stairs
projecting from the northwest side square elevated base is adorned with a Makara statue on
each side, the side of the stairwell is carved with bas-relief of Jataka fable narrating the
animal story of Buddhist teaching. The square terrace surrounding the body of the temple was
meant for pradakshina or circumambulating ritual, walking clockwise around the temple. The
outer walls are adorned with bas-reliefs of Boddhisattvas (Buddhist divinities), such
as Avalokitesvara, Maitreya, Cunda, Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Mahakarunika
Avalokitesvara, Vajrapani, Manjusri, Akasagarbha, and
Boddhisattvadevi Prajnaparamita among other Buddhist figures. Originally the temple had
two chambers, a small chamber in the front, and a large main chamber in the center.The roof
and some parts of the front chamber walls are missing. The uppermost part of the roof is
missing, it is supposed to have a stupa pinnacle with size and style probably just like the one
in Sojiwan temple. The inner wall of the front chamber is adorned with a bas-relief
of Hariti surrounded by children, Atavaka on the other side, Kalpataru, also groups
of devatas divinities flying in heaven.

The bas-relief of Hariti on the inner northern wall of Mendut//Location three Buddhist
temples, Borobudur-Pawon-Mendut, in one straight line across Progo River.
The main room has three carved large stone statues. The 3 metres tall statue of Dhyani
Buddha Vairocana was meant to liberate the devotees from bodily karma, at the left is a
statue of Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara to liberate them from the karma of speech, and at the
right is Boddhisatva Vajrapani to liberate from the karma of thought.

During the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe the annual Vesak ritual
by walking from Mendut through Pawon to Borobudur. The ritual takes the form of a mass
Buddhist prayer and pradakshina (circumambulation) around the temple.Followers of
traditional Kejawen (Javanese mysticism) or Buddhists, came to worship in the Mendut
temple and it is believed to be able to fulfill wishes, such as deliverance from
sickness. Childless couples, for example, pray at the bas-relief of Hariti for a child, since in
traditional Javanese beliefs, Hariti is a symbol of fertility, patroness of motherhood, and
protector of children.

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 Mendut the TANTRIC “Indrajal” ?

The Creation of Indra-INDRAJAL

Indra's net (also called Indra's jewels or Indra's pearls, Sanskrit Indrajāla, Chinese: 因陀羅網)
is a metaphor used to illustrate the concepts of Śūnyatā
(emptiness), pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination), and interpenetration in Buddhist
philosophy. Indrajala (Sanskrit: इन्द्रजाल) is a Sanskrit word common to most Indian
languages that means Indra's net, magic, deception, fraud, illusion, conjuring, jugglery,
sorcery etc. Magic and Religion sometimes go together. The most important source for the
knowledge of Vedic magic is Atharvaveda. Those mantras of the Vedas that are meant
for shanti, for allaying fears and evils, for greater welfare and for extension of life, etc., are
called pratyangiramantrah or atharvanah, but those meant for harming others,
i.e., abhichara, are called angiramantrah or angirasah.
The human magician applies the magic called Indrajala in imitation of his divine forerunners,
and thus spreads his net of maya over those he chooses as the object of his manipulations. He
creates something before the eyes of the spectators that does not really exist, or only exist in
the spectators’ minds as a result of his skill.
If one confines Indrajala to its stricter sense of illusory appearances created for the public, it
is understandable that this activity was apt to become an image for the great illusion to hold
ignorant mankind in its grasp. According to the Advaita philosophers there is no difference
between avidya (ignorance) and moha ("delusion") as factors that lead to human bondage.

WONDEROUS JAVA

Java Island is the center of the discovery of the temples of various kingdoms in the past. One
of the temples is Mendut Temple which is a ninth-century Buddhist temple, located in

53
Mendut village, Mungkid sub-district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. It is 4
kjm from Borobudur and a 9 min drive via Jl. Balaputradewa and Jl. Mayor Kusen. |
Prambanan the Shiva Temple is 51 Km away and a drive of 1 hr 12 min via Jl. Magelang/Jl.
Magelang – Yogyakarta.
The Buddhist temples form a Buddhist Group and the Prambanan temple group with several
100 or more temples forms the Hindu Group.

In the Buddhist Group, the Mendut temple is located about three kilometres east from
Borobudur. Candi Mendut is a reflection of the sublime and stupendous “Indrajal” of
the Javanese people when they attained unprecedented heights of power, when
literary genius blossomed in their language of Javanese, when they enriched their
lovely island with monumental structures that evoke wonder after twelve centuries,
even in their ruined state. Indrajal means the Net of Indra the creator of the Universe
and is a book consisting of tantra and mantra to supernatural power. The word ios used to
refer to supernatural creations that cannot be explained except by imputing the creation to
God Indra.The Candis can be understood as cosmic symbols of sovereignty that
encode astronomical perceptions of the auspicious. Often overlooked because of its
close proximity to the world famous Borobudur, Candi Mendut was widely regarded
by the early Dutch scholars as ranking among the most shining architectural jewels
produced by the remarkable civilization that emerged in Central Java during the
eight century. In his book Candi Mendut - Womb of the Tathagata, Mark Long describes it
thus:

“The division of the walls beneath the first cornice by means of horizontal and
vertical lines and of the balustrade wall, is so masterful, the effect so starling, and
the whole so little overloads the eye – on the contrary, being almost soberly treated –
that one may classify the Mendut temple without hesitation among the most
successful monuments of the Hindu era.”

Mendut, Borobudur and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist temples, are located in one
straight line. There is a mutual religious relationship between the three temples, although the
exact ritual process is unknown. Until now, it is not clear when Mendut Temple was built. A
historian J.G. de Casparis estimates that Mendut Temple was built by the first king of the
Syailendra dynasty in 824 AD So Mendut Temple is thought to be the first temple built by
Wangsa Syailendra. J.G. de Casparis also estimates that Mendut Temple is older than the age
of Borabudhur Temple. This historian's estimate is based on the Karangtengah inscription
(824 AD) which states in the inscription that King Indra had made a sacred building called
Wenuwana.
Karangtengah inscription (also known as Kayumwungan inscription) is the inscriptions
written on five pieces of stones dated 746 Saka or 824 CE, discovered in Karangtengah
hamlet, Temanggung Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The inscription was written in
ancient Javanese script in two languages; Old Javanese and Sanskrit. The lines 1-24 was
written in Sanskrit, the rest of the lines was written in old Javanese. The inscription is linked
with the temple Borobudur and Mendut
The parts written in Sanskrit mentioned about a king named Samaratungga. His daughter
named Pramodhawardhani has inaugurated a Jinalaya (Sanskrit meaning:Jain temple and the
realm of those have conquer worldly desire and reach enlightenment called jina which is also
a common epithet of the Buddha which is most likely the intended meaning here ), a sacred
Jina sanctuary. The inscription also mentioned a sacred buddhist building

54
called Venuvana (Sankirt: bamboo forest) to place the cremated ashes of 'king of the cloud',
the name for god Indra, probably referred to King Indra of Sailendra dynasty. Jinalaya was
identified as Borobudur. Venuvana was identified as Mendut temple by Dutch archaeologist
JG de Casparis, while Soekmono identified it with Ngawen temple instead.
In the parts written in old Javanese, mentioned about an event, that in the 10th day of
Kresnapaksa in the month of Jyestha year 746 Saka (824 CE), Rakai Patapan pu Palar
inaugurated that rice fields in Kayumwungan to be the tax free land protected by royal edict.
Rakai Patapan pu Palar is identified as Rakai Garung, the king of Mataram Kingdom.
Indonesian historian Slamet Muljana suggest Rakai Garung was another name of
Samaratungga.

According to it the temple was built and completed during the reign of King Indra of
Sailendra dynasty. Casparis connected the temple mentioned in the Karangtengah inscription
with the Mendut temple and Bhiku Sri Pannyavaro Mahethera, in the documentary movie
entitled “The forgotten gems, Buddhists Temples in Java” mentioned that the original name
of the Temple was Venuvana Mandira meaning “The Palace in the Bamboo Forest”.

The Translation of Venuvana by Dr Uday Dokras

According to me, Venu Vanam is a Tamil word with Sanskrit roots. Today it is another name
for Tirunelveli, the place where Nellaiappar Temple is located, representing a sacred place
for the worship of Śiva.—The city of Tirunelveli is situated near the river Tambarabarani,
which is the source of the agricultural wealth of the southern districts of Tamilnadu.
Tirunelveli is one of the eighteen Tirupathis of the Pandya land. Some of the other names of
the sthala are Venu Vanam, Nelveli, Nellur, Saliveli, Salivadi, Salinagar, Brahmā
Vṛdhapuram and Tārukāvanam.
1. Veṇu (वेणु) refers to “bamboo” and represents one of the seven forest-products that
are fit for oblation according to verse 25.59 of the Īśvarasaṃhitā, dealing with the
classification of the places for building the fire-pits (kuṇḍa). Accordingly, “bamboo
(veṇu), śyāmāka, nīvāra (wild gram), jartila, gavīdhuka, karkaṭa and kanaka are the
seven which grow in the forest. Śāli is important among them. Others are to be taken
in its absence, or that of others”.
2. Venu has other meanings such as a musical instrument Veena, Veṇu (वेणु) refers to
one of the ten kinds of sounds (śabda) according to the Padārthādarśā of
Rāghavabhaṭṭa, the Matsyendrasaṃhitā and the Haṃsa-upaniṣad.

3. Veṇu (वेणु) refers to one of the thirty-three alaṃkāras (embellishments), according

to the Nāṭyaśāstra chapter 29. These alaṃkāras, or, ‘embellishments of song’, depend
upon the four types of varṇas, which refers to a specific order of musical notes

55
 (svara). They are attached to the songs of seven forms, although not generally used in
the dhruvās. According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, “veṇu is that in which the tempo (laya) is
playlike”.

4. Muraḷi or Veṇu (वेणु) is a flute made, as its name indicates, from a thin and hollow
bamboo. In a piece of bamboo, suitably chosen holes are bored in proper places. By
blowing in the hole which is near to the closed end and stopping one or more of the
other holes with the fingers as required, music of a very high standard of perfection is
often elicited from this simple instrument.

5. Veṇū (वेणू) is a name mentioned in the Mahābhārata (cf. II.48.2) and represents one
of the many proper names used for people and places.

6. Veṇu (वेणु) refers to:—(also called pāvika) one of Śrī Kṛṣṇa’s flutes that is very
small, not more than nine inches long, with six holes on its body. (cf. Glossary page
from Bhajana-Rahasya).

7. Venu, Vamsa or Kicaka is the name of a tree mentioned in the Kathasaritsagara by

Somadeva (10th century A.D).—Venu refers to the “Bamboo-tree” and its woods in
the Vindhya mountains and great and marvellous forests on the Hemakuta peak of the
Himalaya mountain are mentioned.
8. Somadeva mentions many rich forests, gardens, various trees (e.g., Venu), creepers
medicinal and flowering plants and fruit-bearing trees in the Kathasaritsagara. Travel
through the thick, high, impregnable and extensive Vindhya forest is a typical feature
of many travel-stories. Somadeva’s writing more or less reflects the life of the people
of Northern India during the 11th century. His Kathasaritsagara (‘ocean of streams of
story’), mentioning Venu, is a famous Sanskrit epic story revolving around prince
Naravahanadatta and his quest to become the emperor of the vidyadharas (celestial
beings).
In the Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English
Dictionary Venu means:
9. Veṇu (वेणु):—m. or veṇu ([probably] connected with √1. ve) a bamboo, reed, cane,
[Ṛg-veda] etc. etc.
10. a flute, fife, pipe, [Mahābhārata; Kāvya literature] etc.
11. Name of a deity of the Bodhi tree, [Lalita-vistara]
12. of a king of the Yādavas, [Mahābhārata]
13. of a son of Śata-jit, [Viṣṇu-purāṇa]
14. of a mountain, [Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa]
15. of a river, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
16. ([plural]) the descendants of Veṇu, [Āśvalāyana-śrauta-sūtra] (veṇor viśāle Name of
two Sāmans, [Ārṣeya-brāhmaṇa])

17. Van is the name for Forest in 27 Indic languages and is also derived from Sanskrit.
Apparently there was a bamboo forest in the vicinity of Mendhut and Venu vana
means Forest of Bamboo but also refers to the dwelling place of Shiva.

56
 Bamboo Vana as Mendhut Temple

 Bamboo is a perennial tall grass with jointed woody stems (culm). It grows straight,
up to a height of 40m, without any branches, rising from an underground rootstock. It
needs highly fertile sandy soil and grows in downstream of rivers. It blooms once in
forty or sixty years. The wood is used for making baskets, bows, arrows, chariots, and
agricultural implements. Mats are woven from the dried leaves. Many tribes eat the
seeds (Upadhyay 1964, 15-34).
 Bamboo poles are used in villages to carry water from ponds or rivers. The flute is
made from young bamboo shoots.

Mythological and Religious Associations of Bamboo

 Bamboo grows in clusters, so it is regarded as symbolic of a large family and prolific

progeny. However, only the green bamboo is regarded as sacred. The dry one is
deprived of all sanctity.
 The bamboo is sacred to both Shiva and Vishnu. It is an emblem of Venugopala or
Krishna. It is also sacred to Buddhists and has been depicted in the bas-reliefs of
stupas and in Buddhist sculpture.
 The Ramayana calls it a common forest tree (6.12.56) found growing on the banks of
the Yamuna (2.55.8), and says that dried bamboo is used to make rafts to cross the
river (2.55.14). It is used to make pillars and rafters in cottage construction (3.1.21). It
is also used as a pillar of the straw cottage constructed by Lakshmana (3.15.21-23).
 The Mahabharata (1.63) mentions the festival of the bamboo pole, which involved
planting a bamboo pole every year in honour of Indra. After erecting the pole, people
decorated it with golden cloth, perfumes, garlands, and ornaments. Then the ruler,
Uparichara Vasu, the king of Chedi who belonged to the Puru Dynasty, prayed for the
expansion of his cities and kingdom.
 In north India, the green bamboo and its branches are used to make the canopy under
which wedding ceremonies are performed. Coffins are also made of green bamboos.
 During the sacred-thread ceremony, a twig of the bamboo is given to the boy.
 People of the Turi tribe of Gujarat place two small pieces of bamboo in the room of
confinement, so that no malicious spirit can influence the newborn.
 In Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, newly married couples place their feet in a bamboo basket
and walk slowly, so that they do not fall flat on the ground. It is very auspicious to
walk in this manner because it is symbolic of a large family. The Prabhus of Pune
place bamboo baskets on the heads of the bride and the bridegroom. The Mubasis of
Bengal ask married couples to go around a bamboo post. The Garos and Kacharis of
Assam worship the bamboo post after planting it in the ground.
 On the other hand, it is widely believed in Uttar Pradesh that a churail (evil female
spirit) lives in bamboo groves (Upadhyay 1964, 24).
 During the aghora puja, after worshipping Shiva and Parvati, the performance of
homa, followed by feeding of Brahmanas and young girls, takes place. On this day, a
branch of the bamboo is planted on one side of the pandal, along with mango flowers
and a banana tree with flowers, and they are worshipped by all.

57
 Another association of the bamboo pole is with the kaavadi.

The Story of Shiva and the Kaavadi. Once, Lord Shiva entrusted sage Agastya with
two hillocks, balanced across his shoulders on a bamboo pole, to be carried for
installation in south India. But the sage left them in a forest and asked his disciple
Idumban to bring them. Idumban found the two hillocks and lifted them with great
difficulty. After a while, he put them down near Palani, home to a famous shrine of
Murugan or Kartikeya, Shiva’s son. When Idumban wanted to continue his journey,
he found that the hillocks could not be moved. He sought the help of a youth but the
boy claimed that the hillocks belonged to him. In the ensuing fight, Idumban was
defeated. Idumban then realized that the youth was Lord Kartikeya. Idumban begged
for pardon and asked that anyone who carried a kaavadi-a bamboo pole suspended
with anything resembling the two hillocks-may be granted his heart’s desire.
Idumban’s wish was granted. Today, the kaavadi is carried by pilgrims crossing the
country.

1. The Kaavadi consists of two semicircular pieces of bamboo that are bent and attached
to a bamboo cross structure that can be balanced on the devotee’s shoulders. It may be
decorated with flowers or peacock feathers, or a pot of milk may be hung from either
end of the pole slung across the shoulder. Some kaavadis are very ornate and heavy.

2. The kaavadi has come to symbolize the balance between happiness and unhappiness,
wealth and poverty-all of which are inevitable. It is necessary to maintain the proper
balance between them and to avoid both extremes of joy or depression, retaining
optimum poise.

3. The Buddha was presented with a grove of mango trees, beneath which he could
relax. He told his monks a tale of his earlier life as a monkey. He lived with his clan
on a mango tree and all were very careful never to let the fruit fall to the ground
where it might be found by a human, tasted and desired.
4. But one mango fell into the river and was carried to Kashi (Varanasi) where the king,
who was bathin, found and ate it. Delighted with the taste, he and his soldiers set out
to search for the tree.

5. When they eventually located it he ordered all the monkeys to be killed. The Buddha
saved the other monkeys by making a bridge of his body over the river into a bamboo
grove, but lost his life while saving his clan. So, for the Buddhists, the bamboo is a
sacred tree (Gandhi and Singh 1989, 112-13).

6. A sanyasi’s danda and a yaati’s (ascetic’ vessels are made from bamboo (Kurma
Purana, 2.19, 29; 15, 3; 29, 9).

Krishna’s flute is made of bamboo

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Krishna used a flute made of green bamboo to charm the cowherdesses of Vrindavan with its
sweet notes and tender melodies. Since this is the voice of the Supreme Being calling out to
his devotees, the music of the simple bamboo flute is the Sacred Song of the Lord, the Divine
Music. Less well-known than its monumental neighbour Borobudur, Candi Mendut was
likely an important stop along the road to that temple. The square shrine stands on a high
platform, accessible by a flight of stairs. Like nearby Candi Pawon, Candi Mendut is
positioned directly to the east of Borobudur. These smaller temples therefore face west,
opening towards the main site. https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/candi-mendut-
womb-of-tathagata-nam581/

Mendut temple was discovered in 1836. The entire structure was found, except the roof that
had already crumbled. Between 1897 and 1904, the Dutch government initiated restoration
works that yielded satisfactory result, although the temple was still far from perfection. This
work had managed to restore the temple’s base and body were reconstructed. In 1908, Van
Erp led reconstruction and restoration works on the temple that aimed to restore the roof,
place stupas, and repair parts of the roof top. The works had once halted due to financial
constraints, but were continued on in 1925.

Mendut Temple built during the reign of King Indra

Mendut Temple: Spiritual Portal to the imposing Borobudur temple – The small Buddhist
Mendut Temple in Central Java forms an inseparable part of a pilgrim’s progress to the
mighty Borobudur temple. Serving as an introductory portal before ascending the Borobudur
temple, Mendut has an array of narrative reliefs and most important Buddha statues that

59
spiritually prepare pious pilgrims and the general visitors for their journey to the top of
Buddhism’s cosmic mountain at Borobudur. The temple itself is located in the village of
Mendut in the Magelang Regency in Central Java.

Mendut Temple : Situated 3 Km east from Borobudur Temple

The temple is on a north to south straight line with the Borobudur and Pawon Temples. Local
legend relates that long ago a brick-paved road led from Mendut to Borobudur, closed in by
walls with niches built into them. According to Dutch archaeologist JG de Casparis, the
temple forms part of a once huge temple complex together with the Pawon and Borobudur
temples and, chronologically speaking, is the oldest among the three.

Mendut temple was built and completed during the reign of King Indra of Sailendra
dynasty.

The 26.4 meters tall temple faces northwest. The stairs projecting from its northwest’ side
square elevated base is adorned with a Makara statue on either side. The side of the stair wall
is carved with bas-relief of the Jataka fable narrating the animal story of Buddhist teaching.
While the square terrace surrounding the body of the temple is meant for pradakshina or the
ritual of circumambulation, walking clockwise around the temple. The outer walls are
adorned with bas-reliefs of Bodhisatvas (Buddhist divinities), such as Avalokitesvara,
Maitreya, Cunda, Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Mahakarunika Avalokitesvara, Vajrapani,
Manjusri, Akasagarbha, and Boddhisattvadevi Prajnaparamita among other Buddhist figures.
Originally the temple had two chambers, a small chamber in the front, and the large main
chamber in the center. The roof and some parts of the front chamber walls are now missing.
The inner wall of the front chamber is adorned with bas-relief of Hariti surrounds by children,
Atavaka on the other side, Kalpataru, also groups of devatas divinities flying in heaven.

The Mendut temple holds special significance

For Buddhists in Indonesia and abroad, the Mendut temple holds special significance. The
existence of the three gigantic Buddha statues holds its own fascinating beauty both as sacred

60
monuments and as works of art. The three statues sitting in the temple are still considered to
radiate an aura of blessedness. Today, the temple is visited by many visitors and Buddhists
pilgrims from around the world before proceeding to Borobudur. Mendut Temple also
becomes the staging point for the annual ritual ceremony of Vesak, where the holly waters
from the pristine springs of Jumprit and the torch with the natural eternal flames at Mrapen
are kept, before the monks and congregations conduct their ritual procession from Mendut to
Borobudur.

The internal structure of this Buddhist temple is made of bricks, but the outer walls are made
of andesite stone. This building has a basement, above which there are alleys that surround
the temple. Around Mendut Temple, there are 48 small stupas.

The internal structure of this Buddhist temple is made of bricks, but the outer walls are
made of andesite stone.
ASTROLOGICAL DESIGN

In my paper THE STORY OF ASTROLOGY IN ANGKOR WAT & OTHER KHMER

TEMPLES=https://www.academia.edu/56273723/THE_STORY_OF_ASTROLOGY_
IN_ANGKOR_WAT I have dicussed the possibility of ASngkor having a Hindu
Astrological locational setting.

61
 These
Pics belongs to Borobudur temple. See the meru formation which resembles a shree yantra.

The walls of the Borobudur, a magnificent Buddhist ruin on the island of Java, are decorated
with scenes from the 600 previous lives of Gautama Buddha.

According to historians, Mendut Temple has a close connection with Pawon Temple, because
Mendut Temple, Pawon Temple and Borobudur Temple are located in a straight line from
north-south. Even now it is still a mystery why the three temples are connected in a straight
line? It is very possible that this has a purpose, for example associated with astrology or
others. Another question is how to determine the location of the temples in the past? What
technology was used at that time?

The positions of Candii Borobudur, Candi Pawon and Candi Mendut are in this line
following the constellation Orion Alnitak, Alnilam, Mintaka (Orion Belt). Maybe after this of
course we will ask. How did in the past understand the relationship between the three temples
and the constellation Orion? Why do the three temples stand in the same slanted line as the
constellation Orion? Everything is still a mystery. Similar to the mystery of the various reliefs
in the Borobudur Temple. Likewise, the mystery of how the Prambanan temples were made
in the past with a high level of complexity. What kind of technology existed in the past?

The temples were built by the kings of the Syailendra Dynasty who were known as the family
of temple builders in the archipelago. Other temples that are also close to Borobudur Temple
are Canggal Temple / Mount Wukir and Losari Temple around Salam, Asu Temple,
Lumbung Temple, Selagriya Temple, Ngawen Temple and Sari Temple around Muntilan.

62
 Stairs to the top floor of Mendut Temple

There is still one more temple, namely Banon Temple which has Hindu characteristics. In this
temple, there are found statues of the main Hindu gods in good condition, namely Shiva,
Vishnu, Brahma, and Ganesha. Unfortunately, the existence of Banon Temple is difficult to
reconstruct because there are very few stones found in Banon Temple. The statues of Banon
Temple during the Dutch East Indies era were moved to Batavia and stored at the National
Museum of Indonesia.

Relief of Mendut Temple

Mendut Temple. Guard statue on the stairs to enter Mendut

Temple.

The ruins of Mendut Temple were first discovered in 1836. The discovery at that time was
the base and building of the temple but the top and roof were not visible. Then in 1897-1904,
the Dutch East Indies Government carried out renovations in several parts including the roof
63
of the temple so that it displayed a shape that was almost the same as it is today, although not
yet perfect.

Reliefs on the walls of Mendut Temple

BACA JUGA
The Dutch East Indies government returned to reconstruction and restoration in 1908 led by
Van Erp with the results of refining the roof shape and replacing the stupas. This restoration
was not completed but was temporarily suspended due to lack of funds, resuming in 1925.

Physically, Mendut Temple building which stands on a rectangular foundation has a height of
26.40 m. The position of the Mendut temple land is quite high, also about 2 meters from the
surrounding height. There are many reliefs on the walls of the base of the temple with 31
panels in the form of dioramas of various stories. Relief forms in the form of carvings of
people, animals, flowers and tendrils.

Guard Statue on the stairs of Mendut Temple

To reach the top of the temple through the date which is on the west side which has the
entrance to the room in the temple. The roof of the viewer is the same height and blends with
the roof of the temple body. Mendut Temple does not have a gate. The walls of the stairs are
fanel reliefs depicting various Buddhist stories. At the beginning of the date there is a pair of
dragon heads whose mouths are wide open. On the underside of the dragon's head was a
panel with the image of a dwarf.

64
Some Stories in the Reliefs of Mendut Temple

In one part of the Mendut temple fanel, there is a relief depicting the story of Dharmabuddhi
and Dustabuddhi. This story is about two friends, children of merchants. One day
Dharmabuddhi found money and told his friend Dustabuddhi. They keep the money under a
tree.

The story of Dharmabuddhi and Dustabuddhi in Mendut

Temple

When they need money, Dharmabuddhi takes some of the money and divides it in half. The
always suspicious and dissatisfied Dustabuddhi took all the remaining money. He reversed
the facts by accusing Dharmabuddhi of taking all the money and bringing it to court.
Fortunately the judge was able to prove that Dustabuddhi was found guilty and convicted.

Another story from the relief at Mendut Temple is that two parrots are different in their
behavior because one is educated by a thief. While one bCandi Mendut is a shrine that can be
entered, as opposed to a Buddhist stupa (reliquary mound) like Borobudur, which can only be
circumambulated. Candi Mendut’s interior walls have niches in which to place sculptures of
buddhas or lamps to illuminate the dark space. Its relief carvings on Candi Mendut suggest a
royal connection. In the vestibule leading inside, Buddhist deities and members of their
celestial supporting cast flock toward the shrine, bearing offerings fit for gods. Mendut
Temple and Pawon Temple are part of the Borobudur Temple Compounds, with the two
smaller temples located to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The Mendut temple is on
the processional walkway to Borobudur. Built in the early 9th century it is considered older
than Borobudur which is three kilometres away. It was buried beneath volcanic ash and
debris from Mt Merapi and was discovered in 1834. There are numerous large panels.bas-
reliefs.

Relief Of Hariti_Inner Northeast Wall of the Porch-Candi Mendut

An example of religious usurpation, in which a contact religion (Buddhism, in this case)

incorporates the gods of its competitors (Hinduism, in this case) into its own pantheon.

Twin reliefs on the inner walls of the porch illustrate the popular Buddhist legend of Hariti, a
Hindu plague goddess who was converted by the Buddha to become a protector of children1.

65
This relief of Hariti is located on the inner northeast wall of the porch. A relief of Atavaka,
her husband, is seen on the previous page.

The Story Of The Foolish Tortoise

Northeast Wall of the Staircase

Candi Mendut

In this Tantri tale from the northeast wall of the staircase, a foolish tortoise is chased by
hunters, suspends himself by his jaws from a stick, and convinces two geese to carry him to
safety. But the silly turtle can not stop himself from opening his mouth to boast of his
cleverness, which of course causes him to lose his grip on the stick, and so he falls down to
his death on the rocks below. Compare: the same story on Temple 2, Nalanda, India.

66
67
Relief Of Atavaka-Inner Southwest Wall of the Porch,Candi Mendut

Twin reliefs on the inner walls of the porch illustrate the popular Buddhist legend of Hariti,
a plague goddess who was converted by the Buddha to become a protector of children1. A
relief of Hariti is displayed on the next page. Seen here, on the inner southwest wall, is a
rare and unusual relief of her husband Atavaka (or, Panchika) surrounded by the children
whom he, like his wife, is now protecting.

The Main Sanctum

The main sanctum contains three massive seated Buddhist figures, each carved from a single
block of stone. The three statues are the Buddhist main divinities revered at Mendut which
can explain the spiritual purpose of the establishment of this temple. At the center of the
chamber is a grand 3 meter tall stone statue of Dhyani Buddha Cakyamuni or Dhyani Buddha
Vairocana facing west, sitting in the dharma Cakra Mudra hand position (turning the wheel of
Dharma). This central statue is believed to symbolize the turning of the wheels of all life on
earth.
On the right of the central statue is the Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara in a seated position with
the left leg crossed, while the right leg touches the ground. The hand position is varamudra
which illustrates the Buddha delivering his teachings. The statue portrays Buddha in his
grand costume complete with the jewelries and wearing a crown.

The third statue is the Bodhisatva Vajrapani which sits on the left side of the Budha
Cakyamuni. Just as the Bodhisatva Avalokitesvara, this statue also portrays the Buddha in his
grand costume with reverse crossed legs to those of the Bodhisatva Avalokitesvara. Also
called the Bodhisatva Maitreya, the hand position is simhakarnamudra which is similar to
varamudra but with closed fingers, and represents the Buddha as the salvation of mankind.

The central buddha, Vairochana, holds his hands in dharmachakra mudra, a teaching gesture,
and plants his two feet firmly on a double-lotus pedestal. Flanking him are the bodhisattvas
Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani.

68
Let us talk of the theory of the three Buddha statues, though trhere is another theory that
there are two and the third is of a prince. Be as it may, the central three metre high statue is
stunning and depicts Dhyani Buddha Vairocana/Dhyani Buddha Cakyamuni who is flanked
by, Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara to the left, with Boddhisatva Vajrapani on the right. Each of
the statues are cut from a single block of stone and thought to have been carved on site with
the temple walls and ceiling built after.

Temple Mendut was part of a larger temple complex, however all that remains of other
buildings are neatly stacked into piles within the temple grounds, where amongst the rubble,
carved stones can be seen. There is a very large banyan tree near the temple. Nearby is the
Mendut Buddhist Monastery. Very few people know that the grounds were originally a
Catholic Monastery until the 1950’s, when it was purchased by the Buddhist foundation and
turned into a Buddhist Monastery. Flip flop of religions. The grounds are very serene to
walk through and full of statues, pools of water and greenery.

Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra and the DESIGN of the Mendut

The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra or Vairocana’s Awakening Sutra, Mahāvairocana is an
important Vajrayana Buddhist text composed before 674 CE. The Indian tantric
master Buddhaguhya (fl. c.700 CE) classified the text as a caryātantra, and in Tibetan
Buddhism it is still considered to be a member of the carya classification. In Japan where it is
known as the Mahāvairocana Sūtra (Daibirushana jōbutsu jinpen kajikyō), it is one of two
central texts in the Shingon school, along with the Vajrasekhara Sutra. Both are also part of
the.Tendai.school. The longer title of the scripture
is Mahāvairocanābhisaṃbodhivikurvitādhiṣṭhānavaipulyasūtrendrarājanāmadharmapary
āya (Dharma Discourse Called “Mahāvairocana’s Awakening and His Empowerment of
Miracles,” King of the Best of the Extensive Scriptures). Though the text is often called a
tantra by later figures (including later Indian commentators), the scripture does not call itself
a tantra.

69
12th century painting of Mahāvairocana, Heian period, collecting in Nezu Museum/ Tibetan representation of
Buddha Vairocana, featuring several of his defining characteristics, including his white color, the teaching gesture
(dharmacakramudra), and sitting on an elaborate lion throne. Our mendut Buddha at extreme right.

The Mahāvairocana Tantra is the first true Buddhist tantra, the earliest comprehensive
manual of tantric Buddhism. It was probably composed in the middle of the 7th century, in all
probability in north-eastern India at Nālandā. Evidence to support the text's composition in
Nalanda include the fact that many of the Buddhist scholars involved in the transmission of
the text resided in Nalanda including Buddhaguhya and Śubhakarasiṃha. The description of
plants and trees in the MVT also matches those found in the region surrounding Nalanda in
North-East India.

The Mahāvairocana Tantra consists of three primary mandalas corresponding to the body,
speech and mind of Mahāvairocana, as well as preliminary practices and initiation rituals.
According to Buddhaguhya’s Piṇḍārtha (a summary of the main points of the tantra)
the Mahāvairocana Tantra system of practice is in three stages: preliminary, application, and
accomplishment. Attached here and there are doctrinal passages, and sadhana practices which
relate back to the main mandalas.

A new wave of Buddhism from Northeast India

A.J. Bernet Kempers published an important study in which he advanced his theories for a possible
Indian origin of the iconography of the five main statues of Candi Jago, namely Amoghapasa
Lokesvara with his four attendants Tara, Sudhanakumara, Hayagrrva, and Bhrkutr. Accordingly the
Candi Jago statues have been influenced by a new wave of Buddhism from Northeast India, which
reached Java in the first part of the 13th century. (Ancient Indonesian
Sculpture,Series: Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en
Volkenkunde, Volume: 165 E-Book ISBN: Brill,1995)

Pala Mandala of the Amoghapāśa: One of the richest visual objects in Tibetan Buddhism is
the mandala. A mandala is a symbolic picture of the universe. It can be a painting on a wall
or scroll, created in coloured sands on a table, or a visualisation in the mind of a very skilled
adept. In the Paladynasty there are no 8 armed images of the Buddha.Therefore, how the
concept of the Amoghapāśa came to be linked with the Pala dynasty is not clear. What is

70
clear is that the

10th-11th century, India, Kurkihar hoard, bodhisattva on lion, bronze, photo on vmis, at the Patna Museum./// Circa
10th century, India, Bihar, Nalanda, Avalokiteshvara, stone, item 4473/A24143 at the Indian Museum in Kolkata (India).//
9th century, India, Bihar, Nalanda, Avalokiteshvara, stone, item 3962/A24123 at the Indian Museum in Kolkata/ 8th
century, India, Nalanda, Padmapani (Avalokiteshvara), stone, item 49-148 at the National Museum in New Delhi
(India).
Amoghapāśa had a beginning in India and the concept was carried on to Tibet, Sri Lanka and
the Indonesian kingdoms of the earlier time.

71
Avalokiteshvara is a bodhisattva, a divine being who is on the path to becoming a Buddha (“Awakened
One”) and helps others on the path toward enlightenment. This multi-armed figure is hollow-cast from an
alloy of copper and 5% tin, called bronze. Using computed tomography or CT scans, museum
conservators determined that the head, arms, and body were cast in stages and joined using sophisticated
metal casting techniques. Avalokiteshvara is covered with images of the Buddha, like the ones making up
his necklace. Each of these small figures was originally carved or stamped in wax and applied to the
model before being cast in bronze. Avalokiteshvara also wears arm and wristbands made of a different
metal alloy: brass, which initially would have glistened like gold.
RIGHT PIC- Tibet Buddhism 4 Head 8 Arm Ushnishavijaya Namgyalma Kwan-Yin Buddha statue

PART II
Praising the Mandala
for the Chakravarti
Buddha
( and KING)
72
 VI
Unravelling the Complex Mandala of SEWU

Historic Ind
osphere cultural influence zone of Greater India for transmission of elements of Indian elements such as the honorific
titles, naming of people, naming of places, linguistic borrowings, mottos of organisations and educational institutes as
well as adoption of Hinduism, Buddhism, Indian architecture, martial arts, Indian music and dance, traditional
Indian clothing, and Indian cuisine, a process which has been also aided by the ongoing historic expansion of Indian
diaspora

Southeast Asia was in the Indian sphere of cultural influence from 290 BCE to the 15th
century CE, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were incorporated into local political systems.
Kingdoms in the southeast coast of the Indian subcontinent had established trade, cultural and
political relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms in Burma, Bhutan, Thailand, the Sunda
Islands, Malay Peninsula, Philippines, Cambodia, Laos, and Champa. This led to
the Indianisation and Sanskritisation of Southeast Asia within the Indosphere, Southeast

73
Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Mandala (polities, city states and
confederacies).

Indian culture itself arose from various distinct cultures and peoples, also including early
Southeast Asian, specifically Austroasiatic influence onto early Indians. A reason for the
acceptance of Indian culture and religious traditions in Southeast Asia was because Indian
culture already had similarities to indigenous cultures of Southeast Asia, which can be
explained by earlier Southeast Asian (specifically Austroasiatic, such as
early Munda and Mon Khmer groups), as well as later Himalayan (Tibetic) cultural and
linguistic influence onto various Indian groups. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski,
Jules Bloch, and Lévi, among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic,
and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early Indian culture and
traditions. India is seen a melting pot of western, eastern and indigenous traditions. This
distinctly Indian cultural system was later adopted and assimilated into the indigenous social
construct and statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity, which rulers gained power and
stability, transforming small chieftains into regional powers.

Unlike the other kingdoms which existed on the Indian subcontinent, the Pallava
empire which ruled the southeastern coast of the Indian peninsula did not impose cultural
restrictions on people who wished to cross the seaThe Chola empire, which executed
the South-East Asian campaign of Rajendra Chola I and the Chola invasion of Srivijaya,
profoundly impacted Southeast Asia. This impact led to more exchanges with Southeast
Asia on the sea routes. Whereas Buddhism thrived and became the main religion in many
countries of Southeast Asia, it became a minority religion in India.

The peoples of maritime Southeast Asia — present-day Malaysia, Indonesia and

the Philippines — are thought to have migrated southward from South China sometime
between 2500 and 1500 BC. The influence of the civilization which existed on the Indian
Subcontinent gradually became predominant among them, and it also became predominant
among the peoples which lived on the Southeast Asian mainland.Southern Indian traders,
adventurers, teachers and priests continued to be the dominating influences in Southeast Asia
until about 1500 CE. Hinduism and Buddhism both spread to these states from India and for
many centuries, they existed there with mutual toleration. Eventually the states of the
mainland mainly became Buddhist.The key drivers of the Indianisation of Southeast Asia
were the Austronesian and Indian maritime trade especially the Spice trade and the Maritime
Silk Road, the emissaries of Ashoka, and the Buddhist missions of Emperor Ashoka the
Great.

74
Fragment of a wall painting depicting Buddha from a stupa in Miran along the Silk Road
(200AD - 400AD) A blue-eyed Central Asian monk teaching an East-Asian
monk, Bezeklik, Turfan, eastern Tarim Basin, China, 9th century; the monk on the right is
possibly Tocharian,[51] although more likely Sogdian.
The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road began in the 1st century CE,
according to a semi-legendary account of an ambassador sent to the West by the Chinese
Emperor Ming (58–75). During this period Buddhism began to spread throughout Southeast,
East, and Central Asia. Mahayana, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism are the three primary
forms of Buddhism that spread across Asia via the Silk Road.

The Buddhist movement was the first large-scale missionary movement in the history of
world religions. Chinese missionaries were able to assimilate Buddhism, to an extent, to
native Chinese Daoists, which brought the two beliefs together. Buddha's community of
followers, the Sangha, consisted of male and female monks and laity. These people moved
through India and beyond to spread the ideas of Buddha. As the number of members within
the Sangha increased, it became costly so that only the larger cities were able to afford having
the Buddha and his disciples visit. It is believed that under the control of the Kushans,
Buddhism was spread to China and other parts of Asia from the middle of the first century to
the middle of the third century. Extensive contacts started in the 2nd century, probably as a
consequence of the expansion of the Kushan empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim
Basin, due to the missionary efforts of a great number of Buddhist monks to Chinese lands.
The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either
Parthian, Kushan, Sogdian, or Kuchean.

One result of the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road was displacement and conflict. The
Greek Seleucids were exiled to Iran and Central Asia because of a new Iranian dynasty called
the Parthians at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, and as a result the Parthians became
the new middle men for trade in a period when the Romans were major customers for silk.
Parthian scholars were involved in one of the first Buddhist text translations into the Chinese
language. Its main trade centre on the Silk Road, the city of Merv, in due course and with the
coming of age of Buddhism in China, became a major Buddhist centre by the middle of the
2nd century. Knowledge among people on the silk roads also increased when Emperor
Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty (268–239 BCE) converted to Buddhism and raised the
religion to official status in his northern Indian empire.

From the 4th century CE onward, Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to
India to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures, with Fa-hsien's pilgrimage to

75
India (395–414), and later Xuanzang (629–644) and Hyecho, who traveled from Korea to
India. The travels of the priest Xuanzang were fictionalized in the 16th century in a fantasy
adventure novel called Journey to the West, which told of trials with demons and the aid
given by various disciples on the journey.

1. Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by Indian Buddhist King Ashoka, 3rd century BCE

2. A statue depicting Buddha giving a sermon, from Sarnath, 3,000 km (1,864 mi) southwest of Ürümqi, Xinjiang,
8th century

There were many different schools of Buddhism travelling on the Silk Road. The
Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins were two of the major Nikaya schools. These were
both eventually displaced by the Mahayana, also known as "Great Vehicle". This movement
of Buddhism first gained influence in the Khotan region. The Mahayana, which was more of
a "pan-Buddhist movement" than a school of Buddhism, appears to have begun in
northwestern India or Central Asia. It formed during the 1st century BCE and was small at
first, and the origins of this "Greater Vehicle" are not fully clear. Some Mahayana scripts
were found in northern Pakistan, but the main texts are still believed to have been composed
in Central Asia along the Silk Road. These different schools and movements of Buddhism
were a result of the diverse and complex influences and beliefs on the Silk Road. With the
rise of Mahayana Buddhism, the initial direction of Buddhist development changed. This
form of Buddhism highlighted, as stated by Xinru Liu, "the elusiveness of physical reality,
including material wealth." It also stressed getting rid of material desire to a certain point;
this was often difficult for followers to understand.

During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, merchants played a large role in the spread of religion,
in particular Buddhism. Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism an
appealing alternative to previous religions. As a result, merchants supported Buddhist
monasteries along the Silk Road, and in return the Buddhists gave the merchants somewhere
to stay as they traveled from city to city. As a result, merchants spread Buddhism to foreign
encounters as they traveled. Merchants also helped to establish diaspora within the
communities they encountered, and over time their cultures became based on Buddhism. As a
result, these communities became centers of literacy and culture with well-organized
marketplaces, lodging, and storage. The voluntary conversion of Chinese ruling elites helped
the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and led Buddhism to become widespread in Chinese
society. The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended around the 7th century
with the rise of Islam in Central Asia.

76
The height of the Hindu and Buddhist era in Java was marked by the establishment of large
kingdoms and kings who made carvings of personal names which are recorded in historical
documents, on epigraphs and on temple reliefs. The names of Javanese people during this era
were influenced by HinduBuddhist traditions and beliefs. These reached the island of Java
sometime around the 4th or 5th century BC. This period is categorised as the time when the
influence of Shaivism Buddhism (Mahayana Buddhism) spread from India via the trade
route, through marriages, priests and Brahmans and via the path of knights along as stated
above. Not long after, in a ceremony, Jayavarman II the Khmer King proclaimed himself a
chakravartin,-Lord of the Universe, and took on the title devaraja, God-king. His successors
would continue to use these titles and draw on them to cement their power and authority as
absolute rulers ordained by the gods. An inscription from the temple at Sdok Kok Thom
recounts the story of a ritual that occurred in AD 802 on top of the sacred mountain
Mahendraparvata. In this ceremony, Jayavarman II was proclaimed a chakravartin, Lord of
the Universe, and took on the title devaraja, God-king.
In Java, Kings took up names showing that they were descendents of Hindu /Buddhist Gods
1. tunggadeva, "reincarnation of the god Shiva" and
2. Ansuman, "reincarnation of the god of the sun",
3. Rakai Dyah Balitung Dharmodaya Mahasambu and
4. Rakai Watukara Ishwara Kesawasawatungga (Samarattungga),
At 3 and 4 are names for the god Shiva to indicate that a person with this name was a
follower of Shaivism. A similar form appears in the case of the name
5. Purnawarman (purnna meaning "perfect" and varmman meaning "coat of armour").
meaning a worshipper of the god Mithra-Surya or Shiva.
It can be concluded that the names of kings in Java during the Hindu-Buddhist era showed a
strong imitative tendency of the Hindu-Buddhist tradition (from India):
A, The forms of these kings' names are related to the existence of Batara Teri [təri] or
Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva).
B. The concept is that of a "king god", which means that the kings were reincarnations of the
gods. ( Javanese Names during the Height of the Hindu-Buddhist Kingdoms in Java: An Ethnolinguistic
Study SAHID TEGUH WIDODO, KEMANUSIAAN Vol. 20, No. 2, (2013), 81–89 )

A chakravarti (Sanskrit: चक्रवर्तिन्) is an ideal (or idealized) universal ruler, in the

history, and religion of India. The concept is present in Indian subcontinent cultural
traditions, narrative myths and lore. There are three types of chakravarti: chakravala
chakravarti, an emperor who rules over all four of the continents (i.e., a universal
monarch); dvipa chakravarti, a ruler who governs only one of those continents;
and pradesha chakravarti, a monarch who leads the people of only a part of a
continent, the equivalent of a local king. Dvipa chakravarti is particularly one who
rules the entire Indian subcontinent (as in the case of the Mauryan Empire. The first
references to a Chakravala Chakravartin appear in monuments from the time of the
early Maurya Empire, in the 4th to 3rd century BCE, in reference to Chandragupta
Maurya and his grandson Ashoka.

77
The word cakra-vartin- is a bahuvrīhi compound word, translating to "one whose
wheels are moving", in the sense of "whose chariot is rolling everywhere without
obstruction". It can also be analysed as an 'instrumental bahuvrīhi: "through whom the
wheel is moving" in the meaning of "through whom the Dharmachakra ("Wheel of
the Dharma) is turning" (most commonly used in Buddhism). The Tibetan equivalent
(khor los sgyur ba'i rgyal po) translates to "monarch who controls by means of a
wheel".

14 Ratnas of Chakravartin, 17th century manuscript/Chakravarti, from Amaravati Stupa, 1st

century CE, using the "Imperial Gesture" and surrounded by his attributes. Possibly
represents Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire.

In Buddhism, a chakravarti is the secular counterpart of a Buddha. The term applies to

temporal as well as spiritual kingship and leadership, particularly in Buddhism and Jainism.
In Hinduism, a chakravarti is a powerful ruler whose dominion extends to the entire earth. In
both religions, the chakravarti is supposed to uphold dharma, indeed being "he who turns the
wheel (of dharma)".
The Indian concept of chakravarti later evolved into the concept of devaraja – the divine right
of kings – which was adopted by the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Southeast
Asia through Hindu Brahmin scholars deployed from India to their courts. It was first
adopted by Javanese Hindu-Buddhist empires such as Majapahit; through them by the Khmer
Empire; and subsequently by the Thai monarchs.In Buddhist chronicles, Buddha supposedly
told the boy that he would indeed become an Chakravarti emperor in next life as a result of
his act of generosity in offering sand and the boy in next life born as Ashoka.

It was believed that once a chakravarti emerged the "Future Buddha" Maitreya would appear
on earth. In early Buddhist art there are more than 30 depictions, all from the Deccan. In most
the Chakravarti King uses the "Royal Gesture" in which the king "clenches his left hand at his
chest and reaches up with his right hand". He is surrounded by his seven attributes:
the Chakraratna wheel, his state elephant, charger horse, "the octagonal gem which is so
luminous it can light the path of his army by night", his queen, defense minister and finance
minister. The early Buddhist Mahāvastu and the Divyāvadāna, as well as
the Theravadin Milindapañha, describe the marks of the chakravarti as
ruler: uṣṇīṣa, chhatra "parasol", "horn jewel" or vajra, whisk and sandals. These were the
marks of the kshatriya. Plastic art of early Mahayana Buddhism illustrates bodhisattvas in a
form called uṣṇīṣin "wearing a turban/hair binding", wielding the mudras for "nonviolent
cakravarti rule".

78

Tibetan mandala of
chakravartis
list of 12 chakravartin of Avasarpini as
per Jainism is as follows
1. Bharata, son
of Tirthankara Rishabhanatha
2. Sagara, ancestor
of Bhagiratha as in
the Puranas
3. Maghava
4. Sanata Kumara
5. Tirthankara Shantinatha
6. Tirthankara Kunthunatha
7. Tirthankara Aranatha
8. Subhauma
9. Padmanabha
10. Harishena
11. Jayasena
12. Brahmadatt
the six

Mahāmaṇḍala-cakravartin, royal title andis defined in the “Indian epigraphical glossary” as it can be
found on ancient inscriptions commonly written in Sanskrit, Prakrit or Dravidian languages.
Mahāmaṇḍala (महामण्डल):—[=mahā-maṇḍala] [from mahā > mah] m. Name of a king, [Buddhist
literature] The Great Chronicle of Buddhas (by Ven. Mingun Sayadaw)
Biography (2-3): Sāriputta and Moggallāna Mahātheras [Chapter 43 - Forty-one Arahat-Mahatheras
and their Respective Etadagga
Garga Samhita (English) (by Danavir Goswami)
Verse 8.13.136 < [Chapter 13 - A Thousand Names of Lord Balarāma]

In Buddhism, a chakravarti is the secular counterpart of a buddha. The term applies to

temporal as well as spiritual kingship and leadership, particularly in Buddhism and Jainism.
In Hinduism, a chakravarti is a powerful ruler whose dominion extends to the entire earth.
Ikeda, Daisaku (1977) in Buddhism, the first millennium. Quotes Buddha as saying that-

“One hundred years after my death, this boy will become a Chakravarti king at Pataliputra
who will rule over all regions. His name will be Ashoka, and he will rule through the true
Dharma. In addition, he will distribute my relics abroad, will build eighty-four thousand
stupas.”
(Internet Archive. Tokyo ; New York : Kodansha International ; New York : distributed through Harper &
Row. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-87011-321-5. )

According to Hindu traditions, "Vishnu, in the form of Chakra, was held as the ideal of
worship for Kings desirous of obtaining Universal Sovereignty", a concept associated with
the Bhagavata Puranas, a religious sanction traceable to the Gupta period, which also led to
the chakravartin concept. There are relatively few examples of chakravartins in both northern
and southern India.

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Bharata, the son of Dushyanta and Shakuntala, was conferred the title of cakravartin samrāj,
according to some legends. Another emperor of the same name, who was the son of
Rishabha, was also given the title cakravartin.

In Southern India, the Pallava period beginning with Simhavishnu (575–900 CE) was a
transitional stage in southern Indian society with monument building, establishment of
(bhakti) sects of Alvars and Nayanars, flowering of rural Brahmanical institutions of Sanskrit
learning, and the establishment of Chakravartin model of kingship over a territory of diverse
people; which ended the pre-Pallavan era of territorially segmented people, each with their
culture, under a tribal chieftain. The Pallava period extolled ranked relationships based on
ritual purity as enjoined by the shastras. Burton distinguishes between
the Chakravatin model and the Kshatriya model, and likens kshatriyas to locally based
warriors with ritual status sufficiently high enough to share with Brahmins; and states that in
south India the kshatriya model did not emerge.

Sewu Temple was built by the end of the eighth century at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's
reign and was completed during the reign of his successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran
(746–780 CE) was well-known as a devoted Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang
Mataram Kingdom.

VII
Guardians of the directions concept and the Saraswati River

The Guardians of the Directions (Sanskrit: दिक्पाल-Dikpāla) are the deities who rule the
specific directions of space according to Hinduism, Jainism and Vajrayāna Buddhism—
especially Kālacakra. As a group of eight deities, they are called Aṣṭa-Dikpāla (अष्ट-
दिक्पाल), literally meaning guardians of eight directions. They are often augmented with two
extra deities for the ten directions (the two extra directions being zenith and nadir), when they
are known as the Daśa-Dikpāla. In Hinduism it is traditional to represent their images on the
walls and ceilings of Hindu temples. They are also often portrayed in Jain temples, with the
exception that Nāga usually takes the place of Vishnu in the nadir. Ancient Java and Bali
Hinduism recognize Nava-Dikpāla, literally meaning guardians of nine directions, that
consist of eight directions with one addition in the center. The nine guardian gods of

80
directions is called Dewata Nawa Sanga (Nine guardian devata). The diagram of these
guardian gods of directions is featured in Surya Majapahit, the emblem of Majapahit empire.

There are strong similarities between the concept of the guardians of the directions and the
lore surrounding the Chinese four symbols, four ancestral spirits who are responsible for four
of the cardinal directions (North, South, East, and West).

Directions in Hindu tradition

Brahma, Lord of the Zenith (center) with

(from left) Varuna, Kubera, Yama and Indra.
Directions in Hindu tradition are called as Diśā, or Dik. There are four cardinal directions, six
orthogonal directions and a total of ten directions, however infinite combinations are
possible.

English Sanskrit

North Uttara, Udīcī

South Dakṣiṇa, Avācī

East Pūrva, Prācī, Prāk, Aruna

West Paścima, Pratīcī, Aparā

Northeast Īśāna

Southeast Agni

Northwest Vāyu

Southwest Nirṛta

Zenith Ūrdhva

Nadir AdhaH

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Lokapālas
In Hinduism, the guardians of the cardinal directions are called the Lokapālas (लोकपाल), or
Dikpalaka. Three main distinctions of Dikpalaka are recognized, being:

T
he diagram of Surya Majapahit shows the arrangements of Hindu deities each resided in main
cardinal points.(Called Dewata Nawa Sanga in ancient Java and Bali Hinduism)

The Ashta-Dikpala with Brahma in the centre denoting Zenith

Aṣṭa-Dikpāla ("Guardians of Eight Directions")

Name Direction

Kubera, God of Fortune North

Yama, God of Justice and Death South

Indra, Lord of Heaven and God of the Weather,

East
Sky, Rain, and Storms

Varuna, God of the Seas, Oceans, and Rain West

Ishana, God of Birth, Death, Resurrection, and

Northeast
Time

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 Southeast (in the image incorrectly
Agni, God of Fire
shown on southwest)

Vayu, God of the Winds and Air Northwest

Southwest (in the image incorrectly

Nirṛta, God of Death, Sorrow, and Decay
shown on southeast)

Daśa-Dikpāla ("Guardians of Ten Directions")

Besides the eight guardians, the following are added:

 Brahma (Zenith, meaning "the farthest up from the gravitational force")

 Vishnu (Nadir, meaning "the direction in which gravity pulls")
Nava-Dikpāla ("Guardians of Nine Directions")

 Shiva (Center)
 Vishnu (North)
 Brahma (South)
 Isvara (East)
 Mahadeva (West)
 Sambhu (Northeast)
 Mahesora (Southeast)
 Sangkara (Northwest)
 Rudra (Southwest)

Giant Mandala Named Sewu Temple

The Complex of Sewu Temple is located inside the complex of Prambanan Temple,
exactly in the northern part of the complex. According to the inscriptions that have been
found, this temple was built at the same time while building Kalasan temple in 782 AD,
according to the Kelurak inscription. Meanwhile, according to another inscription,
Manjushrigriha, this temple was expanded in 792 AD. So it can be concluded that the

83
making of this temple in the beginning before the expansion. If looked at the
architectural design of the building Sewu Temple, The temple has a possibility to inspire
the design of Plaosan and Prambanan Temple.

The name of the temple itself is based on the number of temples located in the complex.
Sewu which means a thousand in the Javanese language describes the number of temples
that actually consists of only 249 temples, with one main temple and 240 perwara
temples. The main temple is in the middle with its four sides surrounded by flanking
temples and ancillary temples. On some inscriptions, are written that Sewu Temple was
built as a giant Mandala, with the geometry of the building illustrated the universe. In
this Mandala, Vairocana Buddha is placed in the middle and surrounded by five
tathagatas (personification from the quality of a Budha), namely Akshobhya,
Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amogasiddhi.

Sewu temple has four gates on the front side of the outer court which each part is
guarded by a pair of Dwarapala statues that are facing each other. In the inner court also
has four gates with a pair of Dwarapala statues on each door. The four flanking temples
that lie outside the main wall are divided by the east, west, south and north sides. Each
part has a name, that is Bubrah Temple on the south side, Asu Temple on the east side,
Kulon Temple on the west side, and Lor Temple on the north side. Currently only temple
Bubrah and Asu temple that can be enjoyed by visitors, while Kulon Temple and Candi
Lor just leaving only with stone composition.

The uniqueness of this temple is also located in its location which is in complex of
Prambanan temple. Sewu temple is a Buddhist temple while Prambanan temple is the
largest and complex of Hindu temple. This indicates that in ancient times the Hindus and
Buddhists were very harmonious and lived together. Historically, Sewu Temple was built
during the reign of King Panangkaran of the Sanjaya dynasty. This temple was later
expanded during the reign of Rakai Pikatan who later married Hindu descendants namely
Pramodhyawardani of the Syailendra dynasty. This marriage then successfully united
both two great dynasties at that time, the Sanjaya dynasty and Syailendra dynasty.

The central temple enshrines Vairocana and the surrounding housed the 4 Tathagatas :

1. Aksobya- (Sanskrit: अक्षोभ्य "Immovable One ) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, a
product of the Adibuddha, who represents consciousness as an aspect of reality. By
convention he is located in the east of the Diamond Realm and is the lord of the
Eastern Pure Land Abhirati ('The Joyous'). His consort is Lochanā and he is normally
accompanied by two elephants. His color is blue-black and his attributes include a
bell, three robes, and staff, as well as a jewel, lotus, prayer wheel, and sword. He has
several emanations.

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2. Ratnasambhava (Sanskrit: रत्नसम्भव, lit. "Jewel-Born") is one of the Five Dhyani
Buddhas (or "Five Meditation Buddhas") of Mahayana and Vajrayana or Tantric
Buddhism. Ratnasambhava's mandalas and mantras focus on developing equanimity
and equality and, in Vajrayana Buddhist thought is associated with the attempt to
destroy greed and pride. His consort is Mamaki and his mount is a horse or a pair of
lions.

3. Amitabh (Sanskrit: अमिताभ 'Infinite Light') is the principal Buddha of Pure Land
Buddhism. which is understood to be his enjoyment body (Saṃbhogakāya).
In Vajrayana Buddhism, Amitābha is known for his longevity, discernment, pure
perception, and the purification of aggregates with deep awareness of the emptiness of
all phenomena.In the Mandala of the Two Realms, Amitābha is associated with
the Diamond Realm, while Amitāyus appears in the Womb Realm. He is widely
represented in Borobudur.See Chapter ….below for a discussion of the Amitabh in
Borobudur.

4. Amoghasiddhi (Devanagari: अमोघसिद्धि) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas of

the Mahayana and Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism. He is associated with the
accomplishment of the Buddhist path and of the destruction of the poison of envy. His
name means Unfailing Accomplishment. His consort is Tara, meaning Liberator and
his mounts are garudas. He belongs to the family of karma whose family symbol is
the double vajra. (Pic Below left)

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 Amitabh
5. The niches with Parivar Devatas (The family gods)
Parivāradevatā (परिवारदेवता) refers to the “subsidiary deities”, as discussed in chapter
10 (Kriyāpāda) of the Padmasaṃhitā: the most widely followed of Saṃhitā covering
the entire range of concerns of Pāñcarātra doctrine and practice (i.e., the four-fold
formulation of subject matter—jñāna, yoga, kriyā and caryā) consisting of roughly
9000 verses.—
Guardians of the cosmic directions at Sewu

In each of the five courtyards it is proper to install certain aspects of the Lord in the form of
parivāradevatā. Parivāradevatā (परिवारदेवता) refers to a “group of Gods” that are not
positioned in garbhagṛha (the temple’s main room), yet the corridor instead (Liebert, 1976,
p. 214). And are divided into subs parivāra and main parivāra. The small parivāra have
specific names, but their existence is not known specifically in the mythology of Indian Gods.
For examples-

1. First Courtyard: Garuḍa, Viṣvaksena, Śaṅkara, Kṣetrapāla, Ṣaṇmukha, etc., are in the
first courtyard (94-99);
2. Second Courtyard- Sūrya, Candra, Hayagrīva, and others will be located in the second
courtyard (100-105); the
3. Third Courtyard- twelve Ādityas, Manmatha, the Pitṛgaṇas, Gaṇeśa, etc., will be
found in the third courtyard (106-1102);
4. Fourth Courtyard: Upendra, the Gaṇadevatās, etc., will be placed in the fourth
courtyard (110b144a—no mention is made of the fifth courtyard). Description of the
chapter [parivārādidevatā-kalpana]:

Chapter 22 (parivāra-vidhi says the following about attendant dieties

“rules regarding the attendant deities”): Iconometry continues, this chapter being
given over to rules for the attendant deities [parivāradevatā]:

1. Hayagrīva
2. Garuḍa
3. Sūrya
4. Soma
5. Kāma
6. Gajānana
7. Ṣaṇmukha
8. Dhanada

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 9. Rudra
10. Kṣetrapāla
11. Viṣvaksena
12. Brahmā
13. Vīrabhadra ,
14. Vināyaka
15. Ajāmukha
16. Āditya ,
17. Pitṛs and
18. Viśvedeva (From : Shodhganga: The significance of the mūla-beras (śilpa)

One can also understanbd Parivāradevata to refer to the “gods related in a family” whose
images are found scattered within Hindu temples.Each temple is filled with numerous images
of :
a. Gods, goddesses,
b. Narivāra-devatas (gods related in a family),
c. Devas (attendants to the gods),
d. Sālagrāmās (cakra–an ammonite shell),
e. Bānaliṅgās (egg-shaped pebbles),
f. Yantras (mystic and magical diagrams engraved upon metallic plates),
g. Navagrahas (the nine planetary divinities),
h. certain divine animals and birds,
i. certain holy rivers, tanks, trees and
j. Sepulchers of saints.

VII
87
 Sewu
Manjusrigrha
Manjusri is a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle
glory" of transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of
eighth century at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of
his successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Sewu an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu
predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of
249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from
popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original
name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha. Sewu which means a thousand in the
Javanese language describes the number of temples that actually consists of only 249
temples, with one main temple and 240 perwara temples. The main temple is in the middle
with its four sides surrounded by flanking temples and ancillary temples.

The Shiva Temple’s Lokapalas – Guardians of the Directions of Space

On the outside-facing walls of the Shiva temple’s central cella there are a total of 24 relief
panels. Eight of these figures collectively represent a group of Deities called the Lokapalas
— the guardians of the eight directions of space. Vedic cosmology associates six of the eight
Lokapalas with six of the planets of ancient astronomy: Kubera (Venus), Varuna (Mercury),
Yama (Mars), Agni (Saturn), Issana (Moon) and Indra (Jupiter). In addition, the Lokapalas
Nirriti and Vayu were assigned stations in the sky that corresponded with certain star signs of
Vedic astronomy, called the nakshatras.

The Temple Complex

The architecture of the Prambanan temple complex follows Vastu Shastra and was built on the
model of Mount Meru, the Cosmic mountain. The whole temple complex is a model of the
Universe according to Hindu cosmology.

88
The urban center and the court of Mataram were located nearby, in what would later
become Yogyakarta. Hundreds of brahmins lived with their disciples within the outer wall of
the temple compound.
Originally there were a total of 240 temples standing in Prambanan. The temple complex
consist of:
• 3 Trimurti temples: three main temples dedicated to Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva Mahadeva
• 3 Vahana temples: three temples in front of Trimurti temples dedicated to the vahana of
each gods; Garuda, Nandi and Hamsa
• 2 Apit temples: two temples located between the rows of Trimurti and Vahana temples on
north and south side
• 4 Kelir temples: four small shrines located on 4 cardinal directions right beyond the 4 main
gates of inner zone
• 4 Patok temples: four small shrines located on 4 corners of inner zone
• 224 Pervara temples: hundreds of temples arranged in 4 concentric square rows; numbers
of temples from inner row to outer row are: 44, 52, 60, and 68. Today, only 2 out of the
original 224 perwara temples are renovated.
The Tri Mandala principle
The Prambanan temple consists of 3 zones, according to the Indonesian Hindu tri
mandala principle:
• Nista Mandala (outer zone) — a large space marked by a walled perimeter, which
originally measured about 390 m per side, and contained a sacred garden, an ashram for
monks and accommodation for the priests.
• Madya Mandala (middle zone) that contains hundreds of small temples
• Utama Mandala (holiest inner sanctum) that contains 8 main temples and 8 small shrines.
Just like Borobudur, Prambanan is structured in three mandalas, from the less holy to
the holiest realms. Both the compound site plan (horizontally) and the temple structure
(vertically) represents 3 layers of the Universe:
• Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans,
animals also demons. Where humans are still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of
life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm of
bhurloka.
• Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, occupied by rishis,
ascetics, and lesser gods. People here begin to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and
the body of each temple symbolizes the realm of bhuvarloka.
• Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm, reserved for the gods.
Also known as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temple symbolizes the
realm of svarloka. The roof of Prambanan temples are adorned and crowned with ratna
(sanskrit: jewel), the shape of Prambanan ratna took the altered form of vajra that represent
diamonds. In ancient Java temple architecture, ratna is the Hindu counterpart of the Buddhist
stupa, and served as the temple’s pinnacle.

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The Shiva temple
The inner zone or central compound is the holiest among the three zones. It is the square
elevated platform surrounded by a square stone wall with stone gates on each four cardinal
points. This holiest compound is assembled of 8 shrines or candi. The 3 main shrines, called
are dedicated to the three Gods of the Trimurti: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva Mahadeva.
The Shiva temple is the tallest and largest structure in Prambanan Loro Jonggrang
complex. Candi Shiva — the central shrine — rises 47 m high and contains 4 inner chambers
that face the 4 points of the compass. The eastern gate of Shiva temple is flanked by two small
shrines, dedicated to the guardian gods Mahakala and Nandhisvara.

90
The Shiva temple is encircled with galleries adorned with bas-reliefs telling the Ramayana. To
follow the story accurately, visitors must enter from the East side and began to
perform pradakshina.
The Shiva shrine is located at the center and contains five chambers, four small chambers in
every cardinal direction and one bigger main chamber in the central part of the temple. The
east chamber connects to the central chamber that houses the largest temple in Prambanan, a
three-metre high statue of Shiva Mahadeva.
The statue bears the lakçana (attributes or symbol) of Shiva such as the skull and sickle
(crescent) at the crown, and third eye on the forehead. The four hands that holds Shiva’s
symbols: prayer beads, feather duster, and trisula (trident).
The other three smaller chambers contain statues of Shiva’s consort Durga
Mahisasuramardini, Rishi Agastya — one of the Saptarishis who took the yogic sciences
across South Asia — and Ganesha.
The shrine of Durga is also called the temple of Rara Jonggrang, after the Javanese legend
of Rara Jonggrang. Indeed, Javanese folk religion was always superposed with the more
elitist Shiva-Buddha syncretism.
A well containing the peripih was discovered under the center of the Shiva temple. The stone
casket contained sheets of copper, charcoal, ashes, earth, 20 coins, jewels, glass, pieces of gold
and silver leaves, seashells and 12 gold leaves (which were cut in the shapes of a turtle, Nāga
serpent, padma, altar, and an egg).

The sacred peripih is the core of the shrine in all Indonesian temples

Shiva and Saraswati

Goddesses Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Durga are the same?
They all were the menifestation of goddess adiparashakti , the supreme mother of the whole
universe from whom everything in this universe have born from her .

When the Tridevas ie lord shiva, lord brahma , lord vishnu started the formation of universe ,
lord brahma was unable to complete the formation so they started praying the supreme energy
ie devi adiparashakti to guide them on a right path how to establish life and this universe .
They started tapasya of the supreme mother …….
After the long time of prayer devi adiparashakti listened to them and devi adiparashakti
showed herself to them (gave them darshan) in her real form. She told them who is she, the
mother of all beings and the tridev also originated from her then tridev told them about the
problem and wanted to know why they are unable to complete the creation of the universe
then she told that nothing in this universe can be accomplish by the prsence or contribution of
shakti or woman presence . Then they ask what is the solution, she gave a solution so to help
you i will separate myself into three halves

Without knowledge brahma cannot complete the creation of the universe so he with have a
consort the goddess of knowledge- Sarasvatī

Without luxuries the universe cannot be managed so with Vishnu the consort will be one who
will be the goddess of wealth ie goddess lakshmi

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Saraswati is the sister of Shiva. The story of birth of Ganga that I have read in my childhood.
Narada and Tumburu are the two celestial musicians of the Devaloka. Their rivalry over
mastery of music leads them to Lord Shiva. Shiva directs them to Lord Vishnu.

Lord Vishnu points out to them that Hanuman is the better of them. They decide to try him
out and prove their mastery. At the appointed time, Bramha, Vishnu, Shiva, Narada,
Tumburu and Hanuman gather. To make the test interesting, Shiva freezes everyone in ice till
their abdomen, with only their head and limbs movable. The test is to melt the ice with your
music and free yourself. Both Narada and Tumburu fail, and Hanuman succeeds in thawing
himself out.After accepting his greatness, both Narada and Tumburu request Hanuman to free
them too. Upon their request, Hanuman sings and the soulful and celestial music melts the ice
and both Narada and Tumburu are free. But Hanuman is now in a different universe and
continues to sing. The song is so powerful that Vishnu enters trance, and a part of his aura
melts and trickles down to the feet. Bramha promptly collects and stores the aura in his
kamandala. This aura of Vishnu melted by the divine and mellifluous song of devotee
Hanuman, now collected by Bramha is Ganga.

Descent from heavens.

Pleased by Bhagirath’s penance to bring peace to his ancestors’ souls, Ganga agreed to
descend from the heavens. But the force for her descent would crush the earth and lead to
devastating catastrophe. To prevent the same, Bhagirath started penance unto Shiva. Shiva is
pleased with the penance and agrees to arrest Ganga’s descent of destruction.

When at the opportune moment Bramha releases Ganga from the heavens to the earth, Shiva
is ready with his locks open to contain Ganga’s destructive dance. In her arrogance, Ganga
swelled up to cause maximum destruction but Shiva caught her in his locks and imprisoned
her, to teach her a lesson. Bhagirath was distraught and did penance unto Shiva a second
time. Shiva softened and released Ganga, falling on the ground and flowing into 7 streams. 3
to the east, 3 to the west and one followed Bhagirath, who led the waters over his ancestors’

92
ashes and their souls were redeemed. This having completed the incomparable task,
Bhagirath brought Ganga to earth.

Bramha ordained that Ganga would also be known as Bhagirathi.

For the symbolism:

1. Ganga (Knowledge) flows from Shiva (God) to man (consciousness) to free the
cursed souls (mind)

2. Knowledge has the power to enrich or crush you. Only the enlightened ones
(Bhagirath) with their penance can bring the knowledge to the masses.

Sewu is only 1.7 Km away from Prambanan. Prambanan is built in 850 AD and Sewu
Temple was built by the end of the eighth century at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's
reign and was completed during the reign of his successor, King Indra. Rakai
Panangkaran (Pinkaton ) (746–780 CE) was well-known as a devoted Mahayana
Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.

93
94
95
So when the northwestern region of ancient India experienced a major earthquake which
resulted in the loss of the flow of the sacred Saraswati River, it was seen that this incident had
major consequences for the existence of Hinduism above Indian civilization, the loss of an
element of purity and holiness mentioned in its holy book (Veda).

Could it be that the big earthquake that obliterated the Saraswati River was the turning point
for Hinduism in India? which in the course of its history after the holy river which was
mentioned repeatedly in his holy book it actually dried up and disappeared without a trace,
then followed by Prayag which is the holy place where for the first time Lord Brahma
received his offerings also it was controlled by the Muslim Mughal Empire even later
controlled by the British Empire until it changed its name to Allahabad.

It seems that since the big earthquake which resulted in the disappearance of the Saraswati
River in northeastern India is an early sign of the fading of India's brilliance from a Hinduism
side and it could be that the belief in the Saraswati River as a mystical river is a religious
effort and a political step to defend India's existence against Indian Hindus. which dominates
Indian society and the recognition of India itself in world civilization as a place where the
gods reside in the greatness of Hinduism.

In the year 2006 a fault was detected during the Yogyakarta earthquake along the Prambanan
plain to the east towards the Ganwarno area.The Opak flows from its source on the slopes

96
of Mount Merapi in the north, heading southward and passes the west side of 9th-
century Prambanan temple compound, located to the east of Yogyakarta and west of Kota
Gede. It also passes the historical locations of Plered, Karta, and Imogiri before draining into
the Indian Ocean in the southern part of Bantul.
The river runs upon the major Opak tectonic fault, in southern Central Java responsible for r
earthquakes which have not only put focus on the opak, but also highlighted the existence of
the Opak River and a river that once existed along Prambanan and Sewu Temples just as the
Ganga and Jamuna are important to the Sacred buildings around it. It is therefore believed by
some that this point was chosen to base the location for the construction of the Prambanan
Temple as the river formed from the Prambanan-Gantiwarno earthquake path flows from east
to west towards the Opak River which is located right under the Prambanan Temple building.
So that the existence of the confluence of the 2 rivers resembles the confluence of the
Yamuna river in India which flows into the Ganges River which is referred to as "sangam".
In the "sangam" place between the Ganges and Yamuna in India there is a place called
Allahabad, Allahabad itself was formerly a place called Prayag. The word Prayag means "a
place to ask (blessings)", this place is an ancient place mentioned in the Vedas as the first
place where Lord Brahma received his offerings. In the course of its history, Prayag was
controlled by the Mughal Empire and changed its name to Ilahabad which in Persian means
"city of Allah", and after that, Illahabad was often called Allahabad by the British colonialists
until now.

Until now, Prayag is still used as one of the venues for the sacred Maha Kumbh-mela
( Kumbh Fair) procession which is held about once every 12 years based on the constellation
of the celestial body.As mentioned in the Vedas, there are 3 main rivers flowing in India,
namely the Ganges, Yamuna and Saraswati. It is possible that these 3 rivers still existed when
Allahabad was named Prayag. However, after that, of the 3 rivers, only 2 remained physically
because the Saraswati River is no longer known, so for Hindus in India, the Saraswati River
is often considered a mystical river.The Saraswati River flowed from the mountains and
ended in the sea (Rgveda VII.95.2 ) . Using satellite photography technology, the experts
found traces that the Saraswati River used to exist in India, but now it is almost
unrecognizable because it has dried up for a long time and has changed its shape. The trail of
the river can still be observed, namely around the Himalayas crossing the edge of the Thar
Desert (passing through several countries) and ending in the Bay of Bengal.
It is thought that this river dried up as a result of a massive earthquake, and it is possible that
the same earthquake brought the end of civilizations along the Indus Valley (Migration of the
Aryans)

Sangam (meeting ) in-Java?

The earthquake fault, indicates that it once formed a river (call it the Gantiwarno River)
which flows into the Opak River, resulting in a meeting point for 2 rivers as the Gangga-
Yamuna "sangam", if Prayag is on the edge of the sangam/battle of the river, then Prambanan
Temple Instead, it was built in the middle of the confluence of the Opak River and the
Gantiwarno River by diverting the flow of the Opak River so that it formed a large pond
around it.

Apart from the Opak River and the Gantiwarno River, there are 2 other rivers which can be
considered as to which one the Saraswati River is of Java, namely: the Bengawan Solo River

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in the east which currently empties into Gresik, East Java and the Progo River to the west
which empties into Kulon Progo.
However, if we look at the historical flow of the loss of the Saraswati River in India, it seems
that there is a very small possibility that the Progo River is the Saraswati River of Java,
because throughout its history the Progo River has not experienced a drought like the
Saraswati River in India.

Personally, I am more inclined to the Bengawan Solo River as the Javanese Saraswati River,
but what I mean by Bengawan Solo is not the river which currently flows north and empties
into the Gresik area, East Java, but the Ancient Bengawan Solo River which empties into
Sadeng Beach, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta.

3 approximate river basins

The Bengawan Solo River (Ancient) has quite an interesting history to study. And has
become the icon of the city of Solo. It currently flows northwards towards the Java Sea by
meandering across several areas.It was stated that during the period of 4 million years ago
this river flowed southwards towards the South Sea (Indian Ocean), then a devastating
earthquake occurred as a result of the process of the Australian earth plate hitting the
mainland of Java Island so that the seabed of the Indian Ocean on the south side was lifted up
to become new land along Gunung Kidul (Yogyakarta), Wonogiri (Central Java) and Pacitan
(East Java). The elevation of the area made the mouth of the Bengawan Solo (ancient) River
which is in the south also bright and made the flow of the river reverse to change direction
from south to north, while the mouth of the river which was raised became a dry valley/basin
because the water of the Ancient Bengawan Solo was unable to erode it, now the community
named the dry valley as Telaga Suling and its estuary became known as a new area called
Sadeng Beach.

The disappearance of the Saraswati River from the map of mainland India due to a large
earthquake and the reverse of the flow of the Ancient Bengawan Solo River with dry
conditions at its estuary due to a large earthquake are a similarity of natural events that may
have the same philosophical meaning.

The missing river on the Saraswati River in India and the water that does not flow in the
direction it should be on the Bengawan Solo River in Jaws are similar from a philosophical
point of view that both are no longer purifying as they should be by referring back to the
passage of the Rig Veda II. 35.3 which reads:

"sama yanty upa yanty anyah

samanam urvam na-dyah prnanti,
guest u Sucim sucayo diivamsam
apam napatam pari tasthur apah"

A large amount of water, along with others, gathers into rivers which flow together towards
the reservoir. the pure water that flows, both from springs and from the sea, has a purifying
power.

There is a straightforward thought from the series of estimates above, throughout the span of
history that started from the time of the big earthquake which resulted in the disappearance of

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the Saraswati River in India, whether the construction of Çiwagrha (Prambanan Temple) on
Java Island is a series of efforts to purify Hinduism in India which is considered that the Gods
have departed from the “singhasana” which is marked by the abandonment of India by one of
its sacred rivers?

If Prayag in India is the place where Brahma first received offerings, could the Prambanan
temple our Shivalaya in Java led by Rakai Pikatan in presenting the palace to Lord Shiva? If
this is indeed the case, then the steps taken by the kings before, during the reign of Rakai
Pikatan –Pramodhawardani and afterward were steps of human civilization, not only steps to
maintain the hegemony of Ancient Mataram power.

If the Saraswati River in India can dry up and disappear without a trace, then the situation is
the same in Java, the river that is imaged as the Saraswati River of Java is experiencing the
same thing. Javanese history speaks of massive migration from the Ancient Mataram
Kingdom which was located in central Java to eastern Java by Mataram King Pu Sindok, this
move almost coincided with a natural process of MahaPralaya ( The great disaster/ Flood),
which is interpreted as a major disaster on the land of Java caused by the eruption of Mount
Merapi which is located on the north side of Prambanan Temple which is the headwaters of
the Opak River which is manifested as the Ganges River of the land of Java.

Some information states that around the Mahapralaya incident there was also another event,
namely the return attack from Srivijaya on Java, it seems that the old grudge for power over
Pramodhawardani's brother who had become the king of Srivijaya continued to grow into a
grudge that was passed down for several generations, if you look closely at the efforts this
attack carried out by Sriwijaya in the period leading up to Mahapralaya was an attempt to
thwart the migration preparations of the entire Mataram kingdom so that there would be a
delay in saving from Mahapralaya's rampage.

If Mahapralaya is referred to as a major disaster in the form of Mount Merapi which erupted
on a large scale which was able to completely bury the top of the Sambisari temple which
incidentally is located further south from the Prambanan point, then the fate of the Ganwarno
River lost its traces of being buried by volcanic material from the eruption of Mount Merapi,
so that the Yamuna-River disappeared. The island of Java, the support for the sanctity of
Prambanan who stands at the Ganges-Yamuna “sangam” (battle of the river) of Java.

The question is whether the reversal of the direction of the ancient Bengawan Solo River
from north to south to south to north is part of the Mahapralaya event?

So when Mahapralaya occurred, what caused Mount Merapi to erupt violently was it really a
purely independent eruption from within Mount Merapi, or was it triggered by other factors
in the form of a very powerful wave of earthquake energy from the same earthquake source
with the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. And the same earthquake that caused Mount Merapi to
erupt violently in Mahapralaya also made the ancient Bengawan Solo River turn north. Thus
the assumption appears that the Mahapralaya process (in terms of natural events) is a natural
disaster that starts with a major earthquake (megathrust) in the South Sea (Indian Ocean)
which causes the lifting of the ocean floor so that the flow of the Bengawan Solo Ancient
River reverses direction, then the energy spreads far to the north forced Mount Merapi to
erupt violently and the material buried a civilization that had previously been destroyed by a
large earthquake.

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So if it is equated with the depiction of the disappearance of the Saraswati River in India, the
Mahapralaya incident in Java is: a big earthquake, the Saraswati River of Java reversed
direction, the Prayag building of Jawa (Prambanan Temple) collapsed in the earthquake,
Mount Merapi was flooded with earthquake energy and then erupted violently , the volcanic
material of Mount Merapi covered all ancient Mataram buildings.

However, if we look at the pattern of the disappearance of the Saraswati River in India,
which has similarities with the process of drying up the mouth of the Ancient Bengawan Solo
River due to the earthquake, and the existence of the Prambanan Temple in choosing an
unusual location for its construction, in my opinion there is a possibility that one day it could
be examined again.

And from this possibility at least a new question is opened, have we made a mistake in
calculating the historical time, have we miscalculated that in fact the event of the lifting of
the sea floor that forms the land of Gunung Kidul, Wonogiri and Pacitan did not occur 4
million years ago but several hundred years ago as ancient historians calculate based on the
artifacts they reveal

That the existence of Prambanan Temple on the island of Java is not as old as what ancient
historians say, but at the same age as the estimated formation of land along Gunung Kidul,
Wonogiri and Pacitan which is marked by the traces of the Ancient Bengawan Solo Valley
which were 4 million years ago.In relation to the above, it should be underlined that efforts to
search for traces of the Saraswati River in India using satellite imagery suggest that the
Saraswati River used to exist (around 2,500-2,000 BC) and disappeared due to a very
powerful earthquake, and the same earthquake which was indicated as the trigger for the
migration of the Aryans in the civilization of the Indus river valley sparked a controversy
regarding the age of the Vedas.

Hence
1. Should the brother (SHIVA) be near the Sister ( Sarswati)
2. Is not the temple of Prambanan better placed near the confluence of the rivers such
as in ancient India

opak

100
Ganges

101
 IX
Perwara Temples of the Sewu Mandala
Read my book on Perwara temples
https://www.academia.edu/116335427/PERWARA_TEMPLES?sm=a

The word Perwara comes from Sanskrit प्रावर (prāvara, “fence, enclosure”).There are a bunch of
meanings to the word:

1. (archaic) female escort of the king.

2. (archaic) queen. synonyms
3. guardian or peripheral temple. synonym
Synonym: candi pewara

Perwara as ” in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Jakarta: Agency for Language Development and
Cultivation – Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia,
2016.

Exactly when the idea of the design of the Perwara temples came up in the history of Hindu Mandir
development is not clear and difficult to ascertain. Suffice it to say that just as the Various Hindu
Gods have vehicles to travel and consorts ( both male and female) so also cme the idea that a temple
diety should have a bodyguard, guardian, accompanying assistant, chaperon. Companion, guardian,
body-guard and then the building of smaller temples adjescent to the main ones came up. Also parallel
is the development of the Apit temples.

Modern historians disagree amongst each other as to the political and cultural events that led
to Construction of the Kedu Plain structures of Mahayana Buddhism and Shaivism. It is
possible that the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty initially began construction of a Shivaite temple on
the spot where Borobudur now sits around c. 775 CE and that they were unable to complete
their temple as they were driven out of the area by the Sailendra dynasty. Some other theories
see the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties as one and the same family and that religious
patronage simply changed as a result of personal belief. The general consensus is that there
were two rival dynasties supporting different faiths.).

The period roughly between 680 AD and 930 AD was the golden period of the Hindu-
Buddhist architecture or more commonly known as the Hindu-Javanese architecture. This
was the period that the Hindu-Buddhist Mataram Kingdom flourished under couple of
dynasties, Sailendra and Sanjaya, which followed the two dharmic faiths, Hinduism and
Buddhism.The common relationship between Brihadeeswarar temple in Tanjore , Angkor
Wat and Prambanan is that they share the same South Indian architectural style – Pallava-
Chola. Though the geometrical pattern of the surrounding Perwara temples (discussed above)
of the Prambanan follow the Pala architecture as seen in the Somapura Vihara ruins in
Paharpur located in the present day Bangladesh.

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Paharpur an important archaeological site in Bangladesh, situated in a village named
Paharpur (Pahadpur) under the Badalgachhi Upazila of Naogaon district. The village is
connected with the nearby Railway station Jamalganj, the district town Naogaon and
Jaipurhat town by metalled roads. It is in the midst of alluvial flat plain of northern
Bangladesh. In contrast to the monotonous level of the plain, stands the ruins of the lofty
(about 24m high from the surrounding level) ancient temple which was covered with jungle,
locally called Pahar or hill from which the palace got the name of Paharpur.
The site was first noticed by Buchanon Hamilton in course of his survey in Eastern India
between 1807 and 1812. The site was declared to be protected by the Archaeological Survey
of India in 1919 under the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904. The temple-type at
Paharpur has been frequently described as entirely unknown to Indian archaeology. The
Indian literature on architecture, however, often refers to a type of temple, known as
sarvatobhadra - a square shrine with four entrances at the cardinal points and with an
antechamber on each side (chatuhshala griha). The temple at Paharpur, as now excavated,
approximates in general to the sarvatobhadra type.

P
e
r
w
a
r
a

Paharpur Mahavihara/Ground plan of Paharpur Mahavihara

Systematic excavation were started here in 1923. After independence (1971)

the DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY of Bangladesh brought the site under further excavation.
Architectural remains Pre-1971 expeditions have revealed the architectural remains of a vast
Buddhist monastery, the SOMAPURA MAHAVIHARA, measuring 274.15m N-S and 273.70m E-
W. This gigantic establishment with surrounding 177 monastic cells, gateways, votive stupas,
minor chapels, tank and a multitude of other structures for the convenience of the inmates, is
dominated by a central shrine, conspicuous by its lofty height and architectural peculiarities.
It is distinguished by its cruciform shape with angles of projection between the arms, its three
raised terraces and complicated scheme of decoration of walls with carved brick cornices,
friezes of terracotta plaques and stone reliefs.

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The monastery The entire establishment, occupying a quadrangular court, has high enclosure
walls, about 5m in thickness and from 3.6m to 4.5m in height. Though the walls are not
preserved to a very great height, but from their thickness and massiveness it can be assumed
that the structure was storied commensurate with the lofty central shrine.
In plan it consists of rows of cells, each approximately 4.26 x 4.11m in area, all connected by
a spacious verandah (about 2.43 to 2.74m wide), running continuously all around, and
approached from the inner courtyard by flight of steps provided in the middle of each of the
four sides.
There are in all 177 cells, excluding the cells of the central block in each direction; 45 cells
on the north and 44 in each of the other three sides. The central block on the east, west and
south sides is marked by a projection in the exterior wall and contains three cells and a
passage around them, while in the north there stands a spacious hall. In the monastic cell No.
96 three floors have been discovered. Here the level of the last one (upper) is within 30cm
from ground level, that of the second 1m, while the third (lowest) is about 1.5m from the
surface.
A lofty shrine, the central temple, occupies the central part of the vast open courtyard of the
monastery, the remains of which is still 21m high and covers 27sq.m of area. It was built on a
cruciform plan which rises in three gradually diminishing terraces. The shape of the terminal
structure is still unknown to us. A centrally placed hollow square right at the top of the
terraces provides the moot point for the conception of the whole plan of the spectacular form
and feature of this stupendous monument. In order to relieve the monotony and to utilise the
colossal structure to serve its basic purpose, provision was made in the second as well as in
the first terrace for a projection, consisting of an ante-chamber and a mandapa on each face,
leaving out a portion of the whole length of the square at each of the four corners. The
ambulatory passage with the parapet wall was made to run parallel to the outline of this plan.
This arrangement resulted in a cruciform shape with projecting angles between the arms of
the cross. An enclosure wall strictly conforming to the basement plan, with only a slight
deviation near the main staircase, runs round the monument. There is ample evidence that this
complete plan, from the basement to the top, along with different component elements,
belonged to a single period of construction, but the later repairs, additions and alterations did
not fundamentally affect the general arrangement and plan.
Structures outside the monastery area An open platform measuring 32m x 8m is situated at
a distance of about 27m from the outer wall of the southern wing. It runs parallel to the
monastery. It stands about 3.5m above the adjoining ground level and is accessible from a
raised pathway across room 102.Several remains of Perwara shrines have been marked by
some experts but not by others because the remains are fragementary. This could be the
earliest reference to this perwara concept.
To our knowledge, it is one of the earliest and very rare examples of this type of construction,
proving that vaults were known in ancient India before the advent of the Muslims. The entire
southern face of the platform is marked with a series of water-chutes, each 30 cm in width
and 1.30m in length occurring at interval of 1.2m. The channels are provided with fine
jointed brickwork. It was used probably for the purpose of both ablution and toilet.
Bathing ghat There is a bathing ghat at a distance of 48m from the outer wall of the
monastery towards the southeastern corner of the monastery. It is not parallel to the south
wall of the monastery, but is slightly inclined towards the north. On either side of it there is a
parallel wall paved with brick-on-edge and concrete. The head of the ghat is laid with huge
stone blocks along with brickwork, 3.6m in length. It descends in a gradual slope to 12.5m,

104
where occurs a band of lime stone slabs. The bed of the ghat is also covered with sand which
shows the existence of a stream close by. A tradition in relation to the ghat is still current
among the local people that Sandhyavati, the daughter of a king named Mahidalan, used to
bathe at the ghat every day and she is supposed to be the mother of Satyapir through
immaculate conception.

Ruins of the Perwara temples at Sompura Paharpur

These various structures represent different architectures such as Pallava-Chola architecture,

Pala architecture, Gupta architecture and indigenous Javanese architecture. Temples of
Indonesia are of three different kinds - Pura, Candi and Koil. The Candi (pronounced as
Chandi) temples are more of Javanese temples, e.g., the Candi Prambanan while Koil are
those temples constructed by Indian traders from Tamil Nadu, e.g., Mariamman Koil in Aceh
in the 19th century. The third type of temples are the ones constructed by the Balinese and
Tenggerese called Pura temples in Eastern Java and Bali, e.g., Pura Luhur Poten in Mount
Bromo. All temples here are called Candi. A word is derived from the Sanskrit word
Candika, one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga and indicates the temples built in
Indonesia, during the ‘Indianized period’, between the seventh and fifteenth centuries.
Prambanan Temple Compounds.

Somap

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ura Mahavihara (Sanskrit; Bengali: সোমপুর মহাবিহার Shompur Môhabihar) in Paharpur, Naogaon,
Bangladesh (25°1'51.83"N, 88°58'37.15"E) is among the best known Buddhist viharas in the Indian
Subcontinent and is one of the most important archaeological sites in the country.It was was one of the
major learning centres during the heyday of Buddhism in Bengal under the Pala kings (8th-11th
centuries AD). The quadrangular structure consists of 177 cells and a Buddhist temple in the centre. The
rooms were used by the monks for accommodation and meditation. In addition to the large number of
stupas and shrines of various sizes and shapes, terracotta plaques, stone sculptures, inscriptions, coins,
ceramics etc. have been discovered. The central lofty pyramidal structure lies in the middle of the 22
acres courtyard. The structure rises upward in a tapering mass of three receding terraces, which, even
ruins, reaches a height of 23 meters. Each of the terraces has a circum-ambulatory passage around the
monument. At the topmost terrace (of the existing ruin) there were four antechambers on the projecting
arms of the cross. The overall design of this complicated architecture is cantered on a square hollow
shaft, which runs down from the present top of the mound to the level of second terrace.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area.The
other Buddhist temple is Kalasan. The Sambisari and Prambanan are both Shivaite temples
that also feature Goddess Durga asMahishasuramardini.
The remarkable thing about the design elements is that almost all could be said to be
Mandalas and though some are ruined so that the mandala is not seen. All have Perwara
temples surrounding the main diety temple like the armies protecting the main King.
Sanjaya dynasty was an ancient Javanese dynasty that ruled the Mataram kingdom in Java
during first millennium CE. The dynasty was an active promoter of Hinduism in ancient Java.
There are some theories regarding the Sañjaya-Sailendra relationship. Some scholars
suggested that there is no such things as Sanjaya dynasty, since there was only one dynasty
called Sailendra that ruled central Java. This theory was proposed by Poerbatjaraka and
suggested that there was only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is called Medang
with the capital in Mataram area, and the ruling dynasty is Sailendra. He holds that Sanjaya
and all of his offspring were belongs to Sailendra family that initially were Shivaist.
Another suggests that the Sañjaya dynasty then was forced to the north of Java by
the Sailendra dynasty, which emerged around 778. The evidence for this event is based on
the Kalasan inscription. During this period, the Sañjaya dynasty existed next to Sailendra
dynasty in Central Java, and much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence
and cooperation.
The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Raja
Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to Buddhism. The later Sailendran kings,
successors of Panangkaran become Mahayana Buddhist too and gave Buddhism royal
patronage in Java until the end of Samaratungga reign. This theory was based on Raja
Sankhara Inscription (now missing), Sojomerto inscription and Carita
Parahyangan manuscript. Shivaist Hindu gain royal patronage again since the reign of
Pikatan, well until the end of the Medang kingdom.
Another evidence pointed that Sailendra family was using old Malay language in some of
their inscriptions, which suggested Sailendra dynasty's foreign origin in Sumatra and their
connections with Srivijaya. This theory holds that the Sailendras, with their strong
connections to Srivijaya, managed to gain control of Central Java and imposing overlordship
on the Rakais (local Javanese lords) including the Sañjaya, thus incorporated the kings of
Mataram Sañjaya dynasty in their bureaucracy. The center of the dynasty court seems to be
located in South Kedu (around Magelang, North of Yogyakarta).
Sanjaya (AD 716 – 746) complete name Narapati Raja Śrī Sañjaya and Rakai Matarām
Saŋ Ratu Sañjaya, was the founder of Mataram Kingdom during the eighth century. His

106
name was revealed in the Sanskrit Canggal inscription carved in a stone found at Gunung
Wukir temple that stood on Wukir or Ukir hill (about 340 m (1,120 ft) high) on the
southern Kedu Plain in Central Java. suggested that Sanjaya was the progenitor of
the Sanjaya Dynasty, and there were two dynasties that ruled Central Java; the
Buddhist Sailendra and the Shivaist Sanjaya dynasty. The inscription also states that Sanjaya
was an ardent follower of Shaivism. The latter was forced to move eastward by Sanjaya as
written in an old Chinese report, which named Sanjaya as Chi-Yen
Sanjaya and MATARAM
Some researchers say that there was only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is
called Mataram with the capital in Poh Pitu area, and the ruling dynasty is Shailendra. He
holds that Sanjaya and all of his offspring were belongs to Sailendra family that initially
were Shivaist. The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the
conversion of Raja Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to Buddhism
King Sanjaya established the The Mataram Kingdom, a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom
that flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later
in East Java. It was ruled by the Shailendra dynasty and Ishana dynasty.
It benefited from maritime trade. According to foreign sources and archaeological findings,
the kingdom seems to have been well populated and quite prosperous. The kingdom
developed a complex societyhad a well developed culture, and achieved a degree of
sophistication and refined civilization.In the period between the late 8th century and the mid-
9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture
reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Temples dotted the landscape of its
heartland in Mataram. The most notable of the temples constructed in Mataram are
1. Kalasan,
2. Sewu,
3. Borobudur and
4. Prambanan,
At its peak, the kingdom had become a dominant empire—not only in Java, but also
in Sumatra, Bali, southern Thailand, Indianized kingdoms of the Philippines, and
the Khmer in Cambodia. The immediate successor of King Sanjaya was Dyah Pancapana (7
October 746 – 1 April 784) or regnal name Śrī Mahārāja Dyaḥ Pañcapaṇa Kariyāna
Paṇaṃkaraṇa Śrī Saṅgrāmadhanañjaya, was the second king of Mataram from the Shailendra
dynasty whose kingdom was centered on the Java island Indonesia.
Amrati Kings or Amravati Kings
In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Java observed rivalries between two dynasties. The
first four Sanjaya Dynasty lines after King Sanjaya (Panangkaran, Panunggalan, Warak and
Garung), which was known as the Amrati Kings.
The Sanjays who were Hindus competed over their power and religious influences with
the Buddhist Sailendras princes in the south of central Java who had arisen since 779..
Although relationship between the Amrati Kings with Sailendra was important at that time,
the rivalries between the two is still unclear.
From the Kalasan and Ratu Boko inscriptions, there were stated that Panangkaran granted
permission requested by the collective guru of the Sailendra king to build
Buddhist sculptures, shrines and monasteries in honor to the goddess Tara. The construction

107
was built under Panangkaran's supervision, but was supported by Sailendra's expenses. In
order to show his respect to the guru, Panangkaran consented the building of the shrine by
giving the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community.
Kalasan

According to the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari
script, the temple of Kalasan was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja
Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel of Sailendra family) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja
Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in another part of the inscription also called Kariyana
Panangkaran) to construct Tarabhavanam, a holy building for the goddess
(boddhisattvadevi) Tara. Kalasan also known as Candi Kalibening, is an 8th-century
Buddhist temple in Java, Indonesia. It is located 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) east of Yogyakarta on
the way to Prambanan temple, on the south side of the main road Jalan Solo between
Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Administratively, it is located in the Kalasan District (kapanewon)
of Sleman Regency. In addition, a Vihara (monastery) was built for Buddhist monks from the
Sailendra family's realm. Panangkaran awarded the Kalaça village to Sangha (buddhist
monastic community). According to the date of this inscription, Kalasan temple is the oldest
of the temples built in the Prambanan Plain.Despite being renovated and partially rebuilt
during the Dutch colonial era, the temple currently is in poor condition. Compared to other
temples nearby such as Prambanan, Sewu, and Sambisari the temple is not well maintained.

The giant Kala's head on the southern door\ One of the niches on the wall of Kalasan temple
adorned with carvings of Kala giant and scene of deities in svargaloka
The temple stands on a square 14.20 meters sub-basement. The temple plan is cross-shaped,
and designed as a twelve-cornered polygon. Each of four cardinal points has stairs and gates
adorned with Kala-Makara and rooms measuring 3.5 square meters. No statue is to be found
in the smaller rooms facing north, west, and south; but the lotus pedestals suggest that the
rooms once contains statues of Bodhisattvas. The temple is richly decorated with buddhist
figures such as the Bodhisattva and gana. The Kala Face above the southern door has been
photographed and used by a number of foreign academics in their books to give an idea of the
artistry in stone by Central Javanese artists of a millennia ago. Niches where the statues
would have been placed are found inside and outside the temple. The niches adorned an outer

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wall intricately carved with Kala, gods and divinities in scenes depicting the svargaloka, the
celestial palace of the gods, apsaras, and gandharvas.
The roof of the temple is designed in three sections. The lower one are still according to the
polygonal shape of the body and contains small niches with statues of boddhisatvas seated on
lotus. Each of this niches is crowned with stupas. The middle part of the roof is
in octagonal (eight-sided) shape. Each of this eight sides adorned with niches contains statue
of a Dhyani Buddha flanked by two standing boddhisattvas. The top part of the roof is almost
circular and also have 8 niches crowned with single large dagoba. The octagonal aspect of the
structure has led to speculation of non-buddhist elements in the temple, similar to some
interpretations of the early Borobudur structure.
The temple is facing east, with the eastern room also served as access to main central room.
In the larger main room there is lotus pedestal and throne carved with makara, lion, and
elephant figure, similar to the Buddha Vairocana throne founds in Mendut temple. According
to the Kalasan inscription, the temple once houses the large (probably reaching 4 meters tall)
statue of the Boddhisattvadevi Tara. By the design of the throne, most probably the statue of
the goddess was in seated position and made from bronze. Now the statue is missing,
probably the same fate as bronze Buddha statue in Sewu temple, being looted for scrap metal
over centuries.
On the outer wall of the temple found the traces of plaster called vajralepa (lit: diamond
plaster). The same substance also founds in nearby Sari temple. The white-yellowish plaster
was applied to protect the temple wall, but now the plaster has worn off.
The temple is located on archaeologically rich Prambanan plain. Just a few hundred meters
north east from Kalasan temple is located Sari temple. Candi Sari most probably was the
monastery mentioned in Kalasan inscription. Further east lies the Prambanan complex, Sewu
temple, and Plaosan temple. It is estimated that the Sari temple was built at the same time as
Kalasan temple on the 8th century AD during the rule of King Panangkaran. So the Sari
temple is the sister temple of the Kalasan.

The Mandala of the Sewu temple

As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and
Prambanan Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s
architecture. The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments
that decorate parts of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist
principles, not only as visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important.
Ornaments are an artistic component that is added to decoration in crafts, including
architecture. Ornamentation cannot be separated from the socio-cultural background of the
community and the area of origin of the ornament, because ornamentation is a means of
communication to reduce culture from the previous generation to the next generation.
Therefore, it is necessary to further study the evolution or development of the forms and
meanings of architectural ornaments in the archipelago with a time series of architectural
developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and traditional architecture, especially Java,
following the location of the temple. The purpose of this study is to examine the evolution of
forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist architectural ornaments found in Sewu
Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese architecture. This research uses
descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a relationship between
1
Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------E
olution of
Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture: Case Study of Sewu Temple

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Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 421 4th
International Conference on Arts Language and Culture (ICALC 2019)

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of
the great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is
the original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in
Indonesia after Borobudur, with 249 buildings. Archaeologists believe the original name for
the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to
'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang). Here we see a clear Mandala and remains of several Perwara temples.

Candi Sewu temple layout

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Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu
predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of
249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from
popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original
name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.

Perwara temples surrounding the Prambanan- above right

CONSTRUCTION

Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4
no. 37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.

According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE), which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century
at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his
successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before the Hindu Shiva temple of Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple
was the largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was
completed 37 years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper ) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu

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temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes
the universe in Buddhist cosmology.
Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a
prince who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani.
Most of his subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism.
The proximity of the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu
and Buddhist communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built.
And the scale of the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple
that served as an important religious site.
Rediscovery

Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins
were not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the
temple were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and
a cursed princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of
supernatural origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created
by a multitude of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely
the reason the temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–
1830). The local villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to
be haunted by supernatural beings.
1. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons
permission to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report
of this trip contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan
temples and in the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann
Cornelius unearthed the Sewu temples.
2. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and
used in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
3. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch
colonists stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers
used the foundation stones as construction material.
4. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments
were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections
abroad.
5. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
6. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made
earlier by Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that
several Buddha heads were missing.
7. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from
the site completely
8. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
9. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp [nl] initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main
temple.

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 10. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It
was de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
11. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists
Contemporary events
Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are
missing. The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were
completed in 1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris
were scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To
prevent the central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four
corners and attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site
was reopened for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the
metal frame has been removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple. The Sewu
Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-
1857), by BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original held and digitised by the British Library.

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 Candi Sewu
main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple near
Prambanan
shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara temples.

Prambanan courtyard shows the Perwara ARPIT are RED

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 Candi Sewu Layout Mandala

An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of the 8th
century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia. PERWARA temples

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Perwara temples

2 of three perwara temples.

The main temple compound located on the uppermost terrace, consists of a large main temple
facing west and three perwara temples on front of it facing east. These three perwara temples
was meant to honor Trimurti, having cella or room and there are windows perforated in the
rhombus shape. The roof is arranged in three stages adorned with rows of ratnas.

The main temple, showing the three niches. One of the perwara
temples can be seen behind it.
The main temple has square ground plan with a large linga and yoni adorned
with naga serpent. The union of phallic linga and yoni symbolize the cosmic sacred union
between Shiva and Parvati as his shakti. There are three niches on each sides of inner wall in
the room, each niches flanked with a pair of devata, Hindu lesser gods and goddesses flying
toward the niches.The roof of main temple is arranged in three ascending terraces decreased
in size to the top forming stepped pyramid.
In the case of Prambanan these 224 shrines are also the "Candi Perwara", guardian or
complementary temples, the additional buildings of the main temple. Some believed it was
offered to the king as a sign of submission. The Perwara are arranged in four rows around the
central temples.
Apit temples and smaller shrines. Apit in Javanese means "flank". It refers to the position of
the two temples that flanked the inner courtyard on the north and south sides. The room
inside the Apit temples is now empty. It is not clear to which deities these Apit temples were
dedicated.

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Apit (अपित् means Dry, waterless, as a river.Not having the इत् (it) or अनुबन्ध प्
(anubandha p). सार्वधातुकमपित् (sārvadhātukamapit) Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit
Dictionaries: Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary
Apit as an adjective would mean barren, dry.A temple that does not feature an Idol. But they
can have a depiction on the outer walls. For example:
Prambanan Apit temple of Saraswati is an Apit temple from the 9th-century located within
the complex of the Prambanan Temple Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia. Apit
temple and smaller shrines, Between these rows of the main temple, on the north and south
side, stand two Apit temples. However, examining the southern Apit temple bas-reliefs on
the outer wall, a female deity is depicted, most probably Sarasvati, the Shakti (consort) of
Brahma. Considering the Hindu pantheon represented in Prambanan temples, it is possible
that the southern Apit temple was dedicated to Sarasvati, while the northern Apit temple was
dedicated to Lakshmi.
Complex of Complexes

Prambanan temple compounds, has 5 major temples complexes and more than five-hundred
temples. The major temple complex is Prambanan temple complex with 240 Hindu temples.
Another major temple complex is Candi Sewu, the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 240 temples though the striking feature is the

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massive dwara balas or protectors of the temple gates. The other temples are Bubrah,
Lumbung and Asu. All these temples except Asu are at different stages of restoration by the
UNESCO working with the Indonesian Government. Do note that Asu is still buried under
the soil due to the impact of the Mount Merapi volcano and yet to be excavated.Prambanan
1
temple complex is the most popular one among these various temples.
Inside the Temple Complex

The temple complex has 240 temples. They are organized as follows
1. The 3 main temples for the 3 murtis of the Hindu religion - Siva, Vishnu and Brahma with
the Siva temple in the center.
2. Vahana or vehicle temples of the respective murtis are opposite to each one of
the murtis for a total of 3 temples. The 3 Vahana temples are Garuda, Nandi and Angsa (or
swan).
3. There are two Apit temples or flank temples on either side of the 6 temples in the center
row between the rows of Vahana and Murthy temples.
4. There are 4 Kelir temples on four cardinal directions outside the inner courtyard.
5. There are 4 Pathok temples on 4 corners of the inner courtyard.
6. Then outside all these temples are the Perwara (“waiting woman”) temples organized in 4
concentric squares with different number of temples from the inner square to outer square as
follows - 44, 52, 60, 68. According to the brilliant article by Dr Subhash Kak, the concentric
circular placement of the Prambanan temples is after a Tantric diagram followed at that time
and his technical details and knowledge is fascinating.

1. The total varies from 249 to 239 ( calculated by me). Be as it may, it is a large number.
That apart, which I do not want to focus upon and also lack the knowledge to do so, Rakai’s
contribution is bringing a synthesis of Buddhism and |Hinduism in the same compounds
while keeping things separate

Prambanan (LEFT) and SEWU ( RIGHT) Aerial views showing the compounds and temple arrangements.

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The striking feature of the Prambanan is the architecture, which is a typical representation of
the South Indian Pallava-Chola architecture. It is typical of that architecture to have very tall
Vimanas and Gopurams (towers), large courtyards and aesthetically carved bass reliefs. Also
the Prambanan temples follow the Mandala concept of the Vastu Shastra, an ancient Indian
science of architecture and construction. The inner space with the Murti temples, the Perwara
temples and the space outside Perwara temples make up the three mandala concept of the
Vastu Shastra. Today only the Murthy, Vahana, Apit and Kelir temples has been restored
while the Pathok and Perwara are not restored yet though work is in progress.

The temples of Prambanan itself are organized as per the Logam concept. The foot of each
temple represents the Boologam or the realm of the mortals. The middle realm or the body of
the temple represents Bhuvarlogam or realm for the holy people. The upper realm or the
holiest part of the temple or the topmost layer is the realm of gods called Swarkalogam. The
upper realm is completed by a Vajra (it can mean both thunderbolt or diamond) on the roof.

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The Bas reliefs of Prambanan is very extensive and narrative. The narrative part is about
Ramayana epic and Bhagavata Puranam - stories about Vishnu and his avatars. The reliefs
also have depictions about Kalpataru, Apsaras, Devadas - all part of Hindu/Buddhist
mythology.
Expansion. Though the temple is believed to have been built by Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya
dynasty around 850 AD it was expanded by subsequent kings building the Perwara temples
surrounding the centerpiece in concentric squares.This is an indication that the large
compounds were specifically kept for later expansions without destruction or alteration to the
main temple. There was, nothing ofcourse, to stop subsequent Kings from building another
Main Temple near the older one.

At its peak, hundreds of Brahmins lived in the temple complex while the royal court with the
urban center was located nearby. The royal court was shifted either due to Mount Merapi
volcano eruption or due to power struggle throwing Prambanan into disuse. The locals knew
about the existence of the temple but did not know the background and so the folklore of
Roro Jonggrang was attached to the temple.

Candi Lumbung - Main temple renovation goes on with Perwara temples on the side

Candi Bubrah: Hundred or so meters to away is Candi Bubrah, which is a Buddhist temple
constructed in the 9th century by the Sailendra dynasty. It is named as Bubrah as it was
discovered in complete ruins. What exists today is a 12 meters x 12 meters platform where I
could see works carried on to restore this temple. As per my conversation with the workers,
the temple is made up of volcanic rocks.

The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area,
with rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west.

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There is an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east
side. Each of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues
have been better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249
buildings in the complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This
configuration expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller
temples, called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four
rectangular concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller
temples, while two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249
temples located in the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by
different statues and orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on
the current site are not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues
of Borobudur and were likely made of bronze.
Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between
the second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple
on each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after
the main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These
smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth
row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the
center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located
around 300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins
discovered around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too
scarce for reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound
was completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which
is corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The
ground plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four
cardinal points of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its
own stairs, entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of
the structures are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms
in each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a
central roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways
were added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden
doors. Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples
together into one main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger
than other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are
empty. However the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the
temple once contained a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue
of Manjusri), probably reaching a height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably
looted for scrap metal over the centuries. However another theory suggested that the main
statue was probably constructed from several stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

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The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of
Bubrah temple in 1900s

Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java.

While the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest

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enterable Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas
surrounding a cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square
kilometers (seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the
spread of Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist
communities found great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The
plethora of Buddhist figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication,
and the temple’s massive scale points to elite patronage.

Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due
to looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and
Southeast Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the
regions. Candi Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this
period. See, for example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base.
Much like the lion at a temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail
upturned and mouth open, and its head seems to support the structure above.

123
124
Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time.
Prominent imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor
deities), and flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the
temple. Bells and billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs
leads through a vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a
semicircular platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy
person with sacred fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-
asian/sacred-sites-in-southeast-asia-candi-sewu/

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 X

More about the PERWARA Temples

Candi Plaosan, also known as the Plaosan Complex, is one of the Buddhist
temples located in Bugisan village, Prambanan district covering an area of 2,000 square
metres (22,000 square feet) with an elevation of 148 metres (486 feet) above sea level.
The Dengok River is located nearby, about 200 metres (220 yards) away

One of the twin main temple of Plaosan Lor compound/Avalokiteśvara on Plaosan main temple wall.//
Dvarapala, the giant guardian in front of Plaosan Temple.

Plaosan temple was built in the mid 9th century by the wife of Rakai Pinkatan. But whether
it was built by Rakai himself and attributed to his wife Sri Kahulunnan
or Pramodhawardhani, the daughter of Samaratungga, descendant of Sailendra Dynasty,
could be possible. The complex currently comprises two Buddhist temples, Plaosan
Lor and Plaosan Kidul and made up of 174 small buildings, 116 are stupas and 58 are
shrines. Many of the buildings have inscriptions. Two of these inscriptions denote the temple
as a gift of sanctuary by Rakai Pikatan. The dates of the inscriptions are between 825-850
AD. Although similar to the Prambanan 856 AD date, the complexes are not related. A new
building technique distinguishes Prambanan from Plaosan temples.This temples at Plaosan
are made up of an upper and lower level, separated in three rooms. In the lower level,
multiple statues resided. Today, only two statues of Bodhisattva seated on each sides of each
rooms, flanked an empty pedestal. However, as the position of the false windows dictate,
there was only one statue rested on the bottom basal level on central pedestal. This statue
today is missing, it was probably some bronze statues depicting Buddha with two stone
Bodhisattva statues flanked it. Historians suggests that a main temple once contains nine
statues, six stone Bodhisattvas, and three bronze Buddhas (now missing). This means there
was 18 statues resided in the twin main temples.
On the upper walls in each rooms, there are the traces of stones indentions that once
supported wooden beams and wooden floors, creating upper rooms. There is also traces of
stones as the base of wooden stairs.Rows of exquisite carvings of Bodhisattvas divinities are
found adorning the outer walls, with the majority of them being male. Smaller and less
occurring carvings by the windows represent female figures.One exceptional example is
carved on inner wall of the room depicting a representation of a Khmer prince which is
identified by his crown.
Ijo temple is Hindu candi (temple) located 4 kilometers from Ratu Boko measuring 0.8
hectare compound at present. The main temple is on the higher ground on the hill with

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several terraces. It was estimated that more than 10 Perwara or lesser temples ruins are still
buried in this terraces.

Sambirejo, Prambanan, Sleman Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Perwara temples

2 of three perwara temples.

The main temple compound located on the uppermost terrace, consists of a large main temple
facing west and three perwara temples on front of it facing east. These three perwara temples
was meant to honor Trimurti, having cella or room and there are windows perforated in the
rhombus shape. The roof is arranged in three stages adorned with rows of ratnas.

The main temple, showing the three niches. One of the

perwara temples can be seen behind it.

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The main temple has square ground plan with a large linga and yoni adorned
with naga serpent. The union of phallic linga and yoni symbolize the cosmic sacred union
between Shiva and Parvati as his shakti. There are three niches on each sides of inner wall in
the room, each niches flanked with a pair of devata, Hindu lesser gods and goddesses flying
toward the niches.The roof of main temple is arranged in three ascending terraces decreased
in size to the top forming stepped pyramid.
In the case of Prambanan these 4 shrines are also the "Candi Perwara", guardian or
complementary temples, the additional buildings of the main temple. Some believed it was
offered to the king as a sign of submission. The Perwara are arranged in four rows around the
central temples.

Ruins of the Perwara temples at Sompura Paharpur

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 XI
INTERPRETING THE WORD PERWARA

Temples have spiritual significance as houses of the divine, places for worship and rituals,
symbols of community unity, and centers of spiritual education. They often represent the cosmic
order and provide spaces for prayer, meditation, and purification, fostering a connection with the
divine and promoting spiritual growth.

Rakai Pinkaton Structures

Rakai Pikatan- Sang Prabhu Jatiningrat- Great King of Mataram was also known as..
4. Rakai Pikatan Dyah Saladu=(Wanua Tengah inscription)
5. Rakai Pikatan Dyah Kamulyan Sang Prabhu Linggeswara
Sakabhumandala=(Wangsakerta script)
6. Rakai Mamrati Sang Jatiningrat(Wantil inscription)

He was a king of the Sanjaya dynasty Mataram Kingdom in Central Java who built
the Prambanan temple, dedicated to Shiva, which was completed in 856 AD. Rakai Pikatan
was also called Mpu Manuku.
The monarch of the Mataram Kingdom before Rakai Pikatan was Samaratungga of
the Shailendra Dynasty. He had one son, Balaputra, and one daughter, Pramodhawardhani.
Rakai Pikatan and the Sanjaya dynasty were Shivaite Hindus and is recorded in the Wantil

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Inscription as having married a daughter of another religion. This is most likely
Pramodhawardhani, the Mahayana Buddhist daughter of Samaratungga.
It's believed that Pikatan fought his brother in law Balaputra, forcing him to move
to Srivijaya in 856. Other interpretations based on the Kayumwungan inscription put
Balaputra as Pramodhawardhani's uncle rather than her brother as inscriptions only list
Pramodhawaradhani as a child of Samaratungga. Hence, Balaputra went to Srivijaya not
because of force but because he had no claim as a brother of the monarch.
According to the interpretation of Loro Jonggrang legend, Pramodhawardhani's likeness was
the model for Durga's image in the Prambanan temple. Rakai built many temples surprisingly
both Hindu and Buddhist having 1 foot in each religion consequent to his marriage to a
Buddhist lady. His region boasted of a trend of having multiple temples in a single
compound.This could be also attributed to Rakai Pikatan.Temples such as Sewu which we
will deal with in details here as well as Ploasan, Sambirejo (Ijo), Lubrung, Burbah,
Prambanan and perhaps other temples that no longer exist above ground but may be
discovered ion future. One does not know.
We will consider a few of these with main and ancillary temples. In this context one can
describe the following offsprings:

5. Perwara means guardian or peripheral and perwara is an Indonesian word for an

escort temple.

6. Vahana is from Sanskrit word Vahana, from Old Javanese wāhana, from
Sanskrit वाहन, from वह्, a word for wagon. Also means carrier. Hindu Gods had
Vahanas . See my paper Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu
Gods.https://www.academia.edu/44665352/Vahanas_the_vehicles_of_Hindu_Gods

7. Apit temples means dry temple may also indicate squeezed as in Malay language.

8. Patok Temple would mean a Pole or Stake- something sticking out of the ground.

Prambanan temple complex is one of the biggest Hindu religious heritage in Indonesia.
Temple complex consists of 3 main temple with a height of 47 meters, namely Candi Siwa,
Brahma Temple and Vishnu Temple (the name comes from the main deity in the Hindu
religion) and is surrounded by small temples called the temple Perwara. Prambanan Hindu
Religion is a holdover from the IX century. Located on the edge of roads Yogya to Solo at
17th km east of Yogyakarta. Supported facilities such as archaeological museum, audio
visual, school, park playground, and so forth, this temple is one of the archaeological wealth
of the world become one of the goals of tourism.

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With over 500 temples, Prambanan Temple Compounds represents not only an architectural
and cultural treasure, but also a standing proof of past religious peaceful cohabitation.

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"yatnavanto yava dviipam sapta raajya upashobhitam | suvarNa ruupyakam dviipam suvarNa
aakara maNDitam || 4-40-30 yava dviipam atikramya shishiro naama parvataH | divam
spR^ishati shR^ingeNa deva daanava sevitaH || 4-40-31 eteSaam giri durgeSu prapaateSu
vaneSu ca | maargadhvam sahitaaH sarve raama patniim yashasviniim ||"

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“You strive hard in the island of Yava, which will be splendorous with seven kingdoms, like
that even in Golden and Silver islands that are enwreathed with gold-mines, in and around
Yava islands. On crossing over Yava Island, there is a mountain named Shishira, which
touches heaven with its peak, and which gods and demons adore. You shall collectively rake
through all the impassable mountains, waterfalls, and forests in these islands for the glorious
wife of Rama.” 4-40-32 - The Ramayana.

 To reject the necessity of temples is to reject the necessity of God. Said Mahatma
Gandhi.
 The Gods always play where groves are nearby, rivers, mountains and springs, in
towns with pleasure gardens. Brihat Samhita, 55.8.
 The rich will make temples for Shiva. What shall a poor man like me do? My legs are
pillars, the body the shrine, the head a dome of gold. –Basavanna

Is it Lord Shiva at Prambanan – Presentation of temples of Central Java ?

Java, Bali and Sumatra are all Sanskrit names. All of the most ancient of Indonesian shrines
are dedicated to Indian Vedic deities and depict scenes from Indian epics. Their language is a
dialect of Sanskrit known as Basha, a Sanskrit term. The Indonesian flag, being of two colors,
bears the Sanskrit name Dwivarna. The five cardinal points of the Indonesian constitution are
also designated by Sanskrit word Panchashila. The old Javanese alphabet derives from the
Pallava script of South India. One such inscription was found in the south-eastern region of
Borneo (Kalimanthan) on four octagonal stone pillars, written in the Sanskrit in a 4th century
Indian script. Indonesians still follow the Vedic year and call it Sakh-Samavat. It is not
generally known that the name "Indonesia" does not refer to Asia. The term "Nesia" signifies
a group of islands, and "Indo" of course means India. Thus, Indonesia means Indian Islands.
Not far from Borobudur is the complex of Prambanam, the like of which is known neither to
India or to any other neighbouring or distant land. Here are the life cycles of Lord Krishna as
Krishnayana parallel to the Ramayana, the powerful dragon being torn asunder by the superb
arms of the Divine boy Krishna. In another place is the scene of Kumbhakarna being
awakened by conches and screeches of elephants, a portrayal of the highest order. The central
triad of temples are devoted to the Trimurti (Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu). The ancient name
of Borneo is Kalimanthan. Kali is the popular Indian goddess who is devotedly worshipped
by the general masses of Vedic followers and Indian rulers alike. The sultan of Brunei bore
the title of Seri Bhagawan, meaning Shri Bhagavan (Lord Almighty).

Java was known by Indian chroniclers before 600 BCE. The name Java comes from the
Sanskrit Jawadwip, which means a (dvip) island (yawa) shaped like a barley corn. The Vedic
Indians must have charted Java, Yawadvip, thousands of years ago because Yawadvip is
mentioned in India's earliest epic, the Ramayana. The Ramayana reveals some knowledge of
the eastern regions beyond seas; for instance Sugriva dispatched his men to Yavadvipa, the
island of Java, in search of Sita. It speaks of Burma as the land of silver mines. The Agni
Purana, along with many other Puranas, calls India proper as Jambudvipa as distinguished
from Dvipantara or India of the islands or overseas India. Towards the end of the fifth
century, Aryabhatta, the Indian astronomer, wrote that when the sun rose in Ceylon it was
midday in Yavakoti (Java) and midnight in the Roman land. In the Surya Siddhanta reference
is also made to the Nagari Yavakoti with golden walls and gates.

The Indian influence over South-East Asia expanded a lot during the time of Pallavas
between the fifth and seventh centuries and the influence was mainly seen in Cambodia. In

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Indonesia, Srivijaya, a maritime power and dynasty which controlled the empire stretching
from Sumatra to Malaya, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam arose from obscurity in the 8th
century. Srivijaya was an Indianized polity, with its capital near Palembang in South Eastern
Sumatra. Rival to the Srivijaya dynasty was the joint kingdoms of Sailendra and Sanjaya
based in central Java. It was during their time (after 780 CE) that the temple building activity
flourished in the island. These temples were based on the layout and elevation of the Pallavan
and Chalukyan temples which were based on Vastu Shastra.

The Agni Purana, along with many other Puranas, calls India proper as Jambudvipa as
distinguished from Dvipantara or India of the islands or overseas India. Towards the end of
the fifth century, Aryabhatta, the famous Indian astronomer, wrote that when the sun rose in
Ceylon it was midday in Yavakoti (Java) and midnight in the Roman land. In the Surya
Siddhanta reference is also made to the Nagari Yavakoti with golden walls and gates. Strong
Hindu influences were inevitable, given that the spiritual inspirational source was India.

Dr. Ananda Kentish Cooraswamy (1877-1947) the late curator of Indian art at the Boston
Museum of Fine Arts, was unexcelled in his knowledge of the art of the Orient, and
unmatched in his understanding of Indian culture, language, religion and philosophy. He is
the author of ' The Dance of Shiva: Essays on Indian Art and Culture' He was of the opinion
that:"the Prambanam reliefs are, if anything, superior to those of Borobudur and certainly
more dramatically conceived." (source: History of Indian and Indonesian Art - By Ananda K
Coomaraswamy p. 200 - 213).

Historians assert that between c. 840 and 850 CE, King Rakai Pikatan ordered
the construction of Prambanan. The main temple complex was created and designed under
the direction of Rakai Pikatan, while Rakai Kayuwangi, Balitung, Daksa, and Tulodong,
among other succeeding monarchs, soon afterwards constructed additional buildings. The
Hindu Sanjaya dynasty, which competed with the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty for control of
the “Medang”/Mataram kingdom in central Java, was represented by Rakai Pikatan and his
heirs. It is important to remember that the Sailendra dynasty oversaw Borobudur’s
development as a Buddhist temple. Some academics believe that Prambanan’s origins were a
direct aesthetic, political, and religious response to those of Borobudur and the rival Sailendra
dynasty because of the proximity of the two structures just 19 km apart.The architecture of
the Prambanan temple complex follows Vastu Shastra and was built on the model of Mount
Meru, the Cosmic mountain. The whole temple complex is a model of the Universe according
to Hindu cosmology. The urban center and the court of Mataram were located nearby, in
what would later become Yogyakarta.

The Prambanan Plain

The Prambanan Plain spans between the southern slopes of Merapi volcano in the north and
the Sewu mountain range in the south. The plain, valley and hills around it are the location of
the earliest Buddhist temples in Indonesia.

It is called ‘ the plain of a Thousand Temples’ — this area was an important spiritual and
political center. Located not far from the Buddhist Borobudur temple, the proximity of the
two temples tells us that on Java, Buddhism and Hinduism lived peacefully next to one
another. Prambanan is a magnificent spectacle. Prambanan, less well-known, is the Hindu
equivalent of Borobudur, and from roughly the same time period. They are stylistically polar
opposites: Borobudur is powerful and muscular, whereas Prambanan (a suggested etymology
is ‘brahma-vana’) is tall, slender and ethereal. Indeed, another name for Prambanan is

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‘slender maiden’. It consists of three temples, one each to Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. The
Siva temple is the tallest and the best preserved. The temples at Prambanan were built in the
9th century and is known locally as Roro Jonggrang, coming from the legend of the ‘slender
virgin’. While it’s not a temple set in a remote rustic setting, the splendor of the temple will
make you quickly forget your surroundings. You will be transported back to an ancient time
where ritual and culture dominated every part of life.

The biggest temple is dedicated to Shiva – the destroyer, and the two smaller ones which sit
on its right and left are dedicated to Brahma, the creator, and Visnhu, the sustainer. The
tallest temple of Prambanan is a staggering 47 meters high. Its peak visible from far away and
rises high above the ruins of the other temples.

Its Indonesian candi architecture adheres to the traditional Mandir Vastu Shastra plan -based
Hindu architectural practices. Which itself removes it from the traditional CANDI genre
because of the overwhelming Hindu temple architecture influences incorporated into its
Mandala temple design arrangements and the customary tall, towering spires of Hindu
temples incorporated into its design. This “Candi” was created to resemble Meru, the sacred
mountain and home of the gods. The temple serves as a representation of the Hindu cosmos.
In my book which is a collection of my articles on the Hindu temple and particularly the-
Garbagriha: I have discussed the perennial form of the Hindu temples as a three chambered
structure and in The 4 sided Hindu Mandir(temple)plan I have underlined the design element
that overpowered all creative considerations and followed a 4 side plot plan
https://www.academia.edu/89359446/4_The_4_sided_Hindu_Mandir_temple_plan
https://www.academia.edu/68997758/
The_Evolution_of_the_Garbhagriha_or_Sanctum_of_Hindu_Temples_and_3_CHAMBERED_TEMPLES

135
136
Statue of Durga Mahishasuramardini or according to local legend known as Loro
Jonggrang, inside northern cellar of Shiva temple, Prambanan, Central Java, Indonesia. See
Red arrow

The Shivagrha inscription states that a public water work to alter the path of a river close to
the Shivagrha temple was carried out when the temple was under construction. On the
western side of the Prambanan temple complex, a river known as the Opak River currently
flows from north to south. According to historians, the river was once curled farther to the
east and was too close to the main shrine. According to experts, the river rerouted to protect
the temple complex from the flood of lahar volcanic debris from the Merapi volcano. Cutting
the river on a north-south axis within the perimeter of the Shivagrha Temple complex marked
the project’s completion. The original river course was dried in and levelled to allow for
the expansion of the temple and the placement of groups of pervara (additional) temples,
indicating the temple’s significance to society. The father of the Khmer Empire, King
Jayavarman II (802–1431 CE), spent a significant portion of his life in Java, as per ancient
Khmer sources. Samaratungga appointed him as the administrator of Indrapura, which would
subsequently become Champa’s capital city around 875 CE. According to mythology,
Jayavarman visited both Prambanan and Borobudur, which gave him the idea to construct the
massive city of Angkor Wat. This is quite likely since during the eighth, ninth, and
tenth centuries CE, the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties greatly influenced politics and
culture in what is now Java, Sumatra, Malaya, and southern Cambodia through their
thalassocracies.

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 Circular Formations

A Hindu temple is popularly known as mandiram, devaalayam or devastanam, meaning the

shrine, abode or place of God. For the people on earth the Hindu temple serves as a sacred
place (devasthanam) or a place of pilgrimage (thirthasthalam) and heaven on earth.
Functionally it brings gods and humans together and gives them an opportunity to help each
other. Humans make offerings to gods and nourish them with food and devotional offerings
of prayers, songs, etc., while the gods reciprocate by protecting them from diseases,
misfortunes and calamities, removing their difficulties, cleansing their sins or helping them
achieve the four aims of human life namely dharma, artha, kama and moksha. Vedic people
did not build temples, nor did they worship images of gods in their abodes. They performed
sacrifices and nourished gods through sacrificial ceremonies, during which they might have
used images to perform symbolic sacrifices. Although they did not practice idol worship or
build temples, elements of Vedism as well Tantrism can be found in the structure and
configuration of present day Hindu temples. The practice must have emerged later as more
people from outside the Vedic fold began practicing it and incorporated their own beliefs and
practices into it.

Each traditional Hindu temple is essentially a universe in itself. It is a miniature replica of

God’s creation, which reflects its diversity, divinity and complexity, reminding us of the
presence of God upon earth and our duties towards him and his Dharma. The theoretical
aspects of the Hindu temple are according to the knowledge contained in the Vedas, the
Tantras and other Shastras, while the design, geometric and architectural aspects are drawn
from ancient building manuals (Vastu Shastras) and treatises on traditional sculpting (Shilpa
Shastras). To honour events of Mahabharata and Ramayana, the temple could have been
designed.

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The layout, themes, basic arrangement of its parts, placement of the deities, ornamentation,
and ancillary structures follow centuries’ old practices, beliefs and values of Hinduism. In the
past, and even now, Hindu temples offer an opportunity to the patrons to engage in charity
and philanthropy, while they help devotees engage their minds in divine contemplation and
religious worship. Over a time, Hindu temples also incorporated many foreign motifs from
Greek, Islamic and European cultures. They were found mainly in the Indian subcontinent
and in a few other countries such as Sri Lanka, Nepal, Thailand, Cambodia, and Indonesia
were Hinduism thrived. Presently. Today Hindu temples are found all over the world,
especially in countries where sizeable Hindu population exist such as Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Fiji, Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, the Caribbean, Suriname,
South Africa, Europe, Australia and North America. The world’s oldest and largest temple is
the Angkor vat in Cambodia, while the largest, most recent temple is said to be the Swami
Narayan (BAPS) temple at Robbinsville, New Jersey, the United States.

Compared to the temples in Angkor Wat, the temples of Prambanan are much easier to
navigate considering its compact structure. However, we do not know what remains is the
complete or residual structures, and therefore the number of the surrounding adjuvant temples
need not have been the same as what remains.

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Indonesia’s largest holy site is the Prambanan temple complex in Central Java.

‘Prambanan’ means Para Brahman (“Temple of God Almighty”) and one can naturally
assume that it is a Shiva temple dedicated to the Trimūrti. Its original name was Shiva-
grha (the House of Shiva). It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1998, and the largest Hindu
temple site in Indonesia and the second-largest in Southeast Asia after Angkor Wat . Main characteric
of its Hindu architecture is tall and pointed architecture and towering with 47 m height in the central
building (Shiva temple). It borders the Opak river, that was cut along a North to South axis
along the outer wall of the Shivagrha Temple compound. This exquisite architecture was
constructed many centuries before both Angkor Wat and the great cathedrals of Europe. Let
me now come to two of the very erudite and brilliant literary endeavours that crystallize the
design elements of the Prambanan. After hundreds of years of neglect, the Prambanan temple
was rediscovered by CA Lons, a Dutchman, in 1733. The grandeur, complexity, and
integrated architectural concept of Prambanan makes this a truly amazing structure. As a
unique cultural and architectural marvel, Prambanan was declared a World Heritage site in
1991 by UNESCO.Surrounded by lush landscape and detailed architecture this temple
compound covers 39.8 hectares. In the main yard, there are the following Mandirs or
temples :
1. 3 (three) main temples,
2. 3 (three) Wahana temples,
3. 2(two) Apit temples, and
4. 8 (eight ) Patok temples surrounded by fences.
5. 224-In the second yard, there are another 224 Perwara temples.

1. The three main temples are dedicated to Hindu gods Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma. The
biggest temple is dedicated to Shiva —the destroyer, and the two smaller ones which flank it
on the east and west are dedicated to Brahma — the creator and Vishnu — the sustainer. The
tallest temple of Prambanan—the main Shiva temple—is a staggering 47 meters (130 feet)
high. Its peak is visible from far away and rises high above the ruins of the other temples.The
temple across from the Shiva temple contains a fine image of a Nadi bull and the Lingga
Batara Siwa stone, a symbol of fertility. . The main temple of Shiva houses the magnificent
statue of a four-armed Shiva, standing on Buddhist-style lotus blossoms. In the northern cell
is a fine image of Durga, Shiva’s consort. Some believe the Durga image is actually that of
the Slender Virgin, who according to legend was turned to stone by a giant she refused to
marry. The outsides are adorned with bas-reliefs depicting the Ramayana story. The Siva
temple had four statues: located in the centre chamber is the Siva statue; in the north chamber
stands the Dewi Durga Mahisasuramardhini statue; in the west chamber stands the Ganesya

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statue; and the south chamber contains the statue of Agastya. Inside the Brahma temple there
is Brahma statue, and in the Vishnu temple there is the Vishnu statue. In the Vishnu temple is
carved the story of Kresnayana, while the Brahma temple houses the continuous story of the
Ramayana. The temples of Siva, Vishnu and Brahma are decorated with reliefs illustrating
the Ramayana period (history of the Hindu hero Rama, written around 300).

The high structures are typical of Hindu architecture, and the plan of the temple complex
is a Mandala, as is Borobudur. As a symbol of the Hindu cosmos, the temple is vertically
divided into three parts, both vertically and in plan. The three part is divided into
Jaba/Bhurloka, Tengahan/Bhuvarloka, and Njeron/Svarloka.

At the Garbagriha (innermost sanctum) of this temple sits a three meters statue of Shiva.
Prambanan as a Hindu Temple was made High and slim compared to Borobudur, with
the main Shiva shrine stands 47 meters in the middle of the complex surrounded with
smaller temples. Prambanan has a bas-relief on the inner side of the gate around the three
main shrine. The bas-relief tells the story about Ramayana and can be read from the east
gate clockwise around the inner compound.

2.Wahana Temples are 3 in number dedicated to the 3 vahanas of the 3 main idols- Brahma
Vishnu Mahesh. A square platform is divided into concentric courts by square-plane walls. In
the middle of the last enceinte stand the temples dedicated to the three great Hindu gods and
three small temples dedicated to their animal vehicles (Bull for Siva, Eagle for Brahma and
Swan for Vishnu). Other minor temples were located at the entrance gates or outside the
central enceinte (four ensembles).

7. Prambadan is surrounded by the ruins of 240 small “guard “ temples. Altogether there
are 400 temples in the Prambadan area. Most are within five kilometers of Prambanan
village and are generally not visited except by archeology nuts. But that is not to say
they are not without merit. A good way to explore them is to rent a bicycle. The
proximity of Prambanan and Buddhist Borobudur temple tells us that on Java,
Buddhism and Hinduism lived peacefully next to one another. The surrounding
PERWARA temples are 224-In the second yard, there are another 224 Perwara
temples.

Theories on the arrangement and multiplicity of temples in the Compound

1.In PRAISE OF PRAMBANAN DUTCH ESSAYS ON THE LORO JONGGRANG TEMPLE

COMPLEX Edited by ROY E. JORDAAN - Published by the Dutch KONINKLIIK
INSTITUUT VOOR TAAL-. LAND- EN VOLKENKUNDE Translation, Series 26 we find
certain criticism or observations on the placement of the ornamental carvings in the structure.
To begin with, we find the story of Rama distributed over two of the three temples located
here- namely the Siva and the Brahma temple, while actually we would have expected the
Vishnu temple to be a pre-eminently suitable candidate for adornment with stories of his
avatar Rama. Also one can see tales of Siva depicted on the Siva temple,whereas the first
figures to be noted in the reliefs adorning this temple are those of Garuda and the second
Vishnu himself!
“The conclusion that forces itself upon us is that the priests giving instructions for this
unusual arrangement at the time these temples were designed either were no longer experts in
their profession or took considerable liberties.” It is quite possible that artistic liberties were

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taken not in the least that the craftsmen and designers were no Hinduism experts of the
standard that we today desire from an extinct piece of Art. With three main temples for the
Trimurti; Shiva the destroyer of the universe, Vishnu the keeper of the universe, and
Brahma the creator of the universe. Back in the glory days of the old Mataram Kingdom,
Prambanan is used as a Candi Agung for various royal and religious ceremonies.

Bhurloka
The base of the temples, as well as the outer square is the underworld. It was a large
space marked by a rectangular wall. This is a place for ordinary folk, mortals, both
human and animal. This is the place where lust and desire are commonplace. It is an
unholy area. Bhurloka is 390 square meters wide, it used to have stone walls surrounding
it.
Bhuvarloka
The central body of the temples and the middle square of the complex, represents the
‘middle world’ the place for those who have left their worldly possessions. This is where
people begin to see the light of truth. The middle world had four rows of 224 small
individual shrines, where all shrines are identical. Bhuvarloka is 222 square meters wide
and used to have stone walls. This compound consist of four levels, with the innermost
level the highest. The first level has 68 small stupas divided into four rows. The second
level has 60 stupas. The third level has 52 stupas, and the top level has 44 stupas. All
stupas in this compound has the same size, 6 meters wide and 14 meters high. Almost all
structure in the middle square is now in ruins.
Svarloka
The top of the temples and the innermost square represents the realm of the gods, the
holiest zone, and is crowned. There are 16 temples that consist of 3 main temples:
Brahma the Creator, Shiva the Destroyer, and Vishnu the Keeper. Shiva temple is the
biggest and the tallest amongst all with 47.6m high, while Brahma and Vishnu are 33m
high. In addition to the three main temples, there are three Wahana Temples, four Kelir
Temples, two Apit Temples and four Patok Temples.
The Svarloka area is 110 square meters wide and 1,5 meters higher than the central area.
This area is surrounded with stone walls, with four Gapura Paduraksa on four sides, only
the southern gate is still in its original state. In front of the gate is a small square stupas 4
meters high.
SUN position

He also goes on to mention that this arrangement is not a haphazard one, but on the contrary,
is inspired by a strict system - that of the course of the sun. “Hopefully other researchers will
be in a position on the basis of this to continue the repair work on the cosmic fabric with
which the temples of the Central Javanese period must have been overlaid.” As avastu expert
with my Compass to tell the N-E-W-S directions, I am confounded many times in relocation
the sun positions in view of determing the isthmus in apartments constructed one on top of
the other( not to mention sade ways) where it is difficult to romove/move windows and doors,
roof and floor( to say the least)

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 One of Perwara or smaller complementary temple.
There are three perwara temples in front of Gunung Wukir (Canggal) main temple. Canggal hamlet,
Kadiluwih village, Salam, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia

2. Sitti Attari Khairunnisa,,Taufiq Hidayat, Wayne Orchiston & Nok Nikeu in their
Chapter- Astronomical Aspects of the Prambanan Temple in Central Java, Indonesia point
out that Astronomy being a well known even temples like Angkor Wat, a famous Hindu
temple located in Cambodia, integrated some aspects of astronomy into its design. The
Prambanan Temple (which is older than Angkor Wat), may have the same claim. According
to them previous research suggests a relationship between Prambanan and astronomy, which
is shown by the fact that it is oriented towards the cardinal points. This choice of orientation
must have been made through consistent observations of the Sun. It also has been proposed
that the construction of Prambanan applied the mandala principle, which is the basic
concept for the construction of Hindu temples in India. This concept provides essential
information regarding astronomy and its historical facts.

For example, the date of establishment of a temple can be inferred from the mandala set up.
From the type of mandala, it can be determined for whom the temple was built. They
suggest that the temple may also have also been used for lunar observations.

3. Dr Subhash Kak in his essay Space and Order in Prambanan presents new ideas regarding the plan
of the 9th-century Prambanan temple complex and the number of its subsidiary shrines (candi
perwara). Sometimes viewed as derived from the Somapura Mahåvihara of Bengal, which
was built by Dharmapala (r. 770-810) of the Pala dynasty (Rowland 1953), Prambanan is a
sarvatobhadra temple with a terraced plan and a unique Mandala layout. The Layout has
always posed a challenge to the onlooker less and the researcher more as to the intricacies of
iuts dimensiona and the existence and placement of the perwara temples. According to him
the 224 candi perwara are the emanations associated with the Goddess in the 3r∂ Yantra system.
The four terraced sets of candi perwara shrines are like the four concentric sets of triangles in the
3r∂ YantraThe Goddess central to the complex, which is consistent with the traditional view of
the Javanese in which it is famous as Candi Loro Jonggrang and not Candi Shiva. It may be
assumed that the King-commissioner constructed the temple with multiple dedications to Rama
as the ideal ruler, Shiva as the Great God, and Durga as the goddess who guides-one to inner and
outer victory. https://www.academia.edu/45095273/Space_and_order_in_Prambanan

4. During the middle of the 9th century CE, the respective planetary bodies corresponding
with six of the eight Lokapalas happened to rise in the same order in which they appear on
the walls of the Shiva temple. This celestial event took place beginning on the evening of
December 17th in 840 CE, a date that also coincided with the Summer Solstice. Jupiter
(Indra), the Moon (Issana), Venus (Kubera), Mercury (Varuna), Mars (Yama), and Saturn

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(Agni) rose in succession in the early morning hours, followed by the rising Sun itself. In
addition, the sun rose on December 18th in the asterism Crivana, which is assigned to
Vishnu, the chief of all the solar deities.

Prambanan Temple Compounds comprises of two groups of buildings which includes

LoroJonggrang, Sewu complexes, Lumbung, Bubrah and Asu (Gana). The 508 stone
temples of various shapes and sizes are either in a complete and preserved condition or
have been retained as ruins. This site includes all elements necessary to express its
exceptional significance and iswell maintained. There are no threats of development or
neglect; however the area is prone to natural threats such as earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions.

5. Battle of Kurukshetra and the multi circular CHAKRAYVSA formation

The Padmavyūha (Sanskrit: पद्मव्यूह) or Chakravyūha (Sanskrit: चक्रव्यूह) is a military

formation used to surround enemies, depicted in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. It resembles
a labyrinth of multiple defensive walls. The Padmavyūha is a multi-tiered defensive
formation that looks like a blooming lotus (पद्म padma) or disc (चक्र chakra) when viewed from
above.[1] The warriors at each interleaving position would be in an increasingly tough position
to fight against. The formation was used in the battle of Kurukshetra by Dronacharya, who
became commander-in-chief of the Kaurava army after the fall of Bhishma Pitamaha.
The various vyūhas (military formations) were studied by the Kauravas and Pandavas alike.
Most of them can be beaten using a counter-measure targeted specifically against that
formation. In the form of battle described in the Mahabharata, it was important to place
powerful fighters in positions where they could inflict maximum damage to the opposing
force, or defend their own side. As per this military strategy, a specific stationary object or a
moving object or person could be captured, surrounded and fully secured during battle.
The formation begins with two soldiers standing back-to-back, with other such set of soldiers
standing at a distance of three hands, drawing up seven circles and culminating in the end
which is the place where the captured person or object is to be kept. In order to form the
Chakravyuha, the commander has to identify soldiers who will form this formation. The
number of soldiers to be deployed and the size of the Chakravyuha is calculated as per the
resistance estimated. Once drawn, the foremost soldiers come on either side of the opponent
to be captured, engage briefly and then advance. Their place is taken up by the next soldiers
on either side, who again engage the opponent briefly and then advance. In this fashion, a
number of soldiers pass the enemy and proceed in a circular pattern. By the time the rear of
the formation arrives, the oblivious enemy is surrounded on all sides by seven tiers of
soldiers. The last soldiers of the formation give the signal of having completed the
Chakravyuha. On the signal, every soldier who so far has been facing outwards turns inwards
to face the opponent. It is only then that the captured enemy realizes his captivity. The army
can continue to maintain the circular formation while leading the captive away.

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At one point in the great battle of the Mahabharata, the Kauravas gather their army into a large,
impenetrable circular formation. When Abhimanyu plans to break into the formation, the Pandavas and
their allies promise to follow him, providing assistance and protection. Once Abhimanyu penetrates the
enemy force, however, King Jayadratha and his army prevent the Pandavas from coming to their
kinsman's aid. Abhimanyu, though he fights valiantly and slays many opponents, is eventually killed.
Here he faces a force that includes the Kaurava brothers Duryodhana, Duhshasana, and Vrindaraka, as
well as such allies as Karna and Drona. At the right-hand side of the page the Pandavas face a group of
warriors led by King Jayadratha, who is seated on an elephant. Jayadratha was able to hold the powerful
Pandavas at bay through a favor he received from the Hindu god Shiva. On left the CHAKRAVYVA
formation

Family temple of Shiva

The Shiva temple is the only structure at Prambanan that has entrance ways opening to all
four cardinal directions. The doorway that faces east leads into the shrine’s central cella,
which contains a murti (Statute) of Lord Shiva.
The remaining three doors lead into three ancillary chambers which contain statues of the
Agastya (south), Ganesha (west) and Durga (north).
With regards to the central shrine, however, there is a possibility that these three murtis were
not the original occupants of the auxiliary chambers. Prambanan temple has 3 main divisions
in the main structure namely, the Vishnu Temple, Brahma, and Shiva temples. The three
temples are symbols of Trimurti in Hindu belief. All of them face to the east.
Each main temple has a temple facing the west, namely Nandini for Shiva temples, Angsa to
Brahma, and Garuda for Vishnu. Besides, there are 2 wedge temple, temple curtain 4, and 4
corner temples. Meanwhile, a second portion of the plot has 224 has a temple.
Entering the temple of Shiva temples located in the middle of the building and the highest
roof structure one comes across the 4 rooms. One main room contains a statue Siwa, while
the other 3 rooms each contain Durga statue (Siwa's wife), Agastya (Shiva temples teachers),
and Ganesha (the son of Siwa). Durga statue that have been used as the statue in

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the legend of Roro Jonggrang. In the Vishnu Temple, located in the north of Siwa temple,
there is only one room containing a statue of Vishnu. Similarly Brahma is also lodged
singularly. Brahma too in the South is similarly placed. Temple facing enough bait is Garuda
temple that is located near the Vishnu temple. Save this temple stories about her half-human
bird called Garuda. Garuda is a mystical bird in Hindu mythology is well-known, with a
human face.Immediately to the east are three auxiliary shrines, each with a single staircase
and doorway facing to the west. The shrine to the immediate east of the Shiva temple, which
contains a statue of the sacred bull Nandi, is 25 m. in height and measures 15 m. x 15 m. at
the base. The remaining two shrines, which face the Brahma and Vishnu temples, are 22 m.
in height and measure 13 m. x 13 m. at the base.

The statuary that visitors see today in the interiors of these two structures are not the original
occupants. It is suggested that these buildings were intended to house the celestial vahanas
(carriers) of the Deities Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu. However, this is by no means certain. It
has also been suggested that these buildings may have initially housed sculptures representing
Lord Shiva, including his shivalinga.

The tripartite structure of the shivalinga represent the trimurti of Brahma (square base),
Vishnu (octagonal mid-section) and Shiva (round tip).Near the central yard’s north and south
gates are two apit temples, the original purpose of which is not known. Each of these
structures has a height of 16 m. and measures 6 m. x 6 m. at the base. A total of eight smaller
kelir (screen) structures are located just inside the courtyard walls. These were probably used
to mark out the four cardinal points as well as the four intermediate directions of NW, NE,
SW, and SE.

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In addition, the kelir temple that marks the center of the entire complex has actually been
incorporated into the structure of the main Shiva shrine. All nine temples are 4.1 m. in height
and measure 1.55 m. x 1.55 m. at the base.

The Shiva Temple’s Lokapalas – Guardians of the Directions of Space

On the outside-facing walls of the Shiva temple’s central cella there are a total of 24 relief
panels. Eight of these figures collectively represent a group of Deities called the Lokapalas
— the guardians of the eight directions of space. Vedic cosmology associates six of the eight
Lokapalas with six of the planets of ancient astronomy: Kubera (Venus), Varuna (Mercury),
Yama (Mars), Agni (Saturn), Issana (Moon) and Indra (Jupiter). In addition, the Lokapalas
Nirriti and Vayu were assigned stations in the sky that corresponded with certain star signs of
Vedic astronomy, called the nakshatras.

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 The Temple Complex

The architecture of the Prambanan temple complex follows Vastu Shastra and was built on the
model of Mount Meru, the Cosmic mountain. The whole temple complex is a model of the
Universe according to Hindu cosmology. The urban center and the court of Mataram were
located nearby, in what would later become Yogyakarta. Hundreds of brahmins lived with
their disciples within the outer wall of the temple compound.

As mentiuoned earlier and toi recapitulate, 0riginally there were a total of 240 temples
standing in Prambanan. The temple complex consist of:
• 3 Trimurti temples: three main temples dedicated to Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva Mahadeva
• 3 Vahana temples: three temples in front of Trimurti temples dedicated to the vahana of each
gods; Garuda, Nandi and Hamsa
• 2 Apit temples: two temples located between the rows of Trimurti and Vahana temples on
north and south side
• 4 Kelir temples: four small shrines located on 4 cardinal directions right beyond the 4 main
gates of inner zone
• 4 Patok temples: four small shrines located on 4 corners of inner zone
• 224 Pervara temples: hundreds of temples arranged in 4 concentric square rows; numbers of
temples from inner row to outer row are: 44, 52, 60, and 68. Today, only 2 out of the original
224 perwara temples are renovated.

The Tri Mandala principle

The Prambanan temple consists of 3 zones, according to the Indonesian Hindu tri
mandala principle:
• Nista Mandala (outer zone) — a large space marked by a walled perimeter, which originally
measured about 390 m per side, and contained a sacred garden, an ashram for monks and
accommodation for the priests.
• Madya Mandala (middle zone) that contains hundreds of small temples
• Utama Mandala (holiest inner sanctum) that contains 8 main temples and 8 small shrines.
Just like Borobudur, Prambanan is structured in three mandalas, from the less holy to the
holiest realms. Both the compound site plan (horizontally) and the temple structure (vertically)
represents 3 layers of the Universe:
• Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans,
animals also demons. Where humans are still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of
life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm of
bhurloka.
• Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, occupied by rishis,
ascetics, and lesser gods. People here begin to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and
the body of each temple symbolizes the realm of bhuvarloka.
• Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm, reserved for the gods.
Also known as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temple symbolizes the
realm of svarloka. The roof of Prambanan temples are adorned and crowned with ratna
(sanskrit: jewel), the shape of Prambanan ratna took the altered form of vajra that represent
diamonds. In ancient Java temple architecture, ratna is the Hindu counterpart of the Buddhist
stupa, and served as the temple’s pinnacle.

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Tri Zonal plan of Balinese Village temples TODAY is also similarKahyangan Tiga: Village
Temple

Balinese traditional society as a cultural community group in managing villages as residential

areas with completeness such as: temples, bale banjar, markets, houses, roads, is arranged in
one spatial layout based on the concepts of catus pata and luan teben, for example: markets,
wantilan, village temples, houses of village officials are placed at the corners of the catus
pata. These guideline were established in the first unified seminar on interpretation of
aspects of Hinduism which was held in Amlapura, Indonesia in 1974.

The village temple is the central place for ceremonial activities for the benefit of the village,
such as various ceremoniesemony. The village temple has a floor plan which is divided into
three parts (Nista Mandala, Madya Mandala, and Utama Mandala), but more generally the
first and second plans are combined into one, so that it appears to have two floor plans,
namely: Jaba side (first page) and innards (second page). ).

The two courtyards are surrounded by walls with entrances called Candi Bentar and Kori
Agung. Each part is accompanied by buildings with different functions. The number of
buildings in the first and second courtyards of the Pura Desa varies, but in this paper the main
buildings that must be present in every templeThe minimum buildings on the first zone are as
follows:

Candi Bentar.
The shape is halved which serves as the entrance to the first courtyard of the temple. To enter
the second courtyard (innards of the temple) through the temple brackets or kori agung with
various forms of variations and decorations.

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Bale Kulkul.
It's in the front corner of the first page. The shape of the building is made high as a tower
with a kulkul or kentongan hanging above it. The function of the kentongan is related to the
implementation of ceremonies such as when nesunang batara and when saving. Another
function is as a sign that a meeting between temple residents will soon begin to discuss
various issues regarding temples such as: preparation for piodalan, plans for temple repairs
and others.

Great Ball.
The building is in the form of a long bale with a rather high base and the roof is supported by
several pillars. This building serves as the place for the pasamuhan (meeting) of the batara
during the ngusaba ceremony and after the mekiyis ceremony (pratima purification ceremony
from the batara).

Bale Gong.
This building serves as a place for gamelan, which is played when the piodalan ceremony
takes place to support the ceremony at the temple.

While the buildings on the second page (innards) of the Village Temple are:

Sanggar Agung.
This building is also known as Sanggar Surya. Placement in the upstream direction of the
temple innards plan. This building is open at the top, which functions as the stana of Hyang
Raditya/Hyang Widi.

Great Gedong.
The building is in the form of a gegedongan which is divided into three parts, namely, the
base of the gedong, the body of the gedong with walls around it on all four sides, so that the
body of the gedong is in the form of a room. This room can be reached through the door on
the front side of the building. The roof of the gedong is made of layers with a roof made of

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palm fiber. This building functions as the stana of Lord Brahma, in the form of pratima and
does not use the likeness (characteristics) of Lord Brahma as is usually the case in sculptural
art.
In art, the statue of Lord Brahma is usually depicted as having four faces facing all directions,
four hands each holding a prayer beads, cypresses, a jug and round fruit. Sakti from Lord
Brahma named Dewi Saraswati riding a gowith a goose ride.

Queen Ketut Petung

The gedong-shaped building functions as a pepatih or companion of the God who resides in
the temple.

Ratu Ngerurah
The building is made in the form of a monument which functions as a guard and is
responsible for the security of the temple.

VILLAGE PURA PLAN- Description Floor plan

1 Gedong Agung.
2 Sedahan village head.
3 Queen Ketut Petung.
4 Great Halls.
5 Bale Pawedan.
6 Rumors.
7 Kuri Agung.
8 Apit Lawang.
9 Bale Agung
10 Bale Gong.
11 Bale Kulkul.
12 Candi Bentar

The Shiva temple of Prambanan

The inner zone or central compound is the holiest among the three zones. It is the square
elevated platform surrounded by a square stone wall with stone gates on each four cardinal
points. This holiest compound is assembled of 8 shrines or candi. The 3 main shrines, called
are dedicated to the three Gods of the Trimurti: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva Mahadeva.

The Shiva temple is the tallest and largest structure in Prambanan Loro Jonggrang
complex. Candi Shiva — the central shrine — rises 47 m high and contains 4 inner chambers

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that face the 4 points of the compass. The eastern gate of Shiva temple is flanked by two small
shrines, dedicated to the guardian gods Mahakala and Nandhisvara.

The Shiva temple is encircled with galleries adorned with bas-reliefs telling the Ramayana. To
follow the story accurately, visitors must enter from the East side and began to
perform pradakshina.
The Shiva shrine is located at the center and contains five chambers, four small chambers in
every cardinal direction and one bigger main chamber in the central part of the temple. The
east chamber connects to the central chamber that houses the largest temple in Prambanan, a
three-metre high statue of Shiva Mahadeva.

The statue bears the lakçana (attributes or symbol) of Shiva such as the skull and sickle
(crescent) at the crown, and third eye on the forehead. The four hands that holds Shiva’s
symbols: prayer beads, feather duster, and trisula (trident).
The other three smaller chambers contain statues of Shiva’s consort Durga
Mahisasuramardini, Rishi Agastya — one of the Saptarishis who took the yogic sciences
across South Asia — and Ganesha.
The shrine of Durga is also called the temple of Rara Jonggrang, after the Javanese legend
of Rara Jonggrang. Indeed, Javanese folk religion was always superposed with the more
elitist Shiva-Buddha syncretism.

A well containing the peripih was discovered under the center of the Shiva temple. The stone
casket contained sheets of copper, charcoal, ashes, earth, 20 coins, jewels, glass, pieces of gold
and silver leaves, seashells and 12 gold leaves (which were cut in the shapes of a turtle, Nāga
serpent, padma, altar, and an egg).

XII

Perwaras of Sewu and Prambanan

850 AD Sewu Temple was built by the
Prambanan Temple Compounds end of the eighth century at the

152
 contains the original structures that end of Rakai Panangkaran's
were built in the 9th century AD. The reign and was completed
temples collapsed due to earthquake,
during the reign of his
volcanic eruption and a shift of political
power in the early 11th century, and successor, King Indra. Rakai
they were rediscovered in the 17th Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was
century. well-known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who
ruled the Medang Mataram
Kingdom.

Prambanan Perwara temples Sewu Perwara

Both Sewu and Prambanan were built around the same span separated by 50 years and
also feature similar MANDALA layout . Sewu was a product of a Political Mandala
resulting from the Royal Wedding of a Hindu Prince with a Budhist Princess. Had there
been no such wedding, Sewu would not have been built.

In the spread of Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist
communities found great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The
plethora of Buddhist figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication,
and the temple’s massive scale points to elite patronage. This is one of the mullti-religious
temple-complexes at the center of Java. While the site of Prambanan is best known for its
Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest enterable Buddhist temple in all of
Indonesia.

Composed of hundreds of small stupas surrounding a cruciform central shrine, the complex
covers more than twenty-seven square kilometers (seventeen square miles) and is replete with
finely carved Buddhist deities.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and
Southeast Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the
regions.

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Empty Throne Headless Buddhas

Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are
due to looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last
millennium. Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of
time. Prominent imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas
(minor deities), and flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the
temple. Bells and billowing garments evoke sound and movement. A flight of stairs leads
through a vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness. In the
middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a semi-circular
platform

Sewu is still not complete as seen from stones lying in the courtyard

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South Indian Lion………………………………………………………Sewui

Candi Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this period. See,
for example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base. Much like the
lion at a temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail upturned and
mouth open, and its head seems to support the structure above.

===========================================================
The Prambanan temple compound is
located approximately 17 kilometres (11 mi) northeast
of the city of Yogyakarta on the boundary between
Central Java and Yogyakarta Location
Bokoharjo, Prambanan, Sleman
Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta
& Prambanan, Klaten Regency, Central
Java, Indonesia

Coordinates 7°45′8″S 110°29′30″E

Originally built in 850 CE during the

Built
reign of the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty
Prambanan, the Most Beautiful and Graceful Hindu Temple in Indonesia. Located not far
from the Buddhist Borobudur temple, the proximity of the two temples tells us that on Java,
Buddhism and Hinduism lived peacefully next to one another. Prambanan is a magnificent
spectacle and an icon of Indonesia's cultural heritage. It is locally known in Javanese as Rara
Jonggrang, is a grand Hindu temple complex dating from the 9th century, it is notable for its
shrines and statues of Hindu patheon and Ramayana bas relief. The Borobudur Temple
Compounds on the other hand, is one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world, and
was built in the 8th and 9th centuries AD during the reign of the Syailendra Dynasty. The
monument is located in the Kedu Valley, in the southern part of Central Java, at the centre of
the island of Java, Indonesia.

155
 Imaginary layout pf Prambanan

While Borobudur is a Buddhist temple, Prambanan is a Hindu temple. Furthermore, the

temple of Borobudur is the largest Buddhist temple in the World and the largest temple in
Indonesia, while the temple of Prambanan is the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia.They are
both 50 Kmn from each other a drive of 1 hr 31 min via Jl. Magelang/Jl. Magelang -
Yogyakarta/Jl. Semarang – Yogyakarta

Etymology of the word Perwara. “perwira” in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Jakarta:
Language Development and Fostering Agency — Ministry of Education, Culture, Research,
and Technology of the Republic Indonesia, 2016 is from Malay perwira,
from Malay perwira (“hero; brave”), from Sanskrit प्रवीर (pravīra). Doublet of prawira.
pêrwira (first-person possessive perwiraku, second-person possessive perwiramu, third-
person possessive perwiranya)
1. (military, law enforcement) officer.
Synonym: opsir
2. (obsolete) hero, brave.

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 Synonym: pahlawan
perwira
1. (obsolete) heroic, brave.
Synonyms: gagah, berani
Perwara means (archaic) female escort of the king. (archaic) queen.

The Prambanan main structure is surrounded by small temples called the temple Perwara.
Perwara as mentioned earlier means guardian or peripheral and perwara is an Indonesian
word for an escort temple.It also means an escort either by females or by soldiers

Pram
banan

157
 Model of the Sewu temple

Ruins of Perwaras surrounding Prambanan Shivagriha/ Prambanan Temple building in Sleman,

Yogyakarta, photographed from the air, Friday (27/6/2014). Prambanan Temple was built in the 10th century
during the reign of two kings, Rakai Pikatan and Rakai Balitung.

158
Worker measuring one of the Perwara Temple

Yogyakarta Cultural Heritage Conservation Center (BPCB) officers measure boulders at the
Prambanan Temple Tourist Park complex. The BPCB Yogyakarta Prambanan Temple Unit
team carried out trials constructing Perwara Temple number 14 on the south side of the
Prambanan Temple complex in order to restore its original form.
Baca selengkapnya di artikel "Trial construction of Perwara Temple in
Prambanan", https://tirto.id/bYaZ

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The Preservation of Cultural Heritage of Yogyakara will temporarily postpone the restoration
of Perwara Temple in the Prambanan Temple Complex during the national Eid holiday-Head
of Protection, Develpment and Utilization Section the Preservation of Cultural Heritage
Yogyakara, Wahyu Astuti, said in Yogyakarta on Sunday.“We try to complete the restoration
of Perwara Temple by the middle of November. We aim to restore one temple within a
year.”
Perwara Temple surrounds the main temple in the complex of Prambanan Temple, during the
Dutch colonization, two temples have been restored, In 2018 they restored another temple.

160
161
 XIII

A Home for KUBERA- The Untold Story of the Pawon Temple

Featuring the TEMPLE TRIAD-Straight-line arrangement of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut
Temples

Yogyakarta is home to several other spectacular temples, which would be perfect to

complete your temple tour. Some nearby temples around Borobudur one can explore are
Mendut Temple, Ngawen Temple, and Pawon Temple. Collectively, Borobudur, Pawon, and
Mendut symbolize the path the individual takes in attaining Nirvana. All three temples lie in a
straight line as well. Another Buddhist temple - Ngawen, which dates from the 8th century
CE, is located just 10 km (6 miles) from the main temple at Borobudur. A ruined Hindu
temple, the Banon Temple, lies just several meters north of Pawon. The Buddhist temples
that the Shailendra dynasty built were also magnificent and luxurious in the southern region
of Central Java, with Borobudur being the largest temple there.

Mendut Temple is located around three kilometers from Borobudur. This Buddhist temple
was built around the same era as Borobudur in the reign of the Syailendra Dynasty. The
temple has three Buddha Statues facing each other and the walls are graced with neatly
carved reliefs. Around 5 km before Mendut Temple if you are traveling from Yogyakarta you
will find Ngawen Temple. Same as Borobudur and Mendut Temple, Ngawen is a Buddhist
Temple and built in the same era.

To the east around 1750 meters from Borobudur Temple, lays Pawon Temple. It is actually
situated between Borobudur and Mendut Temple in Brojonalan Village, Borobudur District.
The temple is recognized to be the storage of the King Indra’s weapon known as Vajranala
shaped like lightning. But more to that later.

According to Lokesh Chandra in Chandi Mendut and Pawon: a new interpretation -

CHANDI PAWON is 1150 metres from Mendut and 1750 metres from Borobudur. It is also
called Brajanalan. It is "often regarded as a porch-temple to Barabudur, dedicated to Kuvera,
the god of riches. The bearded dwarfs above the entrance, pouring out rings and other trinkets
from bags, are consistent with this view" said Kempers way back in 1959:41 pi. 65-66.

162
However, there is no clear indication that it should be considered as being dedicated to
Kubera. It has small windows, which are merely decorative and seldom seen in temples. The
word pawon means kitchen. In Bali, there are five stanzas to Vajranala, entitled (Paiica)-
Bajranala-stava (Hooykaas 1973:86), in which he is described as seated in a mandorla of
flames, pure as die autumnal moon, with three eyes and four arms holding a staff (danda),
abhayada mudra, rosary (aksasutra) and vase (kamandalu). Each of the mudras refer to to
Vajranala. The Pawon seems to have been a temple to Vajranala, who is connected with fire:
sarvdgneya, sdnti-karmani samiddha (in the Balinese stotra).

The word sdnti-karmani is a clear reference to santika homa. Vajranala was the presiding
deity of homa, which explains the presence of small windows as an escape for the smoke of
homa ceremonies. Homa is a distinctive characteristic of vajrayana. It 'had to be provided for
with a special temple, because of the smoke.

In the vajrayana (Shingon) monasteries of Japan, special halls are constructed for the
performance of homa. As the vajrayana of both Japan and Indonesia go back to the same
sources, it is but natural that both should follow the same pattern of giving a prominent place
to homa, to the extent that a separate temple was erected for it. The prominence of homa in
vajrayana is also evident in its ritual. In the Japanese text Shi-d64n-zu, 'mudras of the four
rites', the four rites are:

(1) the preliminary ceremony of 18 steps {juhachido),

(2) Vajradhatu (Kongokai),

(3) Garbhadhatu (Taizokai), and

(4) homa or Fudo (Acala).

Chandi Pawon must have been a homa temple whose presiding deity was Acala.
Jvalanala or Vajrajvalanalarka coincides with Vajranala, on which Bajranalan
— the alternative name of Chandi Pawon — was based. Acala (Pawon) and the
Garbhadhatu mandala (Mendut) belong to the carya-tantras, and Vajradhatu mandala
(Borobudur) to the yogatantras.

Hence Pawon is closer to Mendut with 1750 metres in between and Pawon and Borobudur
are one and a half times the distance of 1150 metres between Pawon and Mendut. The
Mendut-Pawon-Borobudur complex epitomizes not only Buddhist art and architecture,
thought and ritual, but also the dynasty that erected 'this magnificent monument to Indonesian
glory: the Sailendras, 'Kings of the Mountain' (Frederic 1965: 160).

Sailendra authority faded from Java not long after A.D. 824 (De Casparis 1950:200). The
instability must have been felt quite early, and the Mendut and Borobudur would have been
erected to anticipate any such eventuality. The Mahavairocana-sutra was the basis for the
dharani on the protection of the realm (Nakamiura 1976: 79). This was much more the case
with the role of the Vajradhatu mandala with regard to a cakravartin (Tajima 1959:152). The
Mendut representing the Garbhadhatu mandala of the Mahavairocana-sutra and the
Borobudur symbolizing the Vajradhatu mandala of the Tattva-sangraha were intended 'to

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fully sanction and stabilise the cakravartin sovereignty of the Sailendras in a sacred syndrome
of philosophy, cosmology, aesthetics and hieratics of the Twin Mandalas of Vairocana, who
is also known as the Ekaksara Cakravartin.1

To explain the additions or extensions at Borabudur and Mendut by successive

Shailendra rulers, possibly without exception, which have come to light during restoration
activities at those temples, one needs to understand that the Royal Zealots who constructed
the temple thought that their religious merit would increase to a great extent from the
building of a stupa. Indeed for every spectator the sacred construction work would be an
incentive to join the creed while it would help the initiate in his meditations aiming at the
attainment of the Bodhi. Furthermore, the “accumulation of religious merit” which the
monarch earned through the construction of a magnificent temple would also benefit his
realm — “the thriving State of the Shailendras” as it is designated in the inscriptions of the
period. This topographical relationship looks hardly casual, as probably a processional way
ran along the line in ancient times (the path is still partly mimicked by the modern road from
Borobodur to Pawon up to the river Pogo).

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

. L. Chandra Chandi Mendut and Pawon: a new interpretation In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en
Volkenkunde 136 (1980), no: 2/3, Leiden, 313-3

Chandi MENDUT and Chandi PAWON supplement the temple complex. They were
built during the reign of King Indra (782–812 AD) of the Shailendra dynasty. The whole
temple complex symbolizes the way of a spiritual seeker from the mundane life to the Divine
life, to the state of Buddha. In old times a big road led from Borobudur eastern entrance to

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Chandi Mendut, passing through Chandi Pavon. Along the entire road there were walls with
numerous towers, niches, and sculptures.
 Chandi Mendut,
 Chandi Pavon,
 the famous Borobudur temple complex.

Pawon Temple
Pawon temple (known locally as Candi Pawon) is a Buddhist temple located between two
other Buddhist temples, approximately 1,150 metres away from Mendut and 1,750 metres
away from Borobudur. Pawon is connected with the other two temples, all of which were
built during the Sailendra dynasty (8th–9th centuries). On examination of the detail and style
of its carving this temple is slightly older than Borobudur.

The three temples were located on a straight line, suggesting there was a symbolic meaning
that binds these temples.Sort of, like washing your feet before entering a main Buddhist or
Hindu temple which is done to remove the impurities sticking to the soles of the feet which
then if unwashed would enter and “pollute” the main sacred precinct!

“Between Mendut and Borobudur stands Pawon temple, a jewel of Javanese temple
architecture. Most probably, this temple served to purify the mind prior to ascending
Borobudur.”

Tyandi Pawon
At Pawon, we find a small square room with a small porch with an entrance of some
narrow treads flanked by a Garuda-Naga ornament. but this room is empty and unadorned”.
Shallow niches exist in each sidewall, in correspondence of the place where “once may have
stood a pedestal and image”. Like in Candi Mendut, Groneman explains that the niches may

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have been used to light the inner-part of the temple.

According to Groneman, this temple was a mausoleum built to receive an urn containing the
ashes of a guru or monk. As in the case of Mendut, Groneman observes that “It is an
extraordinary thing that even the entrance of this incontestably true buddhistic temple had
not been made on the east side but to the west”. Again we find an observation on the
orientation of the temple. As we have already mentioned, this temple is on the processional
walkway to Borobudur. Inner premises of the temple are trimmed with dark volcanic stone.
Although no statues have been preserved in Chandi Pavon, it is possible to ascertain by outer
wall reliefs that the temple once was dedicated to Kubera – the generous lord of luck and
wealth. There are also extant images of Kalpataru – the mythical tree of desires in Hindu and
Buddhist traditions. The desires ingrained in righteous thoughts and true faith will be
fulfilled.

In the contemporary era during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia
observe Vesak annual ritual by walking from Mendut passing through Pawon and ends at
Borobudur.
The original name of this Buddhist shrine is uncertain. Pawon literally means “kitchen” in
Javanese language, which is derived from the root word awu or dust. The connection to the
word “dust” also suggests that this temple was probably built as a tomb or mortuary temple
for a king. Pawon from the word Per-awu-an (place that contains dust), a temple that houses
the dust of cremated king. However who was the personage that entombed here is still
unknown. Local people name this temple as “Bajranalan” based on the name of the village.
Bajranalan is derived from the Sanskrit word Vajra (thunder or also a Buddhist ceremonial
tool) and Anala (fire, flame). Due to its small size, Pawon resembles a memorial monument.
When the temple was found, it was in a very poor condition. Themes of decorative reliefs in
Pawon include the “heavenly tree”, vessels with gifts, bearded dwarfs spilling necklaces,

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rings and jewels from boxes. Such themes are explained by the fact that Chandi Pawon is
dedicated to the deity of wealth Kubera, who was usually depicted at entrances to temples.

As it has been mentioned above, between Chandi Mendut and Borobudur there is the small
Chandi Pavon,

KUBERA the Famous Yaksha

Kubera (Sanskrit: कु बेर) also known as Kuvera, Kuber or Kuberan, is the god of wealth and
the god-king of the semi-divine Yakshas in Hindu culture. He is regarded as the regent of the
North (Dik-pala), and a protector of the world (Lokapala). His many epithets extol him as the
overlord of numerous semi-divine species and the owner of the treasures of the world.
Kubera is often depicted with a plump body, adorned with jewels, and carrying a money-pot
and a club.

Originally described as the chief of evil spirits in Vedic-era texts, Kubera acquired the status
of a Deva (god) only in the Puranas and the Hindu epics. The scriptures describe that Kubera
once ruled Lanka, but was overthrown by his half-brother Ravana, later settling in the city
of Alaka in the Himalayas. Descriptions of the "glory" and "splendours" of Kubera's city are
found in many scriptures.
Kubera has also been assimilated into the Buddhist and Jain pantheons. In Buddhism, he is
known as Vaisravana, the patronymic used of the Hindu Kubera and is also equated
with Pañcika, while in Jainism, he is known as Sarvanubhuti.

Kubera is often depicted as a dwarf, with complexion of lotus leaves and a big belly. He is
described as having three legs, only eight teeth, one eye, and being adorned with jewels. He is
sometimes depicted riding a man. The description of deformities like the broken teeth, three
legs, three heads and four arms appear only in the later Puranic texts.Kubera holds a mace,
a pomegranate or a money bag in his hand.He may also carry a sheaf of jewels or
a mongoose with him. In Tibet, the mongoose is considered a symbol of Kubera's victory

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over Nāgas—the guardians of treasures. Kubera is usually depicted with a mongoose in
Buddhist iconography.

A bronze Matrika goddess group along with Ganesha (left) and Kubera (right) currently at the British
Museum. Originally from Eastern India, it was dedicated in 43rd year of reign of Mahipala I (c. 1043 AD).

In the Vishnudharmottara Purana, Kubera is described as the embodiment of

both Artha ("wealth, prosperity, glory") and Arthashastras, the treatises related to it—and his
iconography mirrors it. Kubera's complexion is described as that of lotus leaves. He rides a
man—the state personified, adorned in golden clothes and ornaments, symbolizing his
wealth. His left eye is yellow. He wears an armour and a necklace down to his large belly.
The Vishnudharmottara Purana further describes his face to be inclined to the left, sporting a
beard and mustache, and with two small tusks protruding from the ends of his mouth,
representing his powers to punish and to bestow favours. His wife Riddhi, representing the
journey of life, is seated on his left lap, with her left hand on the back of Kubera and the right
holding a ratna-patra (jewel-pot). Kubera should be four-armed, holding a gada (mace:
symbol of dandaniti—administration of justice) and a shakti (power) in his left pair, and
standards bearing a lion—representing Artha and a shibika (a club, the weapon of Kubera).
The nidhi treasures Padma and Shankha stand beside him in human form, with their heads
emerging from a lotus and a conch respectively.

The Agni Purana states that Kubera should be installed in temples as seated on a goat, and
with a club in his hand Kubera's image is prescribed to be that of gold, with multi-coloured
attributesIn some sources, especially in Jain depictions, Kubera is depicted as a drunkard,
signified by the "nectar vessel" in his hand.

The exact origins of the name Kubera are unknown. "Kubera" or "Kuvera" (कुवेर) as spelt
in later Sanskrit, means "deformed or monstrous" or "ill-shaped one"; indicating his
deformities. Another theory suggests that Kubera may be derived from the verb root kumba,
meaning to conceal. Kuvera is also split as ku (earth), and vira (hero).
As the son of Vishrava ("Fame"), Kubera is called Vaisravana (in the Pali language,
Vessavana) and as the son of Ilavila, Ailavila, Vaisravana is sometimes translated as the "Son
of Fame".The Sutta Nitapa commentary says that Vaisravana is derived from a name of
Kubera's kingdom, Visana.[11] Once, Kubera looked at Shiva and his wife Parvati with
jealousy, so he lost one of his eyes. Parvati also turned this deformed eye yellow. So, Kubera
gained the name Ekaksipingala ("one who has one yellow eye").[ He is also
called Bhutesha ("Lord of spirits") like Shiva. Kubera usually is drawn by spirits or men
(nara), so is called Nara-vahana, one whose vahana (mount)
is nara. Hopkins interprets naras as being water-spirits, although Mani translates nara as

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men. Kubera also rides the elephant called Sarvabhauma as a loka-pala. His garden is named
Chaitrarath.
Kubera also enjoys the titles "king of the whole world", "king of kings" (Rajaraja), "Lord of
wealth" (Dhanadhipati) and "giver of wealth" (Dhanada). His titles are sometimes related to
his subjects: "king of Yakshas" (Yaksharajan), "Lord of Rakshasas" (Rakshasadhipati),
"Lord of Guhyakas" (Guhyakadhipa), "king of Kinnaras"(Kinnararaja), "king of animals
resembling men" (Mayuraja), and "king of men" (Nararaja). Kubera is also
called Guhyadhipa ("Lord of the hidden"). The Atharvaveda calls him the "god of hiding".

Puranic and epic descriptions: Godhood acquired

The Puranas and the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana grant Kubera unquestioned
godhood. Kubera also acquired the status of the "Lord of riches" and the wealthiest Deva. He
also becomes a Loka-pala ("world protector") and guardian (dik-pala) of the North direction,
although he is also sometimes associated with the East. Kubera's status as a Loka-pala and
a dik-pala is assured in the Ramayana, but in the Mahabharata, some lists do not include
Kubera. Thus, Kubera is considered a later addition to the original list of Loka-palas, where
the gods Agni or Soma appear in his place. This status, the Ramayana records, was granted to
Kubera by Brahma—the creator-god and father of Pulastya—as a reward for his severe
penance. Brahma also conferred upon Kubera the riches of the world (Nidhis), "equality with
gods", and the Pushpaka Vimana, a flying chariot. Kubera then ruled in the golden city
of Lanka, identified with modern-day Sri Lanka. The Mahabharata says that Brahma
conferred upon Kubera the lordship of wealth, friendship with Shiva, godhood, status as a
world-protector, a son called Nalakubera/Nalakubara, the Pushpaka Vimana and the lordship
of the Nairrata demons.
.
Both the Puranas and the Ramayana feature the half-blood siblings of Kubera. Vishrava,
Kubera's father, also married the Rakshasa (demon) princess Kaikesi, who mothered
four Rakshasa children: Ravana, the chief antagonist of the
Ramayana, Kumbhakarna, Vibhishana and Soorpanaka. The Mahabharata regards Vishrava
as the brother of Kubera, so Kubera is described as the uncle of Ravana and his siblings. It
records that when Kubera approached Brahma for the favour of superseding his father
Pulastya, Pulastya created Vishrava. To seek the favour of Vishrava, Kubera sent three
women to him, by whom Vishrava begot his demon children. Ravana, after acquiring a boon
of Brahma, drove Kubera away from Lanka and seized his Pushpaka Vimana, which was
returned to Kubera after Ravana's death. Kubera then settled on Gandhamandana mountain,
near Mount Kailash – the abode of the god Shiva—in the Himalayas. Sometimes, Kailash
itself is called Kubera's residence. His city is usually called Alaka or Alaka-puri ("curl-city"),
but also Prabha ("splendour"), Vasudhara ("bejeweled") and Vasu-sthali ("abode of
treasures").There, Kubera had a grove called Caitraratha, where the leaves were jewels and
the fruits were girls of heaven. There is also a charming lake called Nalini in the grove.
Kubera is often described as a friend of Shiva in the epics. The Padma Purana says that
Kubera prayed to Shiva for many years, and Shiva granted him the kingship of Yakshas

A description of Kubera's magnificent court appears in the Mahabharata as well as

the Meghaduta. Here, Gandharvas and Apsaras entertain Kubera. Shiva and his
wife Parvati often frequent Kubera's court, which is attended by semi-divine beings like
the Vidyadharas; Kimpurushas; Rakshasas; Pishachas; as well as Padma and Shankha;
personified treasures (nidhi); and Manibhadra, Kubera's chief attendant and chief of his army.
Like every world-protector, Kubera has seven seers of the North in residence. Alaka is
recorded to be plundered by Ravana once, and attacked by

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the Pandava prince, Bhima once. Kubera's Nairrata army is described to have defeated king
Mucukunda, who then defeated them by the advice of his guru Vashishta. Shukra, the
preceptor of the asuras, is also recorded to have defeated Kubera and stolen his wealth. [4]
[7]
Another major tale in the scriptures records how Kubera entertained the sage Ashtavakra in
his palace.
Kubera is the treasurer of the gods and overlord of the semi-divine Yakshas,
the Guhyakas, Kinnaras and Gandharvas, who act as his assistants and protectors of the
jewels of the earth, as well as guardians of his city. Kubera is also the guardian of travelers
and the giver of wealth to individuals, who please him. The Rakshasas also serve Kubera,
[2]
however, some cannibalistic Rakshasas are described to have sided with Ravana in the
battle against Kubera.[12] Kubera also developed as minor marriage-divinity. He is invoked
with Shiva at weddings and is described as Kameshvara ("Lord of Kama – pleasure, desire
etc."). He is associated with fertility of the aquatic type.

The Puranas and the Mahabharata record that Kubera married Bhadra ("auspicious"), or
Kauberi ("wife of Kubera"), daughter of the demon Mura. She is also called Yakshi – a
female Yaksha and Charvi ("splendour"). They had three sons: Nalakubara ("Reed-
axle"), Manigriva ("Bejewled-neck") or Varna-kavi ("Colourful poet"), and Mayuraja ("king
of animals resembling men"); and a daughter called Minakshi ("fish-eyed").
As the treasurer of the riches of the world, Kubera is prescribed to be worshipped. Kubera
also credited money to the god Venkateshwara (a form of the god Vishnu) for his marriage
with Padmavati. In remembrance of this, the reason devotees go to Tirupati to donate money
in Venkateshwara's Hundi ("Donation pot"), is so that he can pay it back to Kubera.

While Kubera still enjoys prayers as the god of wealth, his role is largely taken by the god of
wisdom, fortune and obstacle-removal, Ganesha, with whom he is generally associated.

Bronze statuette of Jambhala, Pala Empire, 11th century A.D//// Kubera on an elephant in the
Jain caves of Ellora.India top/ Jambhala, the Buddhist Kubera, depicted similar to
Kubera/Kubera. Northern India. 10th century. Sandstone. San Antonio Museum of Art

Kubera is recognized outside India and Hinduism as well. Kubera is a popular figure in
Buddhist as well as Jain mythology. The Orientalist Dr. Nagendra Kumar Singh remarked
that, "Every Indian religion has a Kubera after the Hindu prototype."

In Buddhism
Kubera is the Buddhist Vaiśravaṇa or Jambhala, and the Japanese Bishamon. The Buddhist
Vaisravana, like the Hindu Kubera, is the regent of the North, a Loka-pala and the Lord of
Yakshas. He is one of the Four Heavenly Kings, each associated with a cardinal direction. In

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Buddhist legends, Kubera is also equated with Pañcika, whose wife Hariti is the symbol of
abundance.[25] The iconography of Kubera and Pancika is so similar that in certain cases, A.
Getty comments, it is extremely difficult to distinguish between Pancika and Kubera. The
Japanese Bishamon, also known as Tamon-Ten, is one of the Jūni-Ten, a group of 12 Hindu
deities adopted in Buddhism as guardian deities (deva or ten) who are found in or around
Buddhist shrines. The Juni-Ten group of twelve deities were created by adding four deities to
the older grouping of Happou-Ten, the eight guardians of the directions. Bishamon rules over
the north, like his Hindu counterpart Kubera.

Jambhala (also known as Dzambhala, Dzambala, Zambala or Jambala) is the God of Fortune
and Wealth and appropriately a member of the Jewel Family (see Ratnasambhava). He is
sometimes equated with the Hindu deity Kubera. Jambhala is also believed to be an
emanation of Avalokitesvara or Chenrezig, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. There are five
different wealth Jambhalas; each has his own practice and mantra to help eliminate poverty
and create financial stability.

Gyalten Sogdzin Rinpoche said that Jambhala is the protector of all Lineages and of all
sentient beings from all sickness and difficulties. Jambhala is a Bodhisattva of material and
spiritual wealth as well as many other things, especially of granting financial stability.
Because in this world, there are all kinds of wrathful and negative emotions or bad spirits,
and sometimes they will harm you and other sentient beings, Dzambhala must take on such a
wrathful and powerful form to protect us from these harmful spirits and negative karma.
Especially, Dzambhala helps us minimize or decrease all misfortunes and obstacles and helps
us increase all good fortune and happiness.

Dzam means "deity or gathering." Bhah means "gold or wealth." La means "to
honor". Dzambhala means “Precious golden deity who gathers or brings the wealth of
spirituality or Dharma and material security or accomplishment to our lives."

Mendut Temple

Mendut temple is a ninth-century Buddhist temple, located in Mendut village, Mungkid sub-
district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located about three
kilometres east from Borobudur. Mendut, Borobudur and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist
temples, are located in one straight line. There is a mutual religious relationship between the
three temples, although the exact ritual process is unknown.

Borobodur was once the center of religious rituals of Mahayana Buddhism, which was
corroborated by the existence of other temples with Mahayana Buddhism around it. Studies
conducted on the location of Borobudur and the other temples surrounding it shows that the
three temples are positioned along a single straight line, which was organized during the
construction of Mendut Temple. It is also shown that the imaginary line connecting the three
temples is linked to Mount Merapi.Studies on the temples surrounding Borobudur show a
similarity with regard to the period of construction, which is the era of Mataram Kuno
(Ancient Mataram), as well as their religious affiliation, that is, Mahayana Buddhism, which
excludes Banon Temple as it is filled with statues of Hindu Gods . These studies led to an
interpretation that Borobudur Temple is highly associated with Pawon and Mendut Temples
located in the east. The association between Borobudur and the two surrounding temples also
identifies that the three temples were the centers for religious rituals in the past.
Geographically, Ngawen Temple is located in the east of Borobudur Temple. However, no

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study has been conducted revealing the association between Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and
Ngawen Temples in the past. To further observe the association between the four temples,
this study will focus on their location, religion, ornaments, and statues. The author believes
that this research would provide a new interpretation of Borobudur and the surrounding
Buddhist temples as monuments for sacred procession in the past and as a world heritage in
the future.Field observation of the four temples, namely Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and
Ngawen was conducted.

The temple possesses several meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism.
Moreover, in the past, Borobudur had served as the center of other sacred buildings
surrounding it . Within a distance of 5 km around the temple, there are three other temples
affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism, among which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from
Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m). Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are located in
the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in fact, located in the east side of the river,which is, in
turn, 4 km away from Borobudur .According to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and
Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line and they form a triadic of sacred buildings
affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism. However the imaginary axis connecting the three temples
is not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious rituals and
processions in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that the three temples were closely
associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination of the map shows an
addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis can also be
drawn, connecting it to the other three temples. Thus, on the basis of this fact, it can be
interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in Ngawen
Temple and end in Borobudur.

Mendut Temple is located about 3 km east of Borobudur. Kayumwungan inscriptions found

in Karangtengah mentioned that Mendut Temple was built by King Indra of Syailendra
Dynasty. Rectangular temple with multistoried roofs decorated small stupas were built earlier
than Pawon and Borobudur Temple which are located in on straight line. Different from
Borobudur Temple that facing the rising sun, Mendut Temple entrance faces westward.
Mendut Temple niches became the throne for a large Buddha statue.From the distance,
Mendut Temple looks graceful and sturdy on its temple foot as tall as 3.70m. Arriving at the
yard, one walks around the foot of the temple and finds some relief panels which tell about
the bird and turtle, monkey and manya bird, Brahmana dan crab, as well as a number of other
fables. At a glimpse, the reliefs that describe Jataka story give a moral message for all those
who visit Mendut Temple. There are 8 reliefs of Bodhisattva with a variety of hand gestures
(attitudes) with much bigger size than the panel reliefs in Borobudur Temple.
Three 3-meter-high statues of the BUDDHA are todayt illuminated with golden light. Large
statues in the temple room are statue of Avalokitesvara, and a statue of Bodhisattva
Vajrapani. The Dyani Buddha Cakyamuni statue is located in the middle and is sitting with
both feet down and the hand attitude turning the wheel of dharma.
Candi Mendut of Central Java, Indonesia was built by the Shailendra dynasty, 9th
century of Andesite. Less well-known than its monumental neighbour Borobudur, Candi
Mendut was likely an important stop along the road to that temple. The square shrine stands
on a high platform, accessible by a flight of stairs. Like nearby Candi Pawon, Candi Mendut
is positioned directly to the east of Borobudur. These smaller temples therefore face west,
opening towards the main site.

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Candi Mendut is a shrine that can be entered, as opposed to a Buddhist stupa (reliquary
mound) like Borobudur, which can only be circumambulated. Candi Mendut’s interior walls
have niches in which to place sculptures of buddhas or lamps to illuminate the dark space.

The relief carvings on Candi Mendut suggest a royal connection. In the vestibule leading
inside, Buddhist deities and members of their celestial supporting cast flock toward the
shrine, bearing offerings fit for gods and kings.

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 The main sanctum contains three massive seated Buddhist figures, each carved from a single
block of stone. The central buddha, Vairochana, holds his hands in dharmachakra mudra, a
teaching gesture, and plants his two feet firmly on a double-lotus pedestal. Flanking him are
the bodhisattvas Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani.

Mendut is a ninth-century Buddhist temple, located in Mendut village, Mungkid sub-

district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located about three
kilometres east from Borobudur. Mendut, Borobudur and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist
temples, are located in one straight line. There is a mutual religious relationship between the
three temples, although the exact ritual process is unknown.

The statue of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani inside the
Mendut temple// The ruins of Mendut temple before restoration, 1880.
In 1836 it was discovered as a ruins covered with bushes. The restoration of this temple was
started in 1897 and was finished in 1925. Some archaeologists who had conducted research
on this temple were JG de Casparis, Theodoor van Erp [nl], and Arisatya Yogaswara.
Built around early ninth century AD, Mendut is the oldest of the three temples including
Pawon and Borobudur. The Karangtengah inscription, the temple was built and finished
during the reign of King Indra of Sailendra dynasty. The inscription dated 824 AD mentioned
that King Indra of Sailendra has built a sacred building named Venuvana which means
"bamboo forest". Dutch archaeologist JG de Casparis has connected the temple mentioned in
Karangtengah inscription with Mendut temple.
The plan of temple's base is square, and measures 13.7 metre on each side, with the base level
3.7 metre above the ground . The 26.4 metre tall temple is facing northwest. The stairs
projecting from the northwest side square elevated base is adorned with Makara statue on
each sides, the side of the stairwall carved with bas-relief of Jataka fable narrating the animal
story of Buddhist teaching. The square terrace surrounding the body of the temple was meant
for pradakshina or circumambulating ritual, walking clockwise around the temple. The outer
walls is adorned with bas-reliefs of Boddhisattvas (Buddhist divinities), such
as Avalokitesvara, Maitreya, Cunda, Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Mahakarunika
Avalokitesvara, Vajrapani, Manjusri, Akasagarbha, Boddhisattvadevi Prajnaparamita among
other buddhist figures. Originally the temple had two chambers, a small chamber in the front,
and the large main chamber in the center. The roof and some parts of the front chamber walls
are missing. The uppermost part of the roof is missing, it supposed to have a stupa pinnacle
with size and style probably just like the one in Sojiwan temple. The inner wall of front

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chamber is adorned with bas-relief of Hariti surrounds by children, Atavaka on the other
side, Kalpataru, also groups of devatas divinities flying in heaven.

The main room has three carved large stone statues. The 3 metres tall statue of Dhyani
Buddha Vairocana was meant to liberate the devotees from the bodily karma, at the left is
statue of Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara to liberate from the karma of speech, at the right is
Boddhisatva Vajrapani to liberate from karma of thought.

The bas-relief of Hariti on inner northern wall of Mendut

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During full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe the annual Vesak ritual by
walking from Mendut through Pawon to Borobudur. The ritual takes the form of a mass
Buddhist prayer and pradakshina (circumambulation) around the temple.
Followers of traditional Kejawen (Javanese mysticism) or Buddhists, came to worship in the
Mendut temple and it is believed to be able to fulfill wishes, such as deliverance from
sickness.Childless couples, for example, pray at the bas-relief of Hariti for a child, since in
traditional Javanese beliefs, Hariti is a symbol of fertility, patroness of motherhood and
protector of children.In the paper The Concept of Sacredness of the Prayer Hall at the Vihara
Mendut, Java, Indonesia, S.A. Riana Adicandra , Josef Prijotomo & Bambang Sugiharto point
out that the Borobudur temple is a unique work of art, an architectural miracle, a
significantplace of religious worship for Buddhists in a Muslim country, and a "pusaka" or
heritage of the past, defining the identity of Indonesia, where nowadays very few remember
its Hinduand Buddhist roots.
Borobudur is a masterpiece of Buddhist architecture and monumental art because it is an
original, unique and harmonious combination of the ideas of a stupa, a temple and a sacred
mountain. It symbolises the universe with its constituent elements of the earth, gods' worlds
and the realm of pure lands, which makes this construction a huge mandala, through which
pilgrims symbolically travel. Every part of the Borobudur temple structure was built
over1000 years ago in accordance with a detailed and meticulous design, with an awareness
of functionality, aesthetics and religious meanings, making this temple one of the greatest
Buddhist monuments ever constructed.
Borobudur continues to be a major attraction as a cultural and historical tourist destination
despite the fact that today Indonesia is a country that is 87% Muslim. Although once
impressive Buddhist communities have turned into local religious minorities losing
theawareness of their cultural roots (Buddhists constitute only 0.7% of the population of
Indonesia), the temple is the venue for the celebration of Vesak, the most important religious
holiday for Buddhists.Indonesia has allocated a lot of financial resources to protect and
popularise the Borobudur temple. It is one of eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites in
Indonesia.International experts, from e.g. Germany, Japan and Italy, together with the
BorobudurConservation Office and UNESCO, have invested a lot of work and effort to
implement many

Left wall: bodhisattva Sarvanivaranaviskambi; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)

Central panel: female bodhisattva Tara; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)
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View from southwest; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)

Ornamental panel on base: heavenly being; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)
Left wall: bodhisattva Samantabhadra; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)
Central panel: female bodhisattva Prajnaparamita; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-
812)
Stairway: Jataka panels, from northeast; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)

(PDF) The Borobudur temple: the Buddhist architecture in Indonesia. Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338352762_The_Borobudur_temple_the_Bud
dhist_architecture_in_Indonesia [accessed Feb 12 2023].

Subject: Panel: Tree of Heaven; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)

Hariti panel; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)

Center portion: Hariti; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)
Left portion: children; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)

Frieze above Hariti panel: flying figures; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)
Panel: Yaksha Atavaka; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)
Central Buddha Mahavairocana flanked by Avalokitesvara (left) and Vajrapani (right); Built
by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)

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Left side: bodhisattva Avalokitesvara; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)
Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara: head; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)
Right side: bodhisattva Vajrapani; Built by Sailendra king Indra (782-812)

The layout of Chandi Mendut is traditional. It is a temple with a deity figure placed on a
pedestal, intended for ritual processions. The walls contain thematic reliefs with scenes from
Buddhist parables. The reliefs contain well-preserved images of Bodhisattvas. Inside Chandi
Mendut itself there are three statues: Gautama Buddha in the middle, Bodhisattva
Avalokiteśvara on the left, and a non-identified Bodhisattva on the right (there is an
assumption that it is a statue of Vajrapani).

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The most unusual thing is that Shakyamuni Buddha is sitting in a “European” or “royal” pose
with his both feet put on the lotus pedestal and his knees widely parted, without any traces of
clothes. Bodhisattvas are sitting in traditional poses with one foot under their body and the
other foot lowered.In traditional Buddhist iconography the image of the body part relating to
genitals is always hidden by either a pose (asana) or pleats on the clothes (when Buddha is
standing or lying). Hence, for adherents of canonical Buddhism the aforesaid depiction of
Buddha is probably somewhat shocking.

TEMPLE TRIAD-Straight-line arrangement of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples

Location three Buddhist temples, Borobudur-Pawon-Mendut, in one straight line across Progo River.

Religious associations of Borobudur Temple with other nearby temples: Two major
schools, namely Mahayana and Hinayana (Theravada), are found in Buddhism.Mahayana
Buddhism is described as the “great vehicle”, in which a holy man stays on the Earth, rather
than going to heaven, in order to be able to help. Moreover, in Mahayana Buddhism, it is
believed that a savior visits the Earth in the future, whereas Hinayana Buddhism or
Theravada is described as a “small vehicle”, in which the Buddha is merely the Buddha
himself, without the presence of Bodhisattva. Discussions on structures built during the
Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with religious context. Revealing the religious
background of a structure requires an observation of the components of the building.
According to Soekmono (2005), temples in Indonesia can be classified in two major groups,
namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the main features of Buddhist temples is the
existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine, which is a unique
feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the religious affiliation of a
specific structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of
structures.

The most important argument for the coherence of Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon in my
view is the fact — which Van Erp discovered by chance — that the three of them had been
lain out along one straight line: 15Pawon on the right shore of the Progo River, 1750 m
East of Barabudur, and Mendut 1150 m further East, on the left shore of the Elo River, just
upstream from its junction with the Progo.16
Van Erp considered this fact and, as it were, the logically deducible.

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a. for the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Barabudur;
b. for the Suryaloka, the bhavagra ― the top level of the Akanistha Heaven;
c. for the east, Candi Mendut; and
d. for the zenith, Candi Pawon.

TRIAD

Borobudur stands in the geographical center of the island of Java, fifteen miles from
Yogyakarta, on a plateau that is the caldera of an ancient volcano ringed by the Menoreh
mountains. Two sets of twin volcanoes – Merapi and Merbabu to the northeast, Sumbing and
Sindoro to the northwest – stand sentinel across the plains. Merapi, the "fire mountain," is
active. A legend is told of a heavenly architect who built Borobudur in a single day and laid a
curse on anyone who dared ascend his holy shrine. According to Asian art historian, Jan
Fontein: "There is a mountain south of Borobudur that when viewed from the monument
looks very much like the profile of a man; the nose, lips and chin are clearly delineated. The

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story goes that the ridge depicts Gunadharma, the architect of Borobudur, who is believed to
keep watch over his creation through the ages."

There were only two fleeting references to Borobudur in historical reports of the 18th
century. The first recorded visitor to Borobudur was a rebel who fled to the mountain called
Bara-Budur in 1709 after leading an attempt to usurp the throne from the Sultan of Matara.
The Sultan sent troops who surrounded the mountain, captured him and sent him to be
executed.
The next documented visitor to the monument was the heir apparent of Yogyakarta, a defiant
young prince who had a reputation for rebellious and depraved behavior. In 1758, he set out
to visit the "mountain of a thousand statues" against the advice of a prophecy that royalty
who climbed the mountain would die. When he did not return to court, the king sent his men
to bring back the wayward son. He was found vomiting blood and soon after died.

But records revealed no consensus on the meaning of the name "Borobudur." Two
alternatives were proposed based on Javanese manuscripts from 842 AD: "the mountain of
the accumulation of virtue on the ten stages of the Bodhisattva," or "the mountain which is
terraced in successive stages." Sir Thomas Raffles, the British governor of Indonesia
responsible for the excavation of Borobudur in 1814, thought that "boro" might mean "great"
and "budur" might correspond to the more modern Javanese word "buda," interpreted as "The
Great Buddha." One Javanese expert indicated that "boro" is related to the word for
"monastery," and "budur" is a place name. This would suggest that Borobudur means
"Monastery of Budur."Fortunately, because of the native tolerance of religious diversity,
many of the monuments of Java were simply abandoned rather than destroyed or defaced,
and a cloud of mystery and superstition descended on Borobudur.
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The first study on Borobudur was conducted during the Dutch East Indies era by Van Erp and
N. J. Kroom,2 which coincided with the temple’s restoration project. Based on the similarities
with regard to the architectural style and ornamentation of the three temples it indicated an
association between Borobudur Temple and two other temples located nearby, namely Pawon
Temple and Mendut Temple. They seem to have been built in the same period, that is, the
Sailendra dynasty era. The next study was conducted by J. L. Moens in the 1950s 3 connected
the three temples with Banon Temple, a Hindu temple located near Pawon Temple.
Furthermore, it shows that Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples were all ritual centers of
Mahayana Buddhism, whereas Banon Temple was a place for the followers of Siwa-
Siddhanta. Another study conducted by IGN Anom imaginarily connected Borobudur,
Pawon, and Mendut Temples,showing that the three temples were built along a straight line

Several Meanings to the positioning

Borobudur Temple is located in the west of Elo River. The temple possesses several
meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism. Moreover, in the past, Borobudur had
served as the center of other sacred buildings surrounding it.. Within a distance of 5 km
around the temple, there are three other temples affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism, among
which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m) . Borobudur,
Pawon and Mendut Temples are located in the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in fact,
located in the east side of the river, which is, in turn, 4 km away from Borobudur . According
to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line
and they form a triadic (a group of three) of sacred buildings affiliated to Mahayana
Buddhism.

However, according to Totok Roesmanto , the imaginary axis connecting the three temples is
not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious rituals and
processions in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that the three temples were closely
associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination of the map shows an
addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis can also be
drawn, connecting it to the other three temples.Thus, on the basis of this fact, it can be
interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in Ngawen
Temple and end in Borobudur.

Discussions on structures built during the Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with
religious context. Revealing the religious background of a structure requires an observation
of the components of the building. Temples in Indonesia can be classified in two major
groups, namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the mainfeatures of Buddhist temples is
the existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine, which is a unique
feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the religious affiliation of a
specific structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of
structures.

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Specially made pic by Artist Ms. Keey Penny of UK for the author’s Book Celestial
Mysteries of the Borobudur Stupa

The three temples at Borobodur belong to the Mahayana Buddhism. The details of the cults
practised are unsure, but a relationship certainly existed between the temples and the
proclaimed divine nature of the kings who ordered their construction. In this connection, a
possible, symbolic relationship between the three monuments was investigated in details by
Moens. In this controversial but anyhow scholarly work, the idea is that the temples were
connected by a “magical birth” ritual, in which the monarch’s consecration occurred both as
the Buddha and as King. Moens proposed a ritual based on an analogy with the sun path in
the sky in one day, and thus endowed with three main “stations”: east, zenith, and west. To
these steps corresponded for the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Borobudur;
for the east, Mendut; and for the zenith, Pawon.

Role of the moon: It is worth mentioning that the role of the moon is quite relevant in
Buddhism, since festivals and recurrences associated with Buddha's life are timed by the full
moon. As is well known, in the course of a 18,6 years cycle the maximal declination of the
Moon in her monthly cycle undergoes a slow variation from a minimum to a maximum, equal
to the obliquity of the ecliptic minus/plus the obliquity of the earth-moon plane (=5° 9')
with respect to the ecliptic. This leads to a minor standstill at declination and a
maximal standstill at declination . In 800 AD the obliquity of the ecliptic was about 9'
greater than today so =23° 39' and the two standstills correspond to declinations 28° 48' and
to 18° 30' respectively. The last matches impressively well the orientation of Pawon, while
the first is not far (less than two degrees in declination, corresponding to less than 2 degrees
also in azimuth) from that of Mendut (parallax corrections are negligible at these latitudes).

Since the minor standstill of the Moon is always mimicked by the sun two times a year, it is
impossible to distinguish it from a solar orientation in the case of a singl building. However,
the coincidence of two buildings possibly related to the two standstills is, to say the last,
impressive. In this respect it is important to remember that precise azimuths for the major
standstills of the Moon are very difficult to individuate, and major standstills lunar
orientations should always be understood as aimed to the full moon closest to the solstice,

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which always attains a declination close to the extremal one in the years of the standstills.
The choice of orientation to the extrema of the moon might thus have arisen from calendrical
reasons.6

Moens: Confirmed that the temple triad of Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon dates from the
period of the Shailendra dynasty, 1,3 which in close cooperation with the kings of the Sanjaya
dynasty dominated Central Java for nearly two centuries, is no longer liable to doubt since the
explorations of Van Erp and Krom. In his extensive Barabudur-monograph, Van Erp called
the three temples “...a triad that according to (their) architecture and ornamentation derive
from the same time period.” 7This observation of course concerns the style of the temples as
we are familiar with today, that is to say following the renovations and extensions which
must have been executed by the end of the ninth century when Shailendra hegemony in Java
came to an end.

Borobudur Paleolake and the Cradle of Civilization

The Serayu River begins on Mount Sundoro and flows westwards through the Wonosobo-
Purwokerto plain, until it reaches the Indian Ocean in the neighborhood of Cilacap. The
Progo River is the main watercourse of historical Central Java. Unlike the other rivers that
originate from the Central depression of Java and run east or westwards, the Progo River
flows directly from north to south. Its source is located high on Mount Sundoro, while its
main tributary, the Elo River, takes its source on Mt Merbabu. The Progo Valley hosts a large
number of Dharmist and Buddhist temples dated from the 8th to the 9th century. Because of
this, the Progo Valley is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian civilization.
Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur. Examines the detail and style of its carving this temple is
slightly older than Borobudur.
The three temples were located on a straight line, suggesting there was a symbolic meaning
that binds these temples.

Pawon temple, 1900. /Relief of Kalpataru tree on the outer wall.

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"Between Mendut and Borobudur stands Pawon temple, a jewel of Javanese temple
architecture. Most probably, this temple served to purify the mind prior to ascending
Borobudur."
The original name of this Buddhist shrine is uncertain. Pawon literally means "kitchen"
in Javanese language, which is derived from the root word awu or dust. The connection to the
word "dust" also suggests that this temple was probably built as a tomb or mortuary temple
for a king. Pawon from the word Per-awu-an (place that contains dust), a temple that houses
the dust or ashes of cremated king. However who was the personage that entombed here is
still unknown. Local people name this temple as "Bajranalan" based on the name of the
village. Bajranalan is derived from the sanskrit word Vajra (thunder or also a Buddhist
ceremonial tool) and Anala (fire, flame).
In the contemporary era during the full moon in May or June, Buddhist community in
Indonesia observe Waisak and participate in the annual procession by walking from Mendut
passing through Pawon and ends at Borobudur.
The temple slightly faces northwest and stands on a square base. Each sides of the stairs and
the top of the gates are adorned with carved Kala-Makara, commonly found in classic
Javanese temples. The outer wall of Pawon is carved with reliefs
of boddhisattvas and taras.There are also reliefs of kalpataru (tree of life), flanked
between Kinnara-Kinnari. The square chamber inside is empty with a square basin in the
center of it. Rectangular small windows were found, probably for ventilation.
The roof section of is crowned with five small stupas and four small ratnas. Because of its
relative simplicity, symmetry and harmony, the historians dubbed this small temple as "the
jewel of Javanese temple architecture", in contrast with tall-slender East Javanese style
counterparts as found in later Singhasari and Majapahit period.

Figure 1. Distribution of temples in central Java

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 More than 300 temple remains were once visible in Central Java, scattered all over
the region. Today, however, a large part of these ruins has vanished. Some of them were
used as stone quarries to build new houses, mosques or bridges. Others were simply
victims of the ravages of time or were buried under residues from human activities. The
situation is scarcely better for the majority of the remaining sites: many former temples
have been reduced to a few dozen stones scattered in a field or along a road. On the other
hand, certain buildings were relatively well preserved and anastylosis granted them a new
life. Restored from top to bottom, these temples are now waiting to be visited and
admired.

TEMPLE TRIAD
Straight-line arrangement of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples

To explain the additions or extensions at Barabudur and Mendut by successive Shailendra

rulers, possibly without exception, which have come to light during restoration activities at
those temples, one needs to understand that religious merit of the royal zealot did increase to
a great extent from the building of a stupa. Indeed for every spectator the sacred construction
work would be an incentive to join the creed while it would help the initiate in his
meditations aiming at the attainment of the Bodhi. Furthermore, the “accumulation of
religious merit” which the monarch earned through the construction of a magnificent temple
would also benefit his realm — “the thriving State of the Shailendras” as it is designated in

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the inscriptions of the period. This topographical relationship looks hardly casual, as probably
a processional way ran along the line in ancient times (the path is still partly mimicked by the
modern road from Borobodur to Pawon up to the river Pogo).

Borobudur Temple (Biggest Buddha’s temple in the world)

Borobudur, is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist Temple in Magelang, Central Java,

Indonesia. The monument consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular,
topped by a central dome. The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha
statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated
stupa. It is the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist
monuments in the world.

Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple was designed in
Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult of ancestor
worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple also demonstrates the
influences of Gupta art that reflects India’s influence on the region, yet there are enough
indigenous scenes and elements incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian. The
monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The
journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the
monument and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology:
Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world
of formlessness). The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways
and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur
has the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world.

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