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Abash - to embarrass someone or make them feel uncomfortable

Her elder cousins abashed her by commenting on her shyness.
They tried not to be abashed by the unfamiliar luxury.

Abate - to become less intense or severe; to make something less intense or severe
The storm showed no signs of abating.
They waited for the crowd’s fury to abate.

Abdicate - to give up the position of being king, queen or emperor

He abdicated in favour of his son.
She was forced to abdicate the throne of Spain.

Aberration - a temporary change from the typical or usual way of behaving

In a moment of aberration, she agreed to go with him.
The misconduct was an aberration from the norm for him.

Abhor - to hate a way of behaving or thinking, often because you think it is not moral
Most decent people abhor corruption in government.
She abhors any form of cruelty towards animals.

Abject - the state of being extremely unhappy, poor, unsuccessful, etc

They live in abject poverty.
This policy has turned out to be an abject failure.

Abortive - not successful; failed,

An abortive attempt or plan has to be stopped because it has failed.
He tried to set up a meeting but his efforts proved abortive.
There was an abortive attempt to overthrow the government.

Abridge - to make a book, play, or piece of writing shorter by removing details and information that
is not important
The book was abridged for children.
She has been asked to abridge the novel for radio.

Absolute - very great or to the largest degree possible

I have absolute faith in her judgment.
Clean water is an absolute necessity.

Absolve - to free someone from guilt, blame, or responsibility for something

The report absolved her from all blame for the accident.
The priest absolved him (of all his sins).

Abstinent - completely avoiding something such as alcohol or sex

He has now been abstinent from alcohol for four years.
I choose to be abstinent and will wait to have sex until after I am married.

Abstract - existing as an idea, feeling, or quality, not as a material object

Truth and beauty are abstract concepts. All human beings are capable of thinking in abstract terms.

Abstruse - difficult to understand

His interest lay in abstruse mathematical problems.
The subject is too abstruse to enlarge further upon here.

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Abysmal - extremely bad or of a very low standard
His manners are abysmal.
The council has an abysmal record on education.

Accolade - praise or an award for an achievement that people admire

Four restaurants have been awarded the highest accolade of a three-star rating.
He was finally awarded the ultimate accolade —British Hairdresser of the Year—in 2007.

Accost - to go up to somebody and speak to them, especially in a way that is rude or frightening
She was accosted in the street by a complete stranger.
I'm usually accosted by beggars and drunks as I walk to the station.

Acerbic - used to describe something that is spoken or written in a way that is direct, clever,
and cruel
The letter was written in her usual acerbic style.
The letters show the acerbic wit for which Parker was both admired and feared.

Acquiesce - to accept something without arguing, even if you do not really agree with it
Senior government figures must have acquiesced in the cover-up.
She explained her plan and reluctantly he acquiesced.

Acrid - having a strong, bitter smell or taste that is unpleasant

The fog was yellow and acrid and bit at the back of the throat.
Clouds of acrid smoke issued from the building.

Acrimonious - full of anger, arguments, and bad feeling

His parents went through an acrimonious divorce.
Their marriage ended eight years ago in an acrimonious divorce.

Acumen - the ability to understand and decide things quickly and well
He had demonstrated considerable business acumen.
She has an acumen for handling finances that far exceeds what one typically finds in our industry.

Acute - very serious or severe

There is an acute shortage of water.
The problem of poverty is particularly acute in rural areas.

Adamant - determined not to change your mind or to be persuaded about something

Eva was adamant that she would not come.
The government remained adamant that there was no more money available.

Address - details of where somebody lives or works and where letters, etc.
Please note my change of address.
There was no return address on the envelope.

Adherent - a person who supports a particular set of ideas

The movement has many enthusiastic adherents.
We should not show animosity to adherents of other faiths.

Admonish - to tell someone that they have done something wrong

His mother admonished him for eating too quickly.
A warning voice admonished him not to let this happen.

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Adroit - very skilful and quick in the way you think or move
She became adroit at dealing with difficult questions.
She became adroit at dealing with difficult people.

Adulation - very great admiration or praise for someone, especially when it is more than is deserved
The band enjoy the adulation of their fans wherever they go.
As a born performer, she loves the excitement and she loves the adulation.

Adulterate - to make food or drink less pure by adding another substance to it

The water supply had been adulterated with chemicals from the soil.
Saffron is very expensive, and is often adulterated with other plants.

Adverse - having a negative or harmful effect on something

This drug is known to have adverse side effects.
It is clear that these violent films have an adverse effect on children.

Aesthetic - connected with beauty and art and the understanding of beautiful things
The works of art are judged on purely aesthetic grounds.
The benefits of conservation are both financial and aesthetic.

Affable - friendly and easy to talk to

He struck me as an affable sort of a man.
She was quite affable at the meeting.

Affectation - behaviour or speech that is not sincere

His little affectations irritated her.
He speaks clearly and without affectation.

Affinity - a strong feeling that you understand somebody/something and like them or it
Sam was born in the country and had a deep affinity with nature.
Humans have a special affinity for dolphins.

Affluent - having a lot of money or owning a lot of things

We live in an affluent neighborhood.
The company's success is attributed to its access to an affluent pool of talented employees.

Agenda - a list of matters to be discussed at a meeting

Safety at work is on the agenda for next month's meeting.
There were several important items on the agenda.

Aggregate - something formed by adding together several amounts or things

The three smaller parties gained an aggregate of 25 per cent of the vote.
Snowflakes are loose aggregates of ice crystals.

Agnostic - a person who believes that it is not possible to know whether God exists or not
Although he was raised a Catholic, he was an agnostic for most of his adult life.
He claims to be an agnostic on the question of man-made global warming.

Agrarian - connected with farming and the use of land for farming
This is prime agrarian land. This part of the country is mainly agrarian.

Alacrity - great happiness or enthusiasm

They accepted the offer with alacrity.
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He invited us all to visit, and we agreed with alacrity.

Allege - to say that someone has done something illegal or wrong without giving proof
The woman alleged rape, but Reeves insisted it was consensual.
He is alleged to have mistreated the prisoners.

Alleviate - to make something bad such as pain or problems less severe

The drugs did nothing to alleviate her pain/suffering.
A number of measures were taken to alleviate the problem.

Allocate - to give something to someone as their share of a total amount, to use in a particular way
More money should be allocated for famine relief.
The government is allocating £10 million for health education.

Alloy - a metal that is made by mixing two or more metals, or a metal and another substance
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
The potential for political gains for the candidate is alloyed with risk.

Allusion - something that is said or written that refers to or mentions another person or subject in an
indirect way
Her novels are packed with literary allusions.
His statement was seen as an allusion to the recent drug-related killings.

Aloof - not friendly or willing to take part in things

She seemed rather aloof when in fact she was just shy.
She stayed aloof while the argument went on around her.

Altruism - willingness to do things that bring advantages to others, even if

it results in disadvantage for yourself
She's not known for her altruism.
Politicians are not necessarily motivated by pure altruism.

Ambience - the character and atmosphere of a place

The gentle colour scheme creates a relaxing ambience.
The city’s ambience, particularly on the waterfront, is changing quickly.

Ambiguous - that can be understood in more than one way; having different meanings
His reply to my question was somewhat ambiguous.
The government has been ambiguous on this issue.

Ambivalent - having or showing both positive and negative feelings about somebody/something
She seems to feel ambivalent about her new job.
He has an ambivalent attitude towards her.

Ameliorate - to make better something that was bad or not good enough
Steps have been taken to ameliorate the situation.
The new laws were designed to ameliorate the problem of chronic debt.

Amenable - willing to accept or be influenced by a suggestion

They had three very amenable children.
You should find him amenable to reasonable arguments.

Amenity - a feature or service that makes a place pleasant, comfortable or easy to live in
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The hotel has excellent amenities.
The new leisure centre will be an amenity for local residents.

Amiable - pleasant and friendly

He seemed an amiable young man.
I've only met Jane once but she seems amiable enough.

Amnesty - a decision by a government that allows political prisoners to go free

The president granted a general amnesty for all political prisoners.
Most political prisoners were freed under the terms of the amnesty.

Amoral - not following any moral rules and not caring about right and wrong
Guy was greedy, amoral and dishonest.
Business is an amoral activity focused coldly on success.

Amorous - showing sexual desire and love towards somebody

Mary rejected Tony's amorous advances.
The opera centres around the amorous adventures/exploits of its handsome hero.

Amorphous - having no definite shape, form or structure

The substance appears as dark red crystals or as an amorphous red powder.
The amorphous substance that results from the breakdown of sugar is known as caramel.

Anachronism - a person, a custom or an idea that seems old-fashioned and does not belong to the
present
For a historical drama, the movie was filled with anachronisms.
She said nuclear weapons were an anachronism in the post cold war era.

Analogy - a comparison between things that have similar features, often used
to help explain a principle or idea
He drew an analogy between the brain and a vast computer.
There are no analogies with any previous legal cases.

Anarchy - a situation in which there is no organization and control, especially in society, because
there is no effective government
Our nation is descending into anarchy.
The country has been in a state of anarchy since the inconclusive election.

Anecdote - a short, interesting or funny story about a real person or event

He told one or two amusing anecdotes about his years as a policeman.
The book is a rich store of anecdote.

Anguish - extreme unhappiness caused by physical or mental suffering

He suffered the anguish of watching his son go to prison.
In her anguish she forgot to leave a message.

Animosity - a strong feeling of opposition, anger or hate

They managed to discuss their past disagreements without animosity.
He felt no animosity towards his critics.

Anomaly - a thing, situation, etc. that is different from what is normal or expected
The contradictions and anomalies in the old scheme were obvious.
There are areas of anomaly in the report.
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Antecedent - a thing or an event that exists or comes before another, and may have influenced it
Many people feel a great curiosity to find out about their antecedents.
Charles Babbage's mechanical calculating engines were the antecedents of the modern computer.

Antipathy - a feeling of strong dislike, opposition, or anger

He is a private man with a deep antipathyto/towards the press.
His professional judgement was coloured by his personal antipathies.

Antithesis - the opposite of something

The current establishment is the antithesis of democracy.
He is the exact antithesis of what I find attractive in men.

Apartheid - a system of keeping groups of people separate and treating them differently, especially
when this results in disadvantage foe one group
Opponents of special schools see them as educational apartheid.
He was an important leader in the struggle against the apartheid regime.

Apathy - the feeling of not being interested in or enthusiastic about something, or things in general
There is widespread apathy among the electorate.
Such attitudes can only lead to apathy.

Aphorism - a short phrase that says something true or wise

Johnson’s aphorism: ‘When a man is tired of London, he is tired of life.’
Oscar Wilde was famous for such aphorisms as "Experience is the name everyone gives
to their mistakes".

Apocalypse - the destruction of the world

We're all waiting for the zombie apocalypse.
Civilization is on the brink of apocalypse.

Apocryphal - well known, but probably not true

It's a good story but I dare say it's apocryphal.
Most of the stories about him are apocryphal.

Apotheosis - the best or most extreme example of something

Most people agree that her acting career achieved its apotheosis in this movie.
Bad taste in clothes reached its apotheosis in the 1970s.

Appease - to make somebody calmer or less angry by giving them what they want
The move was widely seen as an attempt to appease critics of the regime.
They were given a small pay rise but this was not enough to appease them.

Appreciate - to recognize how good someone or something is and to value them or it

Any help you could give me would be greatly appreciated.
Over the years he came to appreciate the beauty and tranquillity of the river.

Apprehensive - worried or frightened that something unpleasant may happen

The long delay had made me quite apprehensive.
I'm very apprehensive about tomorrow's meeting.

Approbation - approval or agreement, often given by an official group

The council has finally indicated its approbation of the plans.
The King received the official approbation of the church.
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Appropriate - suitable, acceptable or correct for the particular circumstances
This may be an appropriate treatment for many patients.
The book was written in a style appropriate to the age of the children.

Aptitude - natural ability or skill at doing something

We will take your personal aptitudes and abilities into account.
His aptitude for dealing with children got him the job.

Arbiter - someone who makes a judgment, solves an argument, or decides what will be done
The magazine's writers were regarded as arbiters of taste in the literary world.
The law is the final arbiter of what is considered obscene.

Arbitrary - based on chance rather than being planned or based on reason

He played a few arbitrary notes on the piano, to try it out.
The choice of players for the team seemed completely arbitrary.

Arcane - mysterious and known only by a few people

He was the only person who understood all the arcane details of the agreement.
This argument may seem arcane to those not closely involved in the world of finance.

Archaic - old and no longer used

The system is archaic and unfair and needs changing.
He has archaic ideas about women.

Archetype - a typical example of something, or the original model of something from

which others are copied
The United States is the archetype of a federal society.
She is the archetype of an American movie star.

Ardent - very enthusiastic and showing strong feelings about something/somebody

They were ardent pacifists.
He felt an ardent love for his wife even after many years of marriage.

Arduous - difficult, needing a lot of effort and energy

In those days, a trip to the West was an arduous journey.
The road back to political stability is long and arduous.

Aristocratic - belonging to a class of people who hold high social rank

His aristocratic manner alienated many voters.
Her mother is a member of a powerful aristocratic family.

Artful - clever and skilful, especially in getting what you want

He has shown himself to be an artful politician.
The prime minister dealt with the interviewer's questions in a very artful way.

Artifice - the clever use of tricks to cheat somebody

Pretending to faint was merely an artifice.
Amazingly for Hollywood, she seems almost entirely without artifice.

Ascendancy - a position of power, strength, or success

They are in danger of losing their political ascendancy.
United gained the ascendancy after half-time.
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Ascetic - avoiding physical pleasures and living a simple life, often for religious reasons
They live a very ascetic life.
The ascetic diet of the yogi consisted mainly of fruits, vegetables, and grains.

Assiduous - working very hard and taking great care that everything is done as well as it can be
The government has been assiduous in the fight against inflation.
She was assiduous in her duties.

Assimilate - to fully understand an idea or some information so that you are able to use it yourself
The committee will need time to assimilate this report.
Some people can only assimilate change gradually.

Assuage - to make an unpleasant feeling less severe

The government has tried to assuage the public's fears.
His reply did little to assuage my suspicions.

Astute - able to understand a situation quickly and see how to take advantage of it
It was an astute move to sell the shares then.
She was astute enough to realize that what Jack wanted was her money.

Atheist - a person who believes that God or gods do not exist

As an atheist, I do not accept this religious argument.
His father was an atheist.

Attrition - a process of making somebody/something, especially your enemy, weaker by repeatedly

attacking them or creating problems for them
It was a war of attrition.
These were the economics not of efficiency but of attrition.

Audacity - behaviour that is brave but likely to shock or offend people

He had the audacity to say I was too fat.
The sheer audacity of the plan amazed everyone.

Augment - to increase the amount, value, size, etc. of something

He wrote magazine articles in order to augment his income.
The band had been augmented by two extra trombonists.

Auspicious - showing signs that something is likely to be successful in the future

It was not a very auspicious beginning to his new career.
We waited for an auspicious moment to make our request.

Austere - simple and plain; without any decorations

Their clothes were always austere.
The courtroom was a large, dark chamber, an austere place.

Autocratic - demanding that people obey completely, without asking or caring about anyone else’s
opinions
The president resigned after 30 years of autocratic rule.
An autocratic management style often results in high staff turnover and low employee morale.

Autonomous - independent and having the power to make your own decisions
The country now has 17 autonomous regions, each with a distinct culture.
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Many elderly people want to live autonomously.

Avarice - an extremely strong wish to get or keep money or possessions

He may have retained Winchester out of avarice, or his hold on Canterbury may not have been
secure.
The cruelty and avarice of the leaders are the sole reasons why the country’s economy is in shambles.

Avow - to say clearly and often publicly what your opinion is, what you think is true, etc.
An aide avowed that the president had known nothing of the deals.
It is a society in which homosexuality is rarely avowed.

Avuncular - behaving in a kind and friendly way towards young people, similar to the way a kind
uncle treats his nieces or nephews
His avuncular image belies his steely determination.
The doctor’s avuncular bedside manner put the nervous patient at ease.

Awry - not in the intended way

The strike has sent the plans for investment seriously awry.
All my plans for the party had gone awry.

Axiom - a rule or principle that most people believe to be true

It is a widely held axiom that governments should not negotiate with terrorists.
Euclid's axioms form the foundation of his system of geometry.

Banal - very ordinary and containing nothing that is interesting or important

He knew how banal the question was as soon as he had asked it.
She murmured some banal phrases of encouragement.

Bane - something that causes trouble and makes people unhappy

The neighbours kids are the bane of my life.
The poor train service has been the bane of commuters for years.

Bastion - a group of people or a system that protects a way of life or a belief when it seems that it
may disappear
Singapore was the last bastion of British defences in South-East Asia.
British public schools are regarded as one of the last bastions of upper-class privilege.

Beget - to be the father of

Poverty begets hunger, and hunger begets crime.
Violence begets violence.

Belabor - to explain something more than necessary

There's no need to belabor the point.
I don’t want to belabor the point, but I still don’t think you understand.

Beleaguer - to cause a lot of problems or difficulties for someone

This is an issue that has beleaguered the shellfish industry for years.
They were beleaguered by enemy armies.

Belie - to give a false impression of somebody/something

My calm exterior belies my deep inner fear.
His gruff manner belied a gentle personality.

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Belittle - to make somebody, or the things that somebody does, seem unimportant
She felt her husband constantly belittled her achievements.
By saying this, I do not mean to belittle the importance of his role.

Belligerent - aggressive and unfriendly

He is always very belligerent towards me.
The belligerent countries are having difficulties funding the war.

Bemused - showing that you are confused and unable to think clearly
I was bemused at his sudden anger
They seem slightly bemused by their fame.

Benefactor - someone who gives money to help an organization, society, or person

The equipment was funded by friends and benefactors of the hospital.
He was a great public benefactor and gave land for building the sea wall.

Benevolent - kind, helpful and generous

He was a benevolent old man and wouldn't hurt a fly.
The colonel was benevolent, but not stupid.

Benign - kind and gentle; not hurting anybody

He thought of himself as a benign leader.
Her face was gentle and benign.

Bequest - money or property that you ask to be given to a particular person when you die
He left a bequest to each of his grandchildren.
The library has received a generous bequest from a local businessman.

Bereaved - having a close relation or friend who has recently died

The bereaved parents wept openly.
It is generally accepted that the bereaved benefit from counselling.

Beset - to affect somebody/something in an unpleasant or harmful way

The team was beset by injury all season.
It's one of the most difficult problems besetting our modern way of life.

Blasphemy - behaviour or language that is offensive or shows a lack of respect for God or religion
He was accused of blasphemy.
Madonna fans think that any criticism of her is blasphemy.

Blatant - done in an obvious and open way without caring if people are shocked
The whole episode was a blatant attempt to gain publicity.
It was a blatant lie.

Blight - to have a bad effect on something, especially by causing a lot of problems

His career has been blighted by injuries.
His arrival cast a blight on the wedding day.

Blithe - happy and without worry

She shows a blithe disregard for danger.
He drove with blithe disregard for the rules of the road.

Bourgeois - a person who belongs to the middle class

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The hat identified him as a bourgeois.
I'd forgotten what a bourgeois you are.

Bovine - connected with animals from the cattle group

He had a gentle, slightly bovine expression.
The virus can cause brain disease in humans and bovines.

Brevity - using only a few words or lasting only a short time

His essays are models of clarity and brevity.
Brevity is, in almost everything, a virtue.

Broach - to begin a discussion of something difficult

She was dreading having to broach the subject of money to her father.
The report fails to broach some important questions.

Bucolic - relating to the countryside

The painting shows a typically bucolic scene with peasants.
I do like peaceful life or I may call it bucolic life.

Bureaucracy - a system for controlling or managing a country, company, or organization that

is operated by a large number of officials employed to follow rules carefully
We need to reduce paperwork and bureaucracy in the company.
She is initiating a project to eliminate unnecessary bureaucracy.

Burgeon - to begin to grow or develop rapidly

A new wave of running clubs have burgeoned over the past decade.
Manufacturers are keen to cash in on this burgeoning demand.

Burlesque - a performance or piece of writing which tries to make something look silly by
representing it in a humorous way
The dance scene is in part a burlesque of Bollywood films.
The political burlesques are not very hard-hitting and rather bland.

Cacophony - an unpleasant mixture of loud sounds

What a cacophony!
As we entered the farmyard we were met with a cacophony of animal sounds.

Cadence - the regular rise and fall of the voice

He delivered his words in slow, measured cadences.
Cadence is usually the hardest aspect of a foreign language to adopt.

Cajole - to make somebody do something by talking to them and being very nice to them
He really knows how to cajole people into doing what he wants.
I managed to cajole her out of leaving too early.

Callow - young and without experience

Mark was just a callow youth of 16 when he arrived in Paris.
His descriptions of the music are callow to say the least.

Candor - the quality of being honest and telling the truth, especially about
a difficult or embarrassing subject
"We really don't know what to do about it," she said with surprising candor.
"We want to help but really don’t know how," she said with surprising candor.
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Capitalism - an economic system in which a country’s businesses and industry are controlled and run
for profit by private owners rather than by the government
The former communist embraced capitalism and started his own company.
She wrote that capitalism was devastating the environment.

Capitulate - to accept military defeat

They were finally forced to capitulate to the terrorists' demands.
Their forces capitulated five hours after the bombardment of the city began.

Capricious - changing mood or behaviour suddenly and unexpectedly

They had to contend with capricious economic forces.
He was a cruel and capricious tyrant.

Caricature - a funny drawing or picture of somebody that exaggerates some of their features
He had unfairly presented a caricature of my views.
The film gives a crude caricature of African history.

Castigate - to criticize someone or something severely

He castigated himself for being so stupid.
The minister castigated schools for falling standards in education.

Catalyst - a substance that makes a chemical reaction happen faster without being changed itself
I see my role as being a catalyst for change.
The riots were later seen as the catalyst for the new political developments.

Categorical - expressed clearly and in a way that shows that you are very sure about what you are
saying
They gave him a categorical assurance that he would not be hurt.
He replied with a categorical assertion that no such offer was made.

Catharsis - the process of releasing strong emotions through a particular activity or experience, such
as writing or theatre, in a way that helps you to understand those emotions
Crying is a great catharsis for releasing pain and anger.
For many women, yoga is a catharsis which allows them to reflect upon their innermost feelings.

Catholic - including many different types of thing

As a young person he had more catholic tastes than he does now.
Are they Catholic or Protestant?

Caustic - a caustic remark or way of speaking is hurtful, critical, or intentionally unkind

She was frantically trying to think up some caustic reply.
Her speech was a caustic attack on government officials.

Celibacy - the state of not having sex, especially because you have made a religious promise not to
Celibacy is not exclusive to Catholic priests.
She chose celibacy after a pregnancy scare at 16.

Censure - strong criticism or disapproval

His dishonest behaviour came under severe censure.
The opposition forced a vote of censure on the government's foreign policy.

Cerebral - demanding or involving careful thinking and mental effort rather than feelings
She makes cerebral films that deal with important social issues.
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His poetry is very cerebral.

Chagrin - disappointment or anger, especially when caused by a failure or mistake

To my chagrin, nobody wanted to hear me sing.
We grow lots of squash, much to my children’s chagrin.

Charisma - the powerful personal quality that some people have to attract and impress other people
The President has great personal charisma.
She relaxed and her natural charisma started to shine through.

Charlatan - a person who claims to have knowledge or skills that they do not really have
He knows nothing about medicine—he’s a complete charlatan.
The self-proclaimed financial advisor turned out to be a charlatan.

Chasm - a very deep, narrow opening in rock, ice, or the ground

Suddenly a huge chasm opened in the earth.
A chasm separates my generation from my parents'.

Chastise - to criticize somebody for doing something wrong

He chastised the team for their lack of commitment.
She chastised herself for not getting up and being more active.

Chicanery - the use of complicated plans and clever talk in order to trick people
The investigation revealed political chicanery and corruption at the highest levels.
The politician was exposed for his chicanery in rigging the election results.

Chimera - a hope or dream that is very unlikely ever to come true

The supposed low cost of the system is something of a chimera.
Animal chimeras have been made for years in the study of developmental biology.

Choleric - very angry or easily annoyed

He was a choleric, self-important little man.
Jeanne was a choleric person and a miser.

Chronic - lasting for a long time; difficult to cure

There is a chronic shortage of teachers.
She suffers from chronic pain in her knees.

Chronicle - a written record of events in the order in which they happened

Her latest novel is a chronicle of life in a Devon village.
His one-man show chronicles the life of Mark Twain.

Circuitous - not straight or direct

He took us on a circuitous route to the hotel.
The journey was circuitous and slow.

Circumlocution - the use of more words than are necessary, instead of speaking or writing in a clear,
direct way
Politicians are experts in circumlocution.
During the press conference, the politician used circumlocution to avoid answering questions from
the media.

Circumscribe - to limit something

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The power of the monarchy was circumscribed by the new law.
They are still highly circumscribed in their authority.

Circumspect - thinking very carefully about something before doing it, because there may be risks
involved
He was very circumspect in his financial affairs.
Officials were circumspect about saying what the talks had achieved.

Circumvent - to avoid something, especially cleverly or illegally

Young people still want to circumvent their parents’ control.
They found a way of circumventing the law.

Civil - connected with the people who live in a country

There were concerns that the economic reforms might lead to civil unrest.
Helicopters are mainly used for military rather than civil use.

Clemency - kindness when giving a punishment

He was executed by firing squad despite widespread pleas for clemency.
His lawyers appealed for clemency on the grounds of ill health.

Cliche - a phrase or an idea that has been used so often that it no longer has much meaning and is not
interesting
It has become a cliché to say that Prague is the most beautiful city in Europe.
Occasionally his writing slips into cliché.

Clique - a small group of people who spend their time together and do not allow others to join them
The club is dominated by a small clique of intellectuals.
Our golf club is run by a very unfriendly clique.

Coalesce - to come together to form one larger group, substance, etc.

The puddles had coalesced into a small stream.
The theory is that galaxies coalesced from smaller groupings of stars.

Coerce - to force somebody to do something by using threats

They were coerced into negotiating a settlement.
They tried to coerce him to sign away his rights.

Cogent - strongly and clearly expressed in a way that influences what people believe
She put forward some cogent reasons for abandoning the plan.
He makes a cogent argument for improving early childhood education.

Cognitive - connected with thinking or conscious mental processes

Some of her cognitive functions have been impaired.
This is both a cognitive and an emotional process.

Cognizant - having knowledge or understanding of something

We should be cognizant of the fact that every complaint is not a justified complaint.
The company was cognizant of the risks involved in the project.

Coherent - logical and well organized; easy to understand and clear

The president has not presented a coherent plan for dealing with it.
She gave a clear, coherent account to the court.

15
Colloquial - used in conversation but not in formal speech or writing
The group of friends used colloquial expressions to communicate with each other.
The language of the poem is colloquial, yet it is deep in its understanding of human emotions.

Collusion - secret agreement especially in order to do something dishonest or to trick people

The police were corrupt and were operating in collusion with the drug dealers.
It is thought that they worked in collusion with the terrorist network.

Commensurate - matching something in size, importance, quality, etc.

Salary will be commensurate with experience.
The agency’s workload has increased without any commensurate increase in staff.

Compelling - that makes you pay attention to it because it is so interesting and exciting
Her latest book makes compelling reading.
His eyes were strangely compelling.

Compendium - a short but complete account of a particular subject, especially in the form of a book
She put together a compendium of early American furniture.
A compendium of environmental legislation was being prepared.

Complacent - feeling so satisfied with your own abilities or situation that you feel you do not need
to try any harder
We can't afford to become complacent about any of our products.
We must not become complacent about progress.

Complement - to make something else seem better or more attractive when combining with it
The excellent menu is complemented by a good wine list.
The music complements her voice perfectly.

Complicity - involvement in a crime or some activity that is wrong

She is suspected of complicity in the fraud.
She did not suspect him of complicity with the authorities.

Comprehensive - complete and including everything that is necessary

We offer you a comprehensive training in all aspects of the business.
He has written a fully comprehensive guide to Rome.

Comprise - to be the parts or members of something; to make up something

Italian students comprise 60 percent of the class.
The accommodation comprises six bedrooms and three living rooms.

Conciliatory - having the intention or effect of making angry people calm

The report was highly conciliatory.
The UK government was not in a conciliatory mood.

Concise - giving only the information that is necessary and important, using few words
She gave us clear and concise instructions.
Make your answers clear and concise.

Concord - agreement and peace between countries and people

The two parties signed a peace concord to end the long conflict.
The union negotiated a salary concord with the factory management.

16
Concurrent - happening or existing at the same time
He was imprisoned for two concurrent terms of 30 months and 18 months.
The judge imposed concurrent sentences totalling 14 years for the attacks on the girls.

Condescend - to do something that you think it is below your social or professional position to do
We had to wait almost an hour before he condescended to see us.
When giving a talk, be careful not to condescend to your audience.

Condone - to accept or allow behaviour that is wrong

I don’t condone such rude behavior.
The college cannot condone any behaviour that involves illicit drugs.

Conducive - providing the right conditions for something good to happen or exist
Such a noisy environment was not conducive to a good night's sleep.
The soft lights and music were conducive to a relaxed atmosphere.

Confluence - the fact of two or more things becoming one

The change has been brought on by a confluence of factors.
A confluence of events is pushing nuclear policy into the national spotlight.

Congenial - friendly and pleasant

We spent a relaxed evening with congenial friends.
His studies in Leiden proved congenial to him.

Congenital - existing since or before birth

Children born to mothers who smoked were at risk of congenital heart disease.
Genetic screening can help reduce many congenital diseases.

Congregate - to come together in a large group of people or animals

Young people often congregate in the main square in the evenings.
A crowd congregated around City Hall.

Conjecture - an opinion or idea that is not based on definite knowledge and is formed by guessing
The truth of his conjecture was confirmed by the newspaper report.
He conjectured that the company would soon be in financial trouble.

Conjure - to make something appear by magic, or as if by magic

Her grandfather taught her to conjure.
In an instant, the magician had conjured (up) a dove from his hat.

Connoisseur - an expert on matters involving the judgement of beauty, quality or skill in art, food or
music
Only the true connoisseur could tell the difference between these two wines.
The mushrooms had the chewy, savory flavor preferred by connoisseurs.

Consecrate - to officially make something holy and able to be used for religious ceremonies
The church was completed and consecrated in the 1890s.
She consecrated her life to God.

Consensus - a generally accepted opinion or decision among a group of people

The general consensus in the office is that he can't do his job.
No clear consensus exists over the next stage of the plan.

17
Consonant - a speech sound made by completely or partly stopping the flow of air through the
mouth or nose
"Lullabies are beautifully consonant."
She's got some unpronounceable name that seems to be all consonants.

Construe - to understand the meaning of a word, a sentence or an action in a particular way

He considered how the remark was to be construed.
Any changes to the plan would be construed as indecision.

Consummate - perfect, or complete in every way

She was a consummate performer.
He played the shot with consummate skill.

Contentious - causing , involving, or likely to cause disagreement and argument

The director had a contentious relationship with the eccentric actor.
Both views are highly contentious.

Contiguous - next to or touching another, usually similar, thing

The countries are contiguous.
The bruising was not contiguous to the wound.

Contingent - a group of people representing an organization or country, or a part of a military force

The largest contingent was from the United States.
Many large cities provided substantial contingents for the war effort.

Contrite - feeling very sorry and guilty for something bad that you have done
She seemed genuinely contrite when she apologized.
Her expression was contrite.

Contrived - artificial and difficult to believe

I enjoyed the film, but felt the ending was a bit contrived.
The letter was full of contrived excuses.

Conventional - traditional and ordinary

He despises their conventional attitudes.
She's very conventional in her views.

Convivial - cheerful and friendly in atmosphere or character

The talks ended on a convivial note.
We passed a convivial evening at the McCabes’ house.

Copious - in large amounts, or more than enough

He took copious notes during the lecture.
She supports her theory with copious evidence.

Corollary - a situation, an argument or a fact that is the natural and direct result of another one
Unfortunately, violence is the inevitable corollary of such a revolutionary change in society.
In rural areas, the corollary of increased car ownership has been a rapid decline in the provision of
public transport.

Corroborate - to provide evidence or information that supports a statement, theory, etc.

The evidence was corroborated by two independent witnesses.
Recent research seems to corroborate his theory.
18
Cosmopolitan - containing people of different types or from different countries, and influenced by
their culture
The club has a cosmopolitan atmosphere.
New York is a highly cosmopolitan city.

Countenance - the appearance or expression of someone's face

He was of noble countenance.
We will not give/lend countenance to any kind of terrorism.

Coup - a sudden change of government that is illegal and often violent

He was sentenced to death for his part in the attempted coup.
He seized power in a military coup in 2008.

Covenant - a formal agreement or promise between two or more people

The contract contained a restrictive covenant against building on the land.
The tenant failed to repair the damage and was in breach of covenant.

Covert - secret or hidden, making it difficult to notice

He stole a covert glance at her across the table.
Every measure, both overt and covert, is being taken against terrorists.

Covet - to want something very much, especially something that belongs to somebody else
He had long coveted the chance to work with a famous musician.
She always coveted power but never quite achieved it.

Credulous - too ready to believe things and therefore easy to trick

The con man was able to easily sell his wonder products to credulous buyers.
The credulous tourist fell for the scam.

Criterion - a standard or principle by which something is judged, or with the help of which a decision
is made
She failed to meet the strict selection criteria.
By this criterion, very few people are suitable.

Cryptic - mysterious and difficult to understand

I got a cryptic text message from Sam.
Her cryptic smile left me wondering about her true intentions.

Culinary - connected with cooking or kitchens

Savour the culinary delights of Mexico.
My culinary skills are limited to boiling water.

Culminate - to end with a particular result, or at a particular point

Their many years of research have finally culminated in a cure for the disease.
Months of hard work culminated in success.

Culpable - responsible and deserving blame for having done something wrong
The landowner could be proved culpable for starting the fire.
The prime minister is highly culpable in this affair.

Cursory - done quickly and without giving enough attention to details

He gave the report a rather cursory look.
19
He gave the picture a cursory glance.

Curtail - to limit something or make it last for a shorter time

Spending on books has been severely curtailed.
The lecture was curtailed by the fire alarm going off.

Cynic - a person who believes that people only do things to help themselves, rather than for good or
sincere reasons
Cynics will say that there is not the slightest chance of success.
I'm too much of a cynic to believe that he'll keep his promise.

Daunt - to make somebody feel nervous and less confident about doing something
She was a brave woman but she felt daunted by the task ahead.
The prospect of going in a helicopter rather daunts me.

Dearth - a lack of something; the fact of there not being enough of something
There was a dearth of reliable information on the subject.
The region is suffering from a dearth of medical specialists.

Debacle - a complete failure, especially because of bad planning and organization

He should take responsibility for the debacle and resign.
Let’s hope this is the end of the debacle over player transfer fees.

Debauchery - behaviour involving too much sex, alcohol or drugs

He was arrested for debauchery.
The bachelor party was a night of debauchery.

Debilitate - to make someone or something physically weak

The troops were severely debilitated by hunger and disease.
Prolonged strike action debilitated the industry.

Decadent - having or showing low standards, especially moral ones, and an interest only in pleasure
and fun rather than serious things
Champagne and chocolates for breakfast - how decadent!
There was something very decadent about filling ourselves with so much rich food.

Decimate - to kill a large number of something, or to reduce something severely

Populations of endangered animals have been decimated.
The rabbit population was decimated by the disease.

Decorous - behaving politely and in a controlled way

His manner, as ever, was decorous.
When Bill walked away from a fight in church, he behaved in a decorous manner.

Deduce - to reach an answer or a decision by thinking carefully about the known facts
We cannot deduce very much from these figures.
We deduce from his behaviour that he is trying to gain attention.

Defame - to harm somebody by saying or writing bad or false things about them
The newspaper denies any intention to defame the senator’s reputation.
Mr Turnock claimed the editorial had defamed him.

Deference - respect and politeness

20
He treats her with such deference.
The flags were lowered out of deference to the bereaved family.

Definitive - not able to be changed or improved

The police have no definitive proof of her guilt.
The definitive version of the text is ready to be published.

Degenerate - to become worse in quality

Her health degenerated quickly.
The march degenerated into a riot.

Deleterious - harmful and damaging

These drugs have a proven deleterious effect on the nervous system.
The use of pesticides can have deleterious effects on the environment.

Delineate - to describe, draw or explain something in detail

The ship's route is clearly delineated on the map.
The main characters are clearly delineated in the first chapter.

Delude - to make someone believe something that is not true

He's deluding himself if he thinks he's going to be promoted this year.
Don't be deluded into thinking that we are out of danger yet.

Deluge - a severe flood; a sudden very heavy fall of rain

This little stream can become a deluge when it rains heavily.
When the snow melts, the mountain stream becomes a deluge.

Demagogue - a political leader who tries to win support by using arguments based on emotion rather
than reason
His merits as a demagogue and political writer are undeniable.
The Democrats are demagoguing that issue.

Depravity - the state of being morally bad, or an action that is morally bad
The story was gross and full of sexual depravity.
People were shocked by the depravity of her actions.

Deprecate - to feel and express strong disapproval of something

We deprecate this use of company funds for political purposes.
He always deprecates my achievements.

Deride - to laugh at someone or something in a way that shows you think they are stupid or of
no value
He derided my singing as pathetic.
The play was derided by the critics.

Derogatory - showing a critical attitude and lack of respect for somebody

He made some derogatory comment/remark about her appearance.
She was upset by derogatory comments made about her clothes.

Desiccate - to remove the moisture from something so it becomes completely dry;

to lose all moisture and become completely dry
Intensive farming has desiccated the land.
The global economy is desiccating by the day.
21
Despondent - unhappy and with no hope or enthusiasm
She started to feel despondent about ever finding a job.
There are times when it is hard not to feel despondent.

Despot - a person, especially a ruler, who has unlimited power over other people, and often uses
it unfairly and cruelly
The king was regarded as having been an enlightened despot.
It is the story of a military coup which brings a brutal despot to power.

Destitute - without money, food and the other things necessary for life
When he died, his family was left completely destitute.
The war left her completely destitute.

Desultory - without a clear plan or purpose and showing little effort or interest
She made a desultory attempt at conversation.
I wandered about in a desultory fashion.

Dexterous - having the ability to perform a difficult action quickly and skilfully with the hands
Baseball players have to be fast and dexterous.
She has the strong, dexterous hands of a surgeon.

Dialectical - discovering what is true by considering opposite theories

Plato's dialogues contain many instances of dialectical argument.
Contradiction is after all what dialectical thinking is all about.

Dictum - a short statement, especially one expressing advice or a general truth

He followed the famous American dictum "Don't get mad, get even".
Every storyteller should remember Aristotle’s dictum that a story must have a beginning, a middle
and an end.

Didactic - designed to teach people something, especially a moral lesson

The story is not written in a didactic style.
This form of didactic literature was popular in Victorian times.

Diffident - shy and not confident of your abilities

He was modest and diffident about his own success.
She felt diffident about speaking in public.

Digress - to start to talk about something that is not connected with the main point of what you are
saying
The lecturer temporarily digressed from her subject to deal with a related theory.
To digress for a moment, I would like to remind you that there will be no classes next week.

Dilettante - doing or studying something without being serious about it and not having much
knowledge
He's a bit of a dilettante as far as wine is concerned.
To serious artists, he was merely a dilettante.

Discern - to see, recognize, or understand something that is not clear

I could just discern a figure in the darkness.
It is difficult to discern any pattern in these figures.

22
Discreet - careful in what you say or do, in order to keep something secret or to avoid causing
difficulty for somebody or making them feel embarrassed
He was always very discreet about his love affairs.
You ought to make a few discreet enquiries before you sign anything.

Discrete - clearly separate or different in shape or form

The organisms can be divided into discrete categories.
These small companies now have their own discrete identity.

Discriminate - to recognize that there is a difference between people or things; to show a difference
between people or things
The computer program was unable to discriminate between letters and numbers.
A number of features discriminate this species from others.

Disdain - the feeling that somebody/something is not good enough to deserve your respect or
attention
She treated him with disdain.
He regards the political process with disdain.

Disinterested - not influenced by personal feelings, or by the chance of getting some advantage for
yourself
Her advice appeared to be disinterested.
I was merely a disinterested spectator in the whole affair.

Disparage - to suggest that somebody/something is not important or valuable

I don't mean to disparage your achievements.
It is never right to disparage people based on ethnicity.

Disparate - made up of parts or people that are very different from each other
The machine can keep the disparate parts of the system coordinated.
When he took over, the party was composed of disparate reactionary groups.

Disseminate - to spread information, knowledge, etc. so that it reaches many people

Their findings have been widely disseminated.
One of the organization's aims is to disseminate information about the disease.

Dissipate - to gradually become or make something become weaker until it disappears

The heat gradually dissipates into the atmosphere.
His anger dissipated as the situation became clear.

Dissolution - the act or process of ending an official organization or legal agreement

The company was set up following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
After the dissolution of communist rule in 1989, things began to open up.

Distend - to swell (= become larger and rounder than before) or make something swell because of
pressure from inside
During digestion, sugar may produce wind that distends the stomach.
The medication I take causes my lower belly to distend.

Distinguish - to recognize the difference between two people or things

It's important to distinguish between business and pleasure.
English law clearly distinguishes between murder and manslaughter.

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Docile - quiet and easy to influence, persuade, or control
The animal looked remarkably docile.
It is a cheap and docile workforce.

Doctrinaire - based on and following fixed beliefs rather than considering practical problems
He has a somewhat doctrinaire approach to running the company.
With a doctrinaire attitude, the politician pressured his constituents to follow his policies blindly.

Dogmatic - being certain that your beliefs are right and that others should accept them, without
paying attention to evidence or other opinions
There is a danger of becoming too dogmatic about teaching methods.
He was strident and dogmatic in giving his opinions.

Domestic - relating to a person's own country

The election campaign has been focused mainly on domestic issues.
Domestic opinion had turned against the war.

Dormant - not active or growing now but able to become active or to grow in the future
During the winter the seeds lie dormant in the soil.
These investments have remained dormant for several years.

Dubious - thought not to be completely true or not able to be trusted

I was rather dubious about the whole idea.
These claims are dubious and not scientifically proven.

Duplicity - dishonest talk or behaviour, especially by saying different things to two people
They were accused of duplicity in their dealings with both sides.
The novel is full of duplicity, which makes it difficult to trust anyone.

Ebullient - full of confidence, energy and good humour

He was openly ebullient after the election.
She sounded as ebullient and happy as ever.

Eccentric - considered by other people to be strange or unusual

His behaviour grew increasingly eccentric as time went on.
She was the classic eccentric old lady, living with a houseful of cats.

Eclectic - not following one style or set of ideas but choosing from or using a wide variety
She has very eclectic tastes in literature.
His house is an eclectic mixture of the antique and the modern.

Edify - to improve someone's mind

It is not clear whether the purpose is to edify, or simply to make money.
No doubt Hamish will edify us on the subject.

Efface - to remove something intentionally

In his art he effaces himself almost completely.
The whole country had tried to efface the memory of the old dictatorship.

Effusion - a sudden and uncontrolled expression of strong emotion

Each girl felt guilty of a maudlin effusion of sentiment.
They were welcomed with effusions of joy wherever they went.

24
Egalitarian - a person who believes that everyone is equal and should have the same rights and
opportunities
The party's principles are basically egalitarian.
He described himself as ‘an egalitarian’.

Egocentric - thinking only about yourself and not about what other people need or want
He was a supremely egocentric man.
In the film he appears egocentric and opinionated.

Egregious - extremely bad in a way that is very noticeable

It was an egregious error for a statesman to show such ignorance.
The judge said it was the most egregious act he had ever seen!

Elicit - to get or produce something, especially information or a reaction

Her tears elicited great sympathy from her audience.
They were able to elicit the support of the public.

Elliptical - with a word or words left out of a sentence deliberately

His message was written in a deliberately elliptical style.
I painted the elliptical shaped Easter egg with pastel colors.

Elusive - difficult to find, define or achieve

The answers to these questions remain as elusive as ever.
Further movie roles have proved somewhat elusive for the young actor.

Emigrate - to leave a country permanently and go to live in another one

Many people who emigrated experienced poverty and racism when they arrived.
Millions of Germans emigrated from Europe in the nineteenth century.

Eminent - famous and respected, especially in a particular profession

The commission consisted of fifteen eminent political figures.
This shows eminent good sense.

Empirical - based on experiments or experience rather than ideas or theories

We have no empirical evidence that the industry is in trouble.
Empirical studies show that some forms of alternative medicine are extremely effective.

Emulate - to copy something achieved by someone else and try to do it as well as they have
She hopes to emulate her sister's sporting achievements.
They hope to emulate the success of other software companies.

Encroach - to take control or possession of something in a gradual way and often without
being noticed
Gradually the negative feelings encroached into her work.
The growing town soon encroached on the surrounding countryside.

Endemic - regularly found in a particular place or among a particular group of people and difficult to
get rid of
Malaria is endemic in many of the hotter regions of the world.
Some of these problems are endemic to big US cities.

Enervate - to make somebody feel weak and tired

The alcohol appeared to enervate Jason's ability to focus at work.
25
The wrestler's plan was to deliver a crushing blow which would enervate his opponent.

Enfranchise - to give a person or group of people the right to vote in elections

Women in Britain were first enfranchised in 1918.
The suffragettes fought for years to enfranchise women.

Engender - to make a feeling or situation exist

Her latest book has engendered a lot of controversy.
The place engendered immediate feelings of friendship and belonging.

Enigma - something that is mysterious and seems impossible to understand completely

He is an enigma to most people.
Even after years he still remains an enigma to me.

Enormity - very great size or importance

I don't think you realize the enormity of the problem.
People are still coming to terms with the enormity of the disaster.

Ephemeral - lasting for only a short time

Fame in the world of rock and pop is largely ephemeral.
It is a critic’s job to follow every ephemeral fashion.

Epigram - a short saying or poem that expresses an idea in a clever, funny way
The cute epigram on the Valentine’s card made me smile.
He always used to end his lectures with a witty summarizing epigram.

Epitome - a perfect example of something

He was the epitome of the fashionable gentleman.
He is the epitome of a modern young man.

Equanimity - a calm state of mind that means that you do not become angry or upset, especially in
difficult situations
She accepted the prospect of her operation with equanimity.
In spite of her financial troubles, she faced the future with equanimity.

Equitable - treating everyone fairly and in the same way

She charged that women are being denied equitable pay.
We need to construct an equitable and efficient method of local taxation.

Equivocal - not having one clear or definite meaning or intention; able to be understood in more than
one way
She gave an equivocal answer, typical of a politician.
Women were less equivocal than men on the subject of fidelity in marriage.

Erudite - having or showing great knowledge that is gained from academic study
He's the author of an erudite book on Scottish history.
She could turn any conversation into an erudite discussion.

Esoteric - likely to be understood or enjoyed by only a few people with a special knowledge or
interest
He has an esoteric collection of old toys and games.
She has a somewhat esoteric taste in clothes.

26
Espouse - to become involved with or support an activity or opinion
He espoused conservative political views.
They espoused the notion of equal opportunity for all in education.

Ethereal - light and delicate, especially in an unnatural way

In a translucent sky, the domes and spires of the city looked almost ethereal.
The windows give the church an ethereal glow.

Euphemism - a word or phrase used to avoid saying an unpleasant or offensive word

"Senior citizen" is a euphemism for "old person".
The article made so much use of euphemism that often its meaning was unclear.

Evanescent - disappearing quickly from sight or memory

Talk is evanescent, writing leaves footprints.
The evanescent tints of the sky fade into the gray.

Exacerbate - to make something worse, especially a disease or problem

His aggressive reaction only exacerbated the situation.
Her allergy was exacerbated by the dust.

Exacting - demanding a lot of effort, care, or attention

All our aircraft meet exacting safety standards.
He was an exacting man to work for.

Exalt - to raise someone to a higher rank or more powerful position

He was exalted as a pillar of the community.
His son was exalted to a high position in the government through family connections.

Exasperate - to annoy somebody very much

Her moods exasperated him.
She was clearly exasperated by all my questions.

Exemplify - to be or give a typical example of something

American fashion is exemplified by jeans and T-shirts.
His food exemplifies Italian cooking at its best.

Exhaustive - complete and including everything

This list is not intended to be exhaustive.
Exhaustive research has been carried out into the effects of the drug.

Exhort - to try hard to persuade somebody to do something

The governor exhorted the prisoners not to riot.
The party leader exhorted his members to start preparing for government.

Exigency - a need or demand that you must deal with immediately

He put financial exigency before personal sentiment.
Economic exigency obliged the government to act.

Existential - relating to existence or being alive

There is no answer to that existential question.
The biggest existential threat to humans is probably still nuclear war.

Exonerate - to show or state that someone or something is not guilty of something

27
The president cannot be exonerated from responsibility for this problem.
We have proof which will completely exonerate him.

Expatriate - someone who does not live in their own country

My family lived as expatriates in Hong Kong before I was born.
There are many multinational companies and expatriates working in the region.

Expedient - an action that is useful or necessary for a particular purpose, but not always fair or right
It might be expedient not to pay him until the work is finished.
It would not be politically expedient to propose new fees.

Expedite - to make a process happen more quickly

Something needs to be done to expedite the process.
We have developed rapid order processing to expedite deliveries to customers.

Explicit - clear and easy to understand, so that you have no doubt what is meant
I gave her very explicit directions how to get here.
She made some very explicit references to my personal life.

Extol - to praise something or someone very much

Doctors often extol the virtues of eating less fat.
His book extolling the benefits of vegetarianism sold thousands of copies.

Extraneous - not directly connected with or related to something

We do not want any extraneous information on the page.
We must not be distracted by extraneous issues, she said.

Extrapolate - to guess or think about what might happen using information that is already known
Try not to extrapolate too much from your own experience.
We have extrapolated these results from research done in other countries.

Extricate - to remove something or set something free with difficulty

He had managed to extricate himself from most of his official duties.
It took hours to extricate the car from the sand.

Extrovert - an energetic person who enjoys being with other people

I think it helps if you have an extrovert personality.
She's a real extrovert and loves to socialize and meet new people.

Exult - to feel and show that you are very excited and happy because of something that has happened
She seems to exult in her power.
He exulted in the publicity he received.

Fabrication - false information that is invented in order to trick people; the act of inventing such
information
Her story was a complete fabrication from start to finish.
The evidence he gave in court was a complete fabrication.

Facetious - not serious about a serious subject, in an attempt to be funny or to appear clever
I make so much money that we never have to worry – I’m being facetious.
Stop being facetious; this is serious.

Facile - produced without effort or careful thought

28
He does not permit himself facile answers.
It seems too facile to blame everything on his mishandling of the crisis.

Faction - a group within a larger group, especially one with slightly different ideas from
the main group
There are rival factions within the administration.
The president’s advisors represent every faction of his party.

Farcical - silly and not worth taking seriously

There were farcical scenes at the meeting.
Such a farcical situation could never happen in Germany.

Fastidious - giving too much attention to small details and wanting everything to
be correct and perfect
They were too fastidious to eat in a fast-food restaurant.
He is very fastidious about how a suitcase should be packed.

Fatalist - a person who believes that events are decided by fate and cannot be controlled
It's wrong to take this fatalist's view of global warming.
He urged delegates to prove the fatalists wrong, and win the election.

Fatuous - stupid, not correct, or not carefully thought about

Their arguments are completely fatuous.
It was a fatuous choice to carry so many glass cups at once.

Fauna - all the animals living in an area or in a particular period of history

While she was in Hawaii, she studied the local flora and fauna.
The forest’s fauna are safeguarded by local wildlife life protection laws

Fecund - able to produce a lot of crops, fruit, babies, young animals, etc.
A woman with six children has proved that she is not only fecund but fertile.
The soil in this area is very fecund.

Felicity - well-chosen or successful features, especially in a speech or piece of writing

Her book displays many subtle linguistic felicities.
The pianist’s performance contained no shortage of felicities.

Fervor - very strong feelings about something

She kissed him with unusual fervour.
The speech aroused nationalist fervour.

Fetter - to keep someone within limits or stop them from making progress
He felt fettered by petty rules and regulations.
He felt fettered by a nine-to-five office existence.

Fidelity - the quality of being loyal to somebody/something

They still maintain fidelity to their religious tradition.
The story is told with great fidelity to the original.

Figurative - used not with their basic meaning but with a more imaginative meaning,
in order to create a special effect
Of course, she was using the term "massacre" in the figurative sense.
But in this instance, the allusion is purely figurative.
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Finesse - great skill in dealing with people or situations, especially in a light and careful way
It was a disappointing performance that lacked finesse.
She has handled these difficult negotiations with real finesse.

Flagrant - (of an action) that shocks you because it is done in a very obvious way and shows no
respect for people, laws, etc.
He showed a flagrant disregard for anyone else's feelings.
Such a claim would be a flagrant internal contradiction.

Flaunt -to show or make obvious something you are proud of in order to get admiration
He's got a lot of money but he doesn't flaunt it.
He did not believe in flaunting his wealth.

Flout - to show that you have no respect for a law, etc. by openly not obeying it
They think they can flout the law and get away with it.
Many motorcyclists flout the law by not wearing helmets.

Foible - a silly habit or a strange or weak aspect of a person’s character that is not considered serious
by other people
We all have our little foibles.
He often writes about the workings of government and the foibles of politicians.

Foment - to create trouble or violence or make it worse

The song was banned on the grounds that it might foment racial tension.
They accused him of fomenting political unrest.

Forebear - a person in your family who lived a long time ago

I'll come back to the land of my forebears.
Egypt is revered as the forebear of western civilization.

Forego - to decide not to have or do something that you would like to have or do
Since I’m on a diet, I decided to forego my friend’s dessert offer.
Pam chose to forego eating out for a year so she could save money for a trip to Europe.

Forsake - to leave someone for ever, especially when they need you
He decided to forsake politics for journalism.
He had made it clear to his wife that he would never forsake her.

Fortuitous - happening by chance, especially a lucky chance that brings a good result
His success depended on a fortuitous combination of circumstances.
The discovery of the files was fortuitous.

Founder - someone who establishes an organization

She is the founder and managing director of the company.
The statue commemorates the founder of the college.

Fraternal - connected with the relationship that exists between brothers

The president's official visit marks the start of a more fraternal relationship between the
two countries.
The lifelong friends shared a fraternal bond.

Frenetic - involving a lot of energy and activity in a way that is not organized
After weeks of frenetic activity, the job was finally finished.
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She rushed from city to city at a frenetic pace.

Frugal - using only as much money or food as is necessary

The monks lead a frugal existence in their isolated monastery.
He built up his savings by being very frugal.

Furtive - behaving in a way that shows that you want to keep something secret and do not want to be
noticed
He made one or two furtive phone calls.
The look in his eyes became furtive.

Futile - having no purpose because there is no chance of success

She made one last futile effort to unlock the door.
All my attempts to cheer her up proved futile.

Garrulous - talking a lot, especially about unimportant things

I had talked too much about myself and felt like a garrulous old fool.
The normally garrulous commentator had nothing to say.

Gauche - shy or uncomfortable when dealing with people and often saying or doing the wrong thing
She had grown from a gauche teenager to a self-assured young woman.
It was gauche to invite them just two days before the party.

Genre - a particular type or style of literature, art, film or music that you can recognize because of its
special features
Crime fiction is a genre which seems likely to stay with us for many years.
The band is not representative of any particular musical genre.

Genteel - quiet and polite, often in an exaggerated way; from, or pretending to be from, a high social
class
The mansion had an atmosphere of genteel elegance and decay.
The game seemed to be a more genteel version of American football.

Gesticulate - to move your hands and arms about in order to attract attention or make somebody
understand what you are saying
There was a man outside the window gesticulating wildly.
He was gesticulating to his players from the sidelines.

Glut - a situation in which there is more of something than is needed or can be used
The fall in demand for coffee could cause a glut in the market.
This country is glutted with tasty, inexpensive high-calorie foods.

Grandiloquent - using long or complicated words in order to impress people

Her speech was full of grandiloquent language, but it contained no new ideas.
We are told in grandiloquent terms that we have got command of the sea.

Grandiose - larger and containing more detail than necessary, or intended to seem important or great
The grandiose scheme for a journey across the desert came to nothing.
He could no longer live the grandiose lifestyle to which he had become accustomed.

Gratuitous - done without any good reason or purpose and often having harmful effects
It was a completely gratuitous insult which the singer’s agent was forced to apologize for.
There were too many gratuitous personal insults throughout the debate.
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Gravity - serious behaviour, speech or appearance
They were asked to behave with the gravity that was appropriate in a court of law.
I don't think you realise the gravity of the situation.

Gregarious - liking to be with other people

She’s very outgoing and gregarious.
Hugh was a popular and gregarious man.

Guile - the use of clever but dishonest behaviour in order to trick people
George was a man completely lacking in guile.
The president will need to use all her political guile to stay in power.

Hackneyed - used too often and therefore boring

The plot of the film is just a hackneyed boy-meets-girl scenario.
Every time my internet goes down, the cable company gives me a hackneyed explanation.

Hapless - unlucky and usually unhappy

Often the hapless victims have no warning that the flood is on its way.
Many children are hapless victims of this war.

Harbinger - a sign that shows that something is going to happen soon, often something bad
Everyone knows the groundhog is the harbinger of a change in seasons.
The sight of a full moon is a harbinger of a spooky night.

Hedonism - the belief that pleasure is the most important thing in life
The idea of carnalism is often associated with hedonism.
Since my mother believes in hedonism, she often will go to resorts and spas because they bring her
pleasure.

Hegemony - the position of being the strongest and

most powerful and therefore able to control others
The three nations competed for regional hegemony.
The president of the company has hegemony over his employees.

Heresy - a belief or an opinion that is against the principles of a particular religion; the fact of
holding such beliefs
He was burned at the stake for heresy in the 15th century.
She committed the heresy of playing a Lady Gaga song on a classical music station.

Hermetic - tightly closed so that no air can escape or enter

He entered the hermetic world of the monastery at a young age.
It is necessary to wet the skin in order that it may work properly and form a hermetic valve.

Heyday - the most successful or popular period of someone or something

In its heyday, Pittsburgh was a center of the steel and coal industries.
The band’s heyday was in the 1980s, when they released several hit albums.

Hiatus - a break in activity when nothing happens

After a five-month hiatus, the talks resumed.
Peace talks resumed this week after a five-month hiatus.

Hierarchy - a system in which people or things are arranged according to their importance
There was a clear hierarchy of power in the company.
32
Some monkeys have a very complex social hierarchy.

Histrionic - showing a lot of emotion in order to persuade others or attract attention

She put on a histrionic display of grief at the funeral.
Children are all naturally histrionic and will be amused in doing this.

Homily - a speech or piece of writing giving advice on the correct way to behave, etc.
He launched into a homily on family relationships.
She delivered a homily on the virtues of family life.

Homogeneous - consisting of parts or people that are similar to each other or are of the same type
The population of the village has remained remarkably homogeneous.
Old people are not a homogeneous group, as some people seem to think.

Husbandry - the careful use of money, food, supplies, etc.

He gave a lecture on crop and animal husbandry.
Animal-husbandry is an important aspect of agriculture.

Hyperbole - a way of speaking or writing that makes something sound better, more exciting, more
dangerous, etc. than it really is
The film is being promoted with all the usual hyperbole.
Although he’s not given to hyperbole, Ron says we are light-years ahead of our time.

Hypothetical - based on situations or ideas that are possible and imagined rather than real and true
I wasn't asking about anybody in particular—it was a purely hypothetical question.
He dismissed the questions as purely hypothetical.

Iconoclast - a person who strongly opposes generally accepted beliefs and traditions
Her reputation as an iconoclast preceded her.
The iconoclast's art was often controversial.

Ideology - a set of beliefs or principles, especially one on which a political system, party,
or organization is based
The people are caught between two opposing ideologies.
These businesses have a core ideology of which profit is but one ideal.

Idiosyncrasy - a person’s particular way of behaving, thinking, etc., especially when it is unusual; an
unusual feature
One of her many idiosyncrasies is always smelling a book before opening it.
We are all individuals, unique beings with our own special qualities and idiosyncrasies.

Idyllic - peaceful and beautiful; perfect, without problems

The island was an idyllic vacation spot before the tourists came and filled the area with waste.
The cottage sounds idyllic.

Ignominy - public shame and loss of honour

The incumbent party experienced the ignominy of total defeat in the last election.
They suffered the ignominy of defeat.

Illicit - not allowed by the law

I dumped my boyfriend because of his illicit drug habit.
The greedy company president did not hesitate to engage in illicit practices to increase the size of his
annual bonus.
33
Immigrate - to come to live in a different country
He immigrated with his parents in 1895 and grew up on Long Island.
His family immigrated to Canada shortly after the war started, and has lived here ever since.

Imminent - coming or likely to happen very soon

The system is in imminent danger of collapse.
He gave a dire warning that an earthquake was imminent.

Immutable - that cannot be changed; that will never change

Some people regard grammar as an immutable set of rules.
The laws of physics are assumed to be immutable.

Impartial - not supporting one person or group more than another

The jury has to give an impartial verdict after listening to all of the evidence.
Public broadcasting is supposed to be strictly impartial during an election campaign.

Impeccable - without mistakes or faults

Our staff take pride in providing impeccable service
She came to the company with impeccable credentials.

Imperial - belonging or relating to an empire or the person or country that rules it

The building is a reminder of the country's imperial past.
The glittering ceremony conjured up images of Russia's imperial past.

Impervious - not affected or influenced by something

He is impervious to criticism and rational argument.
She was impervious to his charms.

Impetuous - acting or done quickly and without thinking carefully about the results
Then, impetuous as I was, I bought a new car before I even got a job.
The governor may now be regretting her impetuous promise to reduce unemployment by half.

Implement - to make something that has been officially decided start to happen or be used
The changes to the national health system will be implemented next year.
The decision was hard to implement.

Impotent - not having the power or ability to change or improve a situation

They were virtually impotent against the power of the large companies.
You feel so impotent when your child is ill and you cannot help them.

Impugn - to cause people to doubt or not trust someone’s character, honesty, or ability
He could no longer work as a doctor because his reputation had been impugned.
There were no real grounds for impugning the decision.

Inane - extremely silly or with no real meaning or importance

I wish you’d stop making these inane remarks!
There are too many inane quiz shows on television these days.

Inaugurate - to introduce a new public official or leader at a special ceremony

He will be inaugurated (as) President in January.
The moon landing inaugurated a new era in space exploration.

Incandescent - showing extreme anger or happiness

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He was incandescent with rage.
The mountain's snow-white peak was incandescent against the blue sky.

Incantation - words that are believed to have a magical effect when spoken or sung
Around the fire, tribal elders chanted incantations.
She recited an incantation designed to protect the planet.

Incense - a substance that produces a pleasant smell when you burn it, used particularly in religious
ceremonies
The editor said a lot of readers would be incensed by my article on class.
Incense burned in a corner of the room.

Incessant - never stopping, especially in an annoying or unpleasant way

She raised her voice above the incessant beat of the music.
There was the incessant traffic noise in narrow streets.

Incipient - just beginning or just coming into existence

Since the rumor is incipient, we can stop it by telling the truth immediately.
He has a black mustache and an incipient potbelly.

Incisive - expressing an idea or opinion in a clear and direct way that shows good understanding of
what is important
He had a clear, incisive mind.
The guide’s incisive comments give us a new perspective on the painting.

Incongruous - strange, and not suitable in a particular situation

It seems incongruous to have a woman as the editor of a men's magazine.
The two of them made an incongruous couple.

Incorrigible - having bad habits that cannot be changed or improved

I'm an incorrigible optimist.
She thought the children were incorrigible brats.

Increment - one of a series of amounts that increase a total

She was in the habit of saving in small increments each week.
The substance was heated in small temperature increments.

Indifferent - having or showing no interest in somebody/something

Most staff were indifferent about the plans.
The government cannot afford to be indifferent to public opinion.

Indigenous - coming from a particular place and having lived there for a long time before other
people came there; relating to, belonging to or developed by these people
The indigenous population has long suffered exclusion and profound injustice.
Several indigenous African languages are used in the country.

Indigent - very poor

We are a non-profit agency that provides legal services to indigent clients.
The common law made children responsible for maintaining aged and indigent parents.

Indignant - feeling or showing anger and surprise because you think that you have been treated
unfairly
She wrote an indignant letter to the paper complaining about the council's action.
35
He became very indignant when it was suggested he had made a mistake.

Indolent - showing no real interest or effort

I was an indolent creature who could not imagine action.
The natives were allowed to live the indolent life of the tropics.

Indulgent - allowing someone to have or do what they want, especially when this is not good for
them
He had been a strict father but was indulgent to his grandchildren.
Mothers tend to be less indulgent towards daughters.

Ineffable - too great or beautiful to describe in words

The model’s beauty is ineffable and has everyone tongue-tied.
I am caught up in its ineffable splendour.

Inept - not skilled or effective

He made some particularly inept remarks.
He was always pretty inept at sports.

Inert - not moving or not able to move

The president has to operate within an inert political system.
The inert figure of a man could be seen lying in the front of the car.

Inexorable - continuing without any possibility of being stopped

Aging is an inexorable process.
This is where the inexorable logic of the theory breaks down.

Infamous - well known for being bad or evil

The list included the infamous George Drake, a double murderer.
He's infamous for his bigoted sense of humour.

Infatuated - having a strong but unreasonable feeling of love or attraction for someone or something
He’s behaving like an infatuated teenager.
She was infatuated with her boss.

Infer - to reach an opinion or decide that something is true on the basis of information that is
available
It is reasonable to infer that the government knew about these deals.
It is difficult to infer anything from such evidence.

Infinitesimal - extremely small

Even in infinitesimal amounts, this poison can kill you.
The risk of getting AIDS from a health-care worker is infinitesimal.

Ingenuous - honest, innocent and willing to trust people

You're too ingenuous.
It is ingenuous to suppose that money did not play a part in his decision.

Inherent - existing as a natural or basic part of something

I have an inherent distrust of lawyers.
The drug has certain inherent side effects.

36
Injunction - an official order given by a law court, usually to stop someone from doing something
She took out an injunction to prevent the press from publishing the information.
The court has issued an injunction to prevent distribution of the book.

Innate - that you have when you are born

Her dance expresses the innate beauty of the human spirit.
Many children seem to have an innate sense of justice.

Innocuous - completely harmless

Some mushrooms look innocuous but are in fact poisonous.
It seemed a perfectly innocuous remark.

Inordinate - far more than is usual or expected

They spent an inordinate amount of time and money on the production.
The strike has led to inordinate delays.

Insatiable - always wanting more of something; not able to be satisfied

There seems to be an insatiable demand for more powerful computers.
Like so many politicians, he had an insatiable appetite for power.

Insidious - spreading gradually or without being noticed, but causing serious harm
Cancer is an insidious disease.
The insidious effects of smoking can lead to serious health problems.

Insinuate - to suggest indirectly that something unpleasant is true

She insinuated (that) I’m getting fat.
The article insinuated that he was appointed because of family connections.

Insipid - not having a strong taste or character, or having no interest or energy

The soup lacks the right seasoning and tastes insipid.
Instead of playing an insipid game of cat and mouse, you'll learn about the person you're hiring.

Insolent - rude and not showing respect

The captain put the insolent soldier on report.
The maid's answer was even more insolent than before.

Instigate - to make something start or happen, usually something official

The government will instigate new measures to combat terrorism.
We will instigate a comprehensive review of defence policy.

Insular - interested only in your own country or group and not willing to accept different
or foreign ideas
The British are often accused of being insular.
Some insular antiquaries have found a different solution of the ancient proverb.

Insurgent - someone who is fighting against the government in their own country
All approaches to the capital are now under the control of the insurgents.
The insurgent leader was captured and brought to justice.

Integral - necessary and important as a part of a whole

He's an integral part of the team and we can't do without him.
The artist believes that music is an integral part of her identity.

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Integrate - to combine two or more things so that they work together; to combine with something
else in this way
These programs can be integrated with your existing software.
He proposes to integrate our reserve forces more closely with the regular forces.

Intractable - very difficult or impossible to control, manage, or solve

We are facing an intractable problem.
There was no pleasing this intractable man.

Intransigent - refusing to change your opinions or behaviour

Unions claim that the management continues to maintain an intransigent position.
He was a man of strong views and intransigent positions.

Intrinsic - being an extremely important and basic characteristic of a person or thing

Maths is an intrinsic part of the school curriculum.
Each human being has intrinsic dignity and worth.

Introspective - tending to think a lot about your own thoughts, feelings, etc
She is famous for her introspective songs about failed relationships.
There were a lot of family problems and Jim became increasingly introspective.

Inundate - to give someone so much work or so many things that they cannot deal with it all
We have been inundated with requests for help.
Fans inundated the radio station with calls.

Invective - rude language and unpleasant remarks that somebody shouts when they are very angry
The gesture infuriated him and he let out a stream of invective.
The invective used in the debate was offensive to some.

Inveterate - done as a habit and not likely to change

He was an inveterate traveller.
I never trust anything he says - the man's an inveterate liar.

Irascible - becoming angry very easily

She's becoming more and more irascible as she grows older.
Because Charles is very irascible, you have to be mindful of what you say to him.

Ironic - showing that you really mean the opposite of what you are saying
He was greeted with ironic cheers from opposition MPs.
She sent him a faintly ironic sideways glance.

Irrevocable - impossible to change

The court’s ruling is irrevocable.
The irrevocable loan facility agreed today has a term of 15 years.

Itinerant - travelling from one place to another, usually to work for a short period
Many fruitpickers were itinerant, following the seasons from farm to farm.
He was the son of an itinerant oil field worker.

Judicious - careful and sensible; showing good judgement

It is curable with judicious use of antibiotics.
We should make judicious use of the resources available to us.

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Juxtapose - to put things or people next to each other, esp. in order to compare them
The exhibition juxtaposes architectural drawings with photographs of the buildings as constructed.
In the exhibition, abstract paintings are juxtaposed with shocking photographs.

Kinetic - of or produced by movement

In the comic book, the superhero’s kinetic power allows him to move faster than the speed of light.
Kinetic learners are students who learn better when they are allowed to be active.

Labyrinth - a complicated series of paths, which it is difficult to find your way through
Finally, through a labyrinth of corridors she found his office.
We lost our way in the labyrinth of streets.

Laconic - using only a few words to say something

She had a laconic wit.
His laconic comment was, ‘Too bad!’

Lament - to express sadness and feeling sorry about something

He lamented his students’ lack of interest in the classics.
In the poem he laments the destruction of the countryside.

Lampoon - to criticize somebody/something publicly in a humorous way that makes them/it look
silly
The magazine is famed for its merciless political lampoons.
During his two terms as president, he was often lampooned for his love of junk food.

Languish - to be forced to stay somewhere or suffer something unpleasant for a long time
She continues to languish in a foreign prison.
Members of Congress have introduced plans, but those have languished.

Largesse - willingness to give money, or money given to poor people by rich people
She is not noted for her largesse.
The medical foundation will be the main beneficiary of the millionaire's largesse.

Latent - present, but not yet active, developed, or obvious

These children have a huge reserve of latent talent.
Latent ethnic tensions exploded into the open yesterday.

Laud - to praise somebody/something

He was lauded for his courage.
The president lauded the rise of market economies around the world.

Legacy - money or property that you receive from someone after they die
An elderly cousin had left her a small legacy.
The Greeks have a rich legacy of literature.

Lethargy - the state of not having any energy or enthusiasm for doing things
They will need to shake off their lethargy if they want to win the game.
The report criticizes the lethargy shown by employers when it comes to job creation.

Levity - humour or lack of seriousness, especially during a serious occasion

The joke provided a moment of levity in an otherwise dreary meeting.
Let's inject some levity into this dull meeting.

39
Libel - a piece of writing that contains bad and false things about a person
He was arrested and held briefly on charges of libelling the president.
He sued the newspaper for libel.

Litigate - to take a claim or disagreement to court

It is not necessarily right to litigate in every dispute.
The case is still being litigated.

Loquacious - having the habit of talking a lot

He is particularly loquacious on the topic of politics.
He was loquacious at times, at other times morose.

Lucid - clearly expressed; easy to understand

In a rare lucid moment, she called me by my name.
The author’s prose is lucid and entertaining.

Lugubrious - sad and serious

The mysterious postman is the perfect example of a lugubrious character.
Their sound is lugubrious in the extreme.

Luminous - producing or reflecting bright light, especially in the dark

The make-up refects light and gives the skin a luminous glow.
I hated the luminous yellow colour of the plastic.

Machination - a secret and complicated plan

I don’t want to get involved in all his machinations.
Saddam's machinations make that precarious situation even more volatile.

Magnanimous - very kind and generous towards an enemy or someone you have defeated
The team's manager was magnanimous in victory, and praised the losing team.
The regime had to decide whether to be magnanimous in victory.

Magnate - a person who is very rich and successful in business or industry

Jacqueline Kennedy married the Greek shipping magnate, Aristotle Onassis.
The tech magnate invested heavily in renewable energy startups.

Malaise - a general feeling of being ill, unhappy or not satisfied, or that something is wrong in
society, without being able to explain or identify what is wrong
The latest crime figures are merely symptomatic of a wider malaise in society.
We were discussing the roots of the current economic malaise.

Malfeasance - an example of dishonest and illegal behaviour, especially by a person in authority

These laws were put in place to discourage malfeasance by public officials.
The memo set strict ground rules for dealing with corporate malfeasance.

Malignant - (of a tumour or disease) that cannot be controlled and is likely to cause death
The process by which malignant cancer cells multiply isn't fully understood.
He developed a malignant hatred for the land of his birth.

Malinger - to pretend to be ill in order to avoid having to work

They weren't sure if she was really ill, or just malingering.
As private investigators, we can help businesses identify dishonest and malingering employees.

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Malleable - that can be hit or pressed into different shapes easily without breaking or cracking
Lead and tin are malleable metals.
He had an actor's typically malleable features.

Mandate - the authority given to an elected group of people, such as a government,

to perform an action or govern a country
The party was elected with a mandate to reduce the size of government.
Troops moved into the country to restore order under a UN mandate.

Manifest - to show something clearly, especially a feeling, an attitude or a quality

The workers chose to manifest their dissatisfaction in a series of strikes.
Social tensions were manifested in the recent political crisis.

Manifesto - a written statement in which a group of people explain their beliefs and aims, especially
one published by a political party to say what they will do if they win an election
In their election manifesto, Liberal Democrats proposed increasing taxes to pay for improvements in
education.
Labour won the election on this manifesto.

Marshal - to bring together or organize people or things in order to achieve a particular aim
They had marshaled an armada of 1,000 boats to help clear up the oil.
It is unlikely that the rebels will be able to marshal as much firepower as the government troops.

Martial - connected with fighting or war

Since my father brings his job as a colonel home, he runs our family in a martial way by assigning
everyone a rank and duties.
The military has a strict martial code of conduct.

Martyr - a person who is killed because of their religious or political beliefs

Putting him to death would only make him a martyr.
The soldier became a martyr when he threw himself on the live grenade to save his squad.

Matriculate - to be formally admitted to study at a university or college

I had to matriculate if I wanted to do a degree.
She matriculated in 1995.

Maudlin - talking in a silly, emotional way, often feeling sorry for yourself
He gets very maudlin after a few drinks.
Upon being dumped by his girlfriend, Jason started to act in a maudlin behavior that annoyed
everyone.

Maverick - thinking and acting in an independent way, often behaving differently from
the expected or usual way
She is more maverick while I am slightly more conventional.
She has established a reputation as a maverick.

Maxim - a short statement of a general truth, principle, or rule for behaviour

There is some truth in the old maxim, ‘You get what you pay for.’
If you follow a few simple maxims, your business should be a success.

Mediate - to talk to two separate people or groups involved in a disagreement to try to help them
to agree or find a solution to their problems
Negotiators were called in to mediate between the two sides.
41
The two envoys have succeeded in mediating an end to the war.

Mellifluous - having a pleasant and flowing sound

The sound of the rain was mellifluous and calming.
The poet's mellifluous words flowed like honey.

Mendacious - not telling the truth

The politician’s mendacious statements were quickly exposed by the media.
Some of these statements are misleading and some are downright mendacious.

Mendicant - living by asking people for money and food

She abandoned her job and her career, and lived as a homeless mendicant on the streets of
Philadelphia.
Male members of the mendicant orders also acted as nurses in the Middle Ages.
Mentor - an experienced person who advises and helps somebody with less experience over a period
of time
She was a friend and mentor to many young actors.
His former coach had remained his mentor throughout his career.

Mercenary - interested only in the money that can be obtained from a situation
He had some mercenary scheme to marry a wealthy widow.
Six years ago, he became a mercenary for a private military corporation.

Mercurial - often changing or reacting in a way that is unexpected

Advertising is a mercurial business.
She was entertaining but unpredictable, with mercurial mood swings.

Metamorphosis - a process in which somebody/something changes completely into something

different
She had undergone an amazing metamorphosis from awkward schoolgirl to beautiful woman.
Under the new editor, the magazine has undergone a metamorphosis.

Microcosm - a small place, society, or situation that has the same characteristics as something
much larger
The audience was selected to create a microcosm of American society.
The family is a microcosm of society.

Milieu - the social environment that you live or work in

It is a study of the social and cultural milieu in which Michelangelo lived and worked.
The findings of the report refer to a particular social and cultural milieu.

Minuscule - extremely small

All she gave him to eat was two minuscule pieces of toast.
Salaries are a minuscule part of the budget.

Misanthropic - hating and avoiding other people

The misanthropic artist preferred to work alone in his studio.
His misanthropic attitude made it difficult for him to make friends.

Mitigate - to make something less harmful, unpleasant, or bad

Soil erosion was mitigated by the planting of trees.
It is unclear how to mitigate the effects of tourism on the island.

42
Mollify - to make someone less angry or upset
I tried to mollify her by giving her flowers.
She was not mollified by his apology.

Monolithic - very large, united, and difficult to change

Unfortunately there was no way to make the monolithic project smaller.
Since the changes are not monolithic, it should only take Sarah a day or two to remodel the kitchen.

Moribund - not active or successful

The figures show a moribund remortgage market.
The banks are moribund with capital controls still in place to avoid disaster.

Morose - unhappy, in a bad mood and not talking very much

Michael became morose and withdrawn after he lost his job.
She seems a bit morose today.

Mortify - to make someone very embarrassed

The thought of the incident still mortified her.
I was mortified when I realized I had forgotten our lunch date.

Mundane - very ordinary and therefore not interesting

I lead a pretty mundane existence.
Mundane matters such as paying bills and shopping for food do not interest her.

Munificent - very generous with money

A former student has donated a munificent sum of money to the college.
He enjoys being munificent on a princely scale.

Myopia - a condition in which someone cannot clearly see things that are far away
Research has suggested that children who play sport are less susceptible to myopia.
People's myopia often blinded them from seeing the bigger picture.

Myriad - extremely large in number

They offered no solution for all our myriad problems.
There’s a myriad of insects on the island.

Narcissism - the habit of admiring yourself too much, especially your appearance
The performance was dominated by the preening narcissism of the group's lead singer.
Her book presents him as a case study in narcissism.

Nebulous - unclear and lacking form; vague

She has a few nebulous ideas about what she might want to do in the future, but nothing definite.
After the car accident, his memories were quite nebulous.

Nefarious - criminal; extremely bad

The company's CEO seems to have been involved in some nefarious practices/activities.
They can hack your account and use the information for nefarious purposes.

Neologism - a new word or expression or a new meaning of a word

The neologism became so popular it was added to most dictionaries.
The ultra-niche neologism both invites and repels my understanding.

43
Nepotism - giving unfair advantages to your own family if you are in a position of power, especially
by giving them jobs
He was guilty of nepotism and corruption.
He resigned amid allegations of nepotism and petty corruption.

Nihilism - the belief that life has no meaning or purpose and that religious and moral principles have
no value
Adopting nihilism can be a way to embrace the uncertainty and unpredictability of life.
It may not be easy, but I will stick to nihilism and embrace the meaninglessness of life.

Nominal - being something in name only, and not in reality

She's the nominal head of our college - the real work is done by her deputy.
He remained in nominal control of the business for another ten years.

Nostalgia - a sad feeling mixed with pleasure when you think of happy times in the past
She is filled with nostalgia for her own college days.
Hearing her voice again filled him with nostalgia.

Notorious - famous for something bad

The canal is notorious for its pollution.
The country is notorious for its appalling prison conditions.

Novel - new and original, not like anything seen before

Keeping a sheep in the garden is a novel way of keeping the grass short!
A novel virus in swine is closely related to the human hepatitis E virus.

Noxious - poisonous or harmful

They died from inhaling noxious fumes.
Besides being annoying, the mosquito is a noxious insect that can carry and transmit a number of
potentially fatal diseases.

Nuance - a very slight difference in meaning, sound, colour or somebody’s feelings that is not
usually very obvious
The painter has managed to capture every nuance of the woman's expression.
Spectators may not understand all the nuances of the game.

Obdurate - refusing to change your mind or your actions in any way

The president remains obdurate on immigration.
Some members of the committee are likely to prove obdurate on this matter.

Obfuscate - to make something less clear and harder to understand, especially intentionally
She was criticized for using arguments that obfuscated the main issue.
Companies deliberately obfuscate figures in complicated annual reports.

Oblique - not expressed or done in a direct way

She made several oblique references to the current financial situation.
Through the window came the last few oblique rays of evening sunshine.

Oblivion - a state in which you are not aware of what is happening around you, usually because you
are unconscious or asleep
He was another minor poet who was consigned to oblivion.
Hundreds of homes were bombed into oblivion during the first weeks of the war.

44
Obscure - not well known
He was born around 1650 but his origins remain obscure.
The sun was obscured by clouds.

Obsequious - trying too hard to please somebody, especially somebody who is important
She is embarrassingly obsequious to anyone in authority.
The waiters came hurrying forward with obsequious smiles on their faces.

Obtuse - slow or unwilling to understand something

He was either completely ignorant or being willfully obtuse.
She was the most obtuse person I’d ever met.

Officious - too ready to tell people what to do or to use the power you have to give orders
He's an officious little man and widely disliked in the company.
The officious neighbor constantly interfered in our family matters, offering unsolicited advice on
how to raise our children.

Onerous - difficult to do or needing a lot of effort

She found the duties of motherhood onerous.
The tax bill was aimed at lifting the onerous tax burden from the backs of the middle class.

Opaque - not clear enough to see through or allow light through

As the lens becomes more opaque, the patient notices a reduction in vision.
The windows were nearly opaque with grime.

Opulent - expensive and luxurious

He lived an opulent lifestyle that included sports cars and enormous homes.
The museum displayed opulent paintings and sculptures from the Renaissance era.

Orthodox - considered traditional, normal, and acceptable by most people

We would prefer a more orthodox approach/solution to the problem.
At that time the orthodox view was that secondary education should be selective.

Ostensible - appearing or claiming to be one thing when it is really something else

Their ostensible goal was to clean up government corruption, but their real aim was to unseat the
government.
The ostensible reason for his absence was illness.

Ostentatious - showing your wealth or status in a way that is intended to impress people
They criticized the ostentatious lifestyle of their leaders.
His ostentatious display of wealth made him the talk of the town.

Pacify - to make somebody who is angry or upset become calm and quiet
He pacified his crying child with a bottle.
The speech was designed to pacify the irate crowd.

Painstaking - extremely careful and correct, and involving a lot of effort

He was described by his colleagues as a painstaking journalist.
The event had been planned with painstaking attention to detail.

Palliate - to reduce the bad effects of something

They tried to palliate the hardship of their lives.
The drugs palliate pain but have no effect on inflammation.
45
Palpable - that is easily noticed by the mind or the senses
The tension in the room was almost palpable.
His statement is palpable nonsense.

Paltry - too small to be considered as important or useful

This account offers a paltry 1 per cent return on your investment.
She made some paltry excuse and left.

Panacea - something that will solve all the problems of a particular situation
There is no single panacea for the problem of unemployment.
Technology is not a panacea for all our problems.

Paradigm - a model of something, or a very clear and typical example of something

The war was a paradigm of the destructive side of human nature.
His ruthless accumulation of wealth stands as a paradigm of greed in the business world.

Paradox - a person, thing or situation that has two opposite features and therefore seems strange
It's a curious paradox that drinking a lot of water can often make you feel thirsty.
The author tackles one of the deepest paradoxes of life.

Parochial - only interested in small issues that happen in your local area and not interested in more
important things
They need to be better informed and less parochial in their thinking.
The US coverage of the summit has been extremely parochial.

Parody - something that is such a bad or an unfair example of something that it seems silly
The trial was a parody of justice.
His personality made him an easy subject for parody.

Parsimonious - extremely unwilling to spend money

She's too parsimonious to heat the house properly.
I had to be a little parsimonious with the fresh thyme.

Partisan - showing too much support for one person, group or idea, especially without considering it
carefully
Most newspapers are politically partisan.
The speakers were encouraged by a large partisan crowd.

Patent - the official legal right to make or sell an invention for a particular number of years
The device was protected by patent.
Edison took out a patent on the light bulb.

Paternal - behaving or feeling as a father does toward his child

The coach feels very paternal towards his team.
Her weakness made him feel very paternal towards her.

Pathology - the scientific study of disease

He came to the United States to study pathology in 1983.
There is a lack of knowledge about the underlying pathology of the disease.

Patriarch - a powerful man in a family

In my house, my father is the patriarch of the family.
James became the patriarch of his household after his father died.
46
Patrician - a person of high social rank
She is descended from a long line of patricians.
At least he possessed good manners, as a true patrician should.

Patronize - to treat somebody in a way that seems friendly, but which shows that you think that they
are not very intelligent, experienced, etc
Some television programme tend to patronize children.
Stop patronizing me - I understand the play as well as you do.

Paucity - the fact that there is too little of something

There is a paucity of information on the ingredients of many cosmetics.
The authorities had to cope with the paucity of information about the effects of the storm.

Peccadillo - a small unimportant thing that somebody does wrong

The writer confessed to a few sexual peccadilloes.
He dismissed what had happened as a mere peccadillo.

Pedantic - too worried about small details or rules

She can be a bit pedantic when it comes to organizing her workspace.
My English teacher is so pedantic about grammar that she corrects even the tiniest mistakes.

Pedestrian - a person walking in the street and not travelling in a vehicle

A few pedestrians sheltered from the rain in doorways.
The death rate for pedestrians hit by cars is unacceptably high.

Pejorative - expressing disapproval, or suggesting that something is not good or is of no importance

Make sure students realize that "fat" is a pejorative word.
I'm using the word ‘academic’ here in a pejorative sense.

Penchant - a liking for or a habit of doing something, esp. something that other people might not like
Her penchant for disappearing for days at a time worries her family.
She has a penchant for champagne.

Pensive - thinking deeply about something, especially because you are sad or worried
She sat with a pensive expression on her face.
James was more pensive than usual.

Peremptory - expecting to be obeyed immediately and without any questions

The letter was peremptory in tone.
In his usual peremptory manner, he ordered us all into the conference room.

Perennial - lasting a very long time, or happening repeatedly or all the time
We face the perennial problem of not having enough money.
Colonialism in different forms is a perennial theme of history.

Perfidy - unfair treatment of somebody who trusts you

In Act 2 he learns of Giovanni’s perfidy and swears revenge.
He was punished for his perfidy against the company.

Perfunctory - done quickly, without taking care or interest

She asked a few perfunctory questions about my family and then ended the conversation.
They only made a perfunctory effort.

47
Peripatetic - going from place to place, for example in order to work
More funding needs to be given to the peripatetic outreach services.
She was a peripatetic traveler, always moving from one place to another.

Periphery - the outer edge of an area

Houses have been built on the periphery of the factory site.
The ring road runs around the periphery of the city centre.

Perjury - the crime of telling a lie in court after you have sworn to tell the truth
The defence witnesses were found guilty of perjury.
She was sentenced to two years in jail for committing perjury.

Permeate - to spread through something and be present in every part of it

Dissatisfaction with the government seems to have permeated every section of society.
The air was permeated with the odour of burning rubber.

Pernicious - having a very harmful effect on somebody/something, especially in a way that is not
easily noticed
The cuts in government funding have had a pernicious effect on local health services.
The book focuses on the pernicious effects of slavery.

Perquisite - something you receive as well as your wages for doing a particular job
The perquisites of this job include health insurance and a performance bonus.
Use of the company's jet is a perquisite of the job.

Pertinent - appropriate to a particular situation

Chapter One is pertinent to the post-war period.
Please keep your comments pertinent to the topic under discussion.

Perturb - to make somebody worried or anxious

News of the arrest perturbed her greatly.
Her sudden appearance did not seem to perturb him in the least.

Peruse - to read something, especially in a careful way

A copy of the report is available for you to peruse at your leisure.
He opened a newspaper and began to peruse the personal ads.

Pervade - to spread through and be easy to notice in every part of something

The film movie is a reflection of the violence that pervades our culture.
The entire house was pervaded by a sour smell.

Petulant - easily annoyed and complaining in a rude way like a child

He plays the part of a petulant young man in the film.
Her tone of voice became abrupt and petulant.

Philanthropy - the activity of helping the poor, especially by giving them money
Minnesota has long been considered a beacon of philanthropy.
Hospitals were built as a result of private philanthropy and government intervention.

Philistine - a person who does not like or understand art, literature, music, etc
In artistic matters he’s a complete philistine.
She dismissed critics of her work as philistines.

48
Pious - having or showing a deep respect for God and religion
She is a pious follower of the faith, never missing her prayers.
They are a pious family who regularly participates in religious events.

Pivotal - important because other things depend on it

Accountancy, law and economics are pivotal to a successful career in any financial services area.
She played a pivotal role in the civil rights movement.

Placate - to stop someone from feeling angry

She saw the anger in his eyes and stepped forward with a placating smile.
The concessions did little to placate the students.

Plaintive - used to describe something that sounds slightly sad

I love the plaintive sound of the bagpipes.
The plaintive funeral hymn brought tears to my eyes.

Platitude - a statement that has been repeated so often that it is meaningless

The politician ended his speech with a platitude about every man’s right to vote.
Our coach used every platitude she could think of to make us feel better after our big loss.

Plebeian - connected with ordinary people or people of the lower social classes
Such recreational activities were an essential part of plebeian culture.
He retained a plebeian taste in food and drink.

Plethora - an amount that is greater than is needed or can be used

The report contained a plethora of detail.
The plethora of regulations is both contradictory and confusing.

Poignant - causing or having a very sharp feeling of sadness

The photograph awakens poignant memories of happier days.
The monument is a poignant reminder of those who died in the war.

Polarize - to separate or make people separate into two groups with completely opposite opinions
Two developments have polarized the debate.
The issue has polarized public opinion.

Polemic - a speech or a piece of writing that argues very strongly for or against something/somebody
She has published a fierce anti-war polemic.
Her speech was memorable for its polemic rather than its substance.

Ponderous - slow and awkward because of being very heavy or large

He had a slow and ponderous manner.
She watched the cow's ponderous progress.

Portent - a sign that something bad is likely to happen in the future

We shall try to reach an agreement but the portents are not good.
For the economy, the portents are extremely gloomy.

Postulate - an idea that is suggested or accepted as a basic principle before a further idea is formed or
developed from it
Astronomers postulate that the comet will reappear in 4000 years.
Some linguists have postulated a change in English pronunciation from around 1600.

49
Pragmatic - solving problems in a practical and sensible way rather than by having fixed ideas or
theories
In business, the pragmatic approach to problems is often more successful than an idealistic one.
We must be ruthlessly pragmatic and intensely focused.

Precedent - an official action or decision that has happened in the past and that is seen as an example
or a rule to be followed in a similar situation later
The judgment on pension rights has established/set a precedent.
This law sets a very dangerous precedent for all businesses.

Precept - a rule about how to behave or what to think

This policy goes against common precepts of decency.
Lawyers are supposed to follow a strict precept of ethics.

Precipitate - to make something happen suddenly or sooner than expected

His resignation precipitated a leadership crisis.
An invasion would certainly precipitate a political crisis.

Precipitous - very steep, high and often dangerous

Over the past 18 months, there has been a precipitous fall in car sales.
The company has seen a precipitous decline in advertising revenue.

Preclude - to prevent something or make it impossible, or prevent someone from doing something
His contract precludes him from discussing his work with anyone outside the company.
My lack of interest in the subject precluded me from gaining much enjoyment out of it.

Precursor - something that comes before another and may lead to it or influence its development
Sulphur dioxide is the main precursor of acid rain.
Opponents fear this would be a precursor to development of the entire canyon

Predilection - a strong liking or preference

Ever since she was a child, she has had a predilection for spicy food.
Her predilection for art led her to pursue a career as a painter.

Preeminent - more important or powerful than all others

He was the preeminent scientist of his day.
Dickens was pre-eminent among English writers of his day.

Preempt - to prevent something from happening by taking action to stop it

State laws preempted local governments from restricting newspaper displays.
A good training course will pre-empt many problems.

Premise - an idea or theory on which a statement or action is based

His reasoning is based on the premise that all people are equally capable of good and evil.
He premised his argument on several incorrect assumptions.

Prerogative - a right or advantage belonging to a particular person or group because of their

importance or social position
In many countries education is still the prerogative of the rich.
Making such decisions is not the sole prerogative of managers.

Prevail - to exist or be very common at a particular time or in a particular place

Those beliefs still prevail among certain social groups.
50
This attitude still prevails among the middle classes.

Pristine - fresh and clean, as if new

The car seemed to be in pristine condition.
Their uniforms have to be kept pristine at all times

Prodigal - too willing to spend money or waste time, energy or materials

The prodigal landlord spends the money as fast as he receives it.
There have been rumours that he has been prodigal with company funds.

Prodigious - very large or powerful and causing surprise; impressive

She wrote a truly prodigious number of novels.
He had a prodigious appetite for both women and drink.

Prodigy - a young person whose intelligence or skill is unusually good for their age
He read in the paper about a mathematical prodigy who was attending university at the age of twelve.
Mozart was an infant prodigy, composing music at the age of four.

Profane - showing no respect for a god or a religion, often through language

His letter is too profane to print, but it is very funny, too.
The comedian’s routine was filled with profane language that shocked the audience.

Profess - to claim that something is true or correct, especially when it is not

She continues to profess her innocence.
I don't profess to be an expert in this subject.

Proficient - skilled and experienced

She's proficient in two languages.
With practice, you should become proficient within six months.

Profligate - using money, time, materials, etc. in a careless way

The profligate use of antibiotics has led to the evolution of resistant bacteria.
The opposition criticized the government’s profligate spending plans.

Profound - showing a clear and deep understanding of serious matters

The report has profound implications for schools.
His mother's death when he was aged six had a very profound effect on him.

Profuse - produced or given in large amounts

She was admitted to St Mary's Hospital with profuse bleeding.
The company accepted blame and sent us profuse apologies.

Proletariat - the class of ordinary people who earn money by working, especially those who do not
own any property
Industrialism had created a proletariat in Russia.
Marx wrote of the class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

Proliferate - to increase rapidly in number or amount

Small businesses have proliferated in the last ten years.
Books and articles on the subject have proliferated over the last year.

Prolific - producing a great number or amount of something

He was probably the most prolific songwriter of his generation.
51
Picasso was extremely prolific during his Cubist years.

Promulgate - to spread an idea, a belief, etc. among many people

The new law was finally promulgated in the autumn of last year.
The new constitution was promulgated in 2006.

Propensity - a tendency to behave in a particular way

He's well-known for his natural propensity for indiscretion.
The poll confirmed Americans’ growing propensity to invest in the stock market.

Propitious - likely to produce a successful result

With the economy in recession, it was not a propitious time to start a company.
This did not seem a propitious moment for launching into a lengthy explanation.

Proponent - a person who supports an idea or course of action

She is among the most outspoken proponents of the plan.
He is one of the leading proponents of capital punishment.

Proprietary - relating to owning something, or relating to or like an owner

The company has a proprietary right to the property.
This is proprietary software, and you have no right to copy it without a license from the owner.

Propriety - moral and social behaviour that is considered to be correct and acceptable
She was careful always to behave with propriety.
The company had acted in accordance with all legal proprieties.

Prosaic - ordinary and not showing any imagination

Only a few prosaic tables and chairs remained by the time we got to the auction.
They exchanged a few very prosaic words.

Proscribe - to say officially that something is banned

Membership of any proscribed organization is a serious matter.
Torture and summary execution of political prisoners are proscribed by international law.

Proselytize - to try to persuade other people to accept your beliefs, especially about religion or
politics
He was also remarkable for the proselytizing zeal with which he wrote his political pamphlets.
Missionaries were sent to proselytize in rural areas of the country.

Protagonist - ​ the main character in a play, film or book

Key protagonists of the revolution were hunted down and executed.
The main protagonist is a cruel, selfish man.

Protract - to make something last for a long time or last longer than necessary
I have no desire to protract the process.
Their guest did not protract his stay an hour longer.

Provident - careful in planning for the future, especially by saving money

The more provident of them had taken out insurance against flooding.
The provident couple attended a seminar on how to budget their income.

Provincial - relating to an area that is governed as part of a country or an empire

The majority of young professionals in the capital have moved there from provincial towns.
52
The provincial government announced new funding for education.

Provisional - arranged for the present time only and likely to be changed in the future
These dates are only provisional.
We accept provisional bookings by phone.

Proximity - the state of being near in space or time

The best thing about the location of the house is its proximity to the town centre.
The area has a number of schools in close proximity to each other.

Prudent - sensible and careful when you make judgements and decisions; avoiding unnecessary risks
The minister had a reputation for being prudent and discreet.
Most prudent employers see the benefit of having an organized workforce.

Purported - claimed but not proved to be true

A recent study into the purported health benefits of the drink was not conclusive.
The new brand of potato chips is purported to be lower in cholesterol, fat, and calories.

Putative - generally thought to be or to exist, even if this may not really be true
The putative leader of the terrorist cell was arrested yesterday.
The putative cause of the accident is still under investigation.

Qualify - to have or achieve the necessary skills

He qualified as a doctor last year.
It took her nine years to qualify as an architect.

Qualitative - connected with what something is like or how good it is, rather than with how much of
it there is
There are qualitative differences between the two products.
There has been a qualitative change in the relationship between the public and the government.

Querulous - often complaining, especially in a weak high voice

He became increasingly dissatisfied and querulous in his old age.
He complained in a querulous voice about having been woken up.

Quixotic - having or involving ideas or plans that show imagination but are usually not practical
This is a vast, exciting and some say quixotic project.
Many think these attempts to make lawyers behave are quixotic.

Ramification - the possible result of a decision or action

These findings have interesting theoretical and practical ramifications.
These changes are bound to have widespread social ramifications.

Rancor - feelings of hate and a desire to hurt other people, especially because you think that
somebody has done something unfair to you
They cheated me, but I feel no rancor toward/against them.
She learned to accept criticism without rancour.

Rapacious - wanting more money or goods than you need or have a right to
The vulture as landlord is more dreadfully rapacious than he is as a bird.
He describes the world of finance as ‘a casino full of rapacious capitalists’.

Rebuke - the act of speaking severely to somebody because they have done something wrong
53
He was silenced by her stinging rebuke.
He received a stern rebuke from the manager.

Rebut - to argue that a statement or claim is not true

She has rebutted charges that she has been involved in any financial malpractice.
This presumption can be rebutted by evidence showing the contrary.

Recalcitrant - unwilling to obey rules or follow instructions; difficult to control He was like a teacher
encouraging a recalcitrant pupil.
Tenants petitioned their recalcitrant landlord to finish repairs to their building.

Recant - to announce in public that your past beliefs or statements were wrong and that you
no longer agree with them
After a year spent in solitary confinement, he publicly recanted (his views).
Anderson recanted, saying his brother had told him to lie.

Reciprocal - involving two people or organizations who agree to help each other by behaving in the
same way or by giving each other similar advantages
The two colleges have a reciprocal arrangement whereby students from one college can attend
classes at the other.
We have agreed to exchange information about our two companies, but strictly on a reciprocal basis.

Reclusive - living alone and avoiding going outside or talking to other people
She became increasingly reclusive after the tragedy.
There may be a chance to meet the reclusive author.

Recondite - not known about by many people and difficult to understand

We had to work from material that was both complex and recondite.
It is not a recondite or esoteric question.

Recrimination - arguments between people who are blaming each other

The peace talks broke down and ended in bitter mutual recrimination(s).
We spent the rest of the evening in mutual recrimination

Redolent - smelling strongly of something or having qualities (especially smells) that make
you think of something else
The mountain air was redolent with the scent of pine needles.
The album is a heartfelt cry, redolent of a time before radio and television.

Redundant - having lost your job because your employer no longer needs you
To keep the company alive, half the workforce is being made redundant.
She was made redundant a year ago and hasn't found any work since.

Refute - to prove that something is wrong

She tried to think how to refute the argument on moral grounds.
This study cannot provide data to confirm or refute this hypothesis.

Reiterate - to repeat something that you have already said, especially to emphasize it
He reiterated his view that it was time to withdraw from the region.
She reiterated that she had never seen him before.

Relegate - to give somebody a lower or less important position, rank, etc. than before
She was then relegated to the role of assistant.
54
He relegated the incident to the back of his mind.

Relentless - continuing in a severe or extreme way

The sun was relentless.
The team kept up the relentless pressure in the second half.

Relinquish - to stop having something, especially when this happens unwillingly

They had relinquished all hope that she was alive.
He refused to relinquish control of his company.

Remonstrate - to complain to someone or about something

I went to the boss to remonstrate against the new rules.
They remonstrated with the official about the decision.

Renaissance - a new growth of activity or interest in something, especially art, literature, or music
The British film industry is currently enjoying something of a renaissance.
Opera is enjoying a long-awaited renaissance.

Renounce - to say formally or publicly that you no longer own, support, believe in, or have
a connection with something
She formally renounced her citizenship.
Her ex-husband renounced his claim to the family house.

Reparation - payment for harm or damage

The company paid reparations to the victims of the explosion.
It was thought by some that they had not paid enough wartime reparations.

Repercussion - an indirect and usually bad result of an action or event that may happen some time
afterwards
Any decrease in tourism could have serious repercussions for the local economy.
Anne felt the repercussions of the earlier incident.

Replenish - to fill something again, or return something to its earlier condition

We need to replenish our cookie supply.
Allow me to replenish your glass.

Replete - full, especially with food

After two helpings of dessert, Sergio was at last replete.
This car has an engine replete with the latest technology.

Reprehensible - ​ morally wrong and deserving criticism

His conduct was thoroughly reprehensible.
Domestic violence is increasingly coming to be viewed as totally reprehensible.

Reprisal - a violent or aggressive act towards somebody because of something bad that they have
done towards you
The attack was in reprisal for the kidnapping of their leaders.
They did not want to give evidence for fear of reprisals.

Reproach - to criticize or find fault with someone

He’s still reproaching himself for the accident.
He listened to his wife's bitter reproaches.

55
Reprove - to tell somebody that you do not approve of something that they have done
The teacher gently reproved the boys for not paying attention.
He reproved her for rushing away.

Repudiate - to refuse to accept or obey something or someone; reject

The evidence presented at the trial has since been repudiated.
The buyer is entitled to repudiate the contract within a reasonable period of time.

Requisite - necessary or needed for a particular purpose

She lacks the requisite experience for the job.
A good book is a requisite for long journeys.

Resolute - strong and determined

They stood resolute against the enemy.
Their resolute opposition to new working methods was difficult to overcome.

Respite - a pause or rest from something difficult or unpleasant

We worked for hours without respite.
There was no respite from the suffocating heat.

Reticent - unwilling to speak about your thoughts or feelings

She was shy and reticent.
Most of the students were reticent about answering questions.

Revere - to admire and respect somebody/something very much

Nelson Mandela is revered for his brave fight against apartheid.
Her name is revered in Spain.

Rhetoric - speech or writing intended to be effective and influence people

His speech was dismissed as mere rhetoric by the opposition.
Behind all the rhetoric, his relations with the army are tense.

Rigorous - done carefully and with a lot of attention to detail

The second team adopted a much more rigorous approach to the problem.
The work failed to meet their rigorous standards.

Robust - strong and healthy

She was almost 90, but still very robust.
The company is taking a more robust approach to management.

Rogue - a person who behaves badly, but despite this is quite attractive
He's a bit of a rogue, but very charming.
A rogue employee might tap into the computer.

Rudimentary - dealing with only the most basic matters or ideas

Her knowledge is still only rudimentary.
They were given only rudimentary training in the job.

Ruminate - to think deeply about something

She ruminated for weeks about whether to tell him or not.
He ruminated over his loss.

Rustic - simple and often rough in appearance; typical of the countryside

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The property has a certain rustic charm.
We stayed in rustic cabins, with no electricity.

Saccharine - too sweet or too polite

I don't trust her, with her saccharine smiles.
Longfellow’s later poems are regarded as saccharine.

Sacrilege - an act of treating a holy thing or place without respect

Muslims consider it sacrilege to wear shoes inside a mosque.
It would be a sacrilege to put a neon sign on that beautiful old building.

Sacrosanct - so important that there cannot be any change or question

His time with his children was sacrosanct.
I'm willing to help on any weekday, but my weekends are sacrosanct.

Sagacious - showing good judgement and understanding

People love dogs because they are sagacious animals.
Wise and full of insight, the sagacious leader would live on to better the world.

Salient - most important or easy to notice

She pointed out the salient features of the new design.
The salient fact about the case is that it involves an American.

Salutary - causing improvement of behaviour or character

The effects of such a decision would not be salutary.
The cost of the war should be a salutary warning to other governments.

Sanctimonious - giving the impression that you feel you are better and more moral than other people
I’m fed up with his sanctimonious attitude.
I wish she’d stop being so sanctimonious.

Sanguine - cheerful and confident about the future

They are less sanguine about the prospects for peace.
He tends to take a sanguine view of the problems involved.

Sardonic - showing that you think that you are better than other people and do not take them
seriously
Her voice had a sardonic, mocking tone that frightened Connie.
He looked at her with sardonic amusement.

Scintillate - to say very clever, exciting, or funny things

The stars scintillate with a mesmerizing glow in the night sky.
The fireflies scintillate with a flickering glow in the summer night air.

Scrupulous - doing everything correctly and exactly as it should be done

Her report is scrupulous in its detail.
You must be scrupulous about hygiene when you're preparing a baby's feed.

Scrutinize - to look at or examine somebody/something carefully

She leaned forward to scrutinize their faces.
The statement was carefully scrutinized before publication.

Secular - not having any connection with religion

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We live in a largely secular society.
He strengthened the secular traditions of the state.

Sedition - the use of words or actions that are intended to encourage people to oppose a government
He himself was tried for sedition and sentenced to ten years in jail.
In some nations, the government censors television networks in order to prevent sedition.

Segregate - to keep one thing separate from another

The psychiatric section is segregated from the rest of the prison.
The women were segregated from the male workers in the factory

Sensory - connected with your physical senses

The show reflects the sensory overload of contemporary culture, with all the flashing screens and
blaring music.
The sensory experience of walking through a blooming garden is truly enchanting.

Sentient - able to see or feel things through the senses

There was no sign of any sentient life or activity.
It is hard for a sentient person to understand how any parents could treat their child so badly.

Sequester - to take control of somebody’s property or assets until a debt has been paid
The judge will sequester the jury members to protect them from external influences.
The man decided to sequester his most valuable items in a safe.

Serendipity - the fact of something interesting or pleasant happening by chance

The lottery is something one wins by serendipity not by design.
It was serendipity that we found this place.

Servile - wanting too much to please somebody and obey them

Parents have no right to demand servile obedience from their children.
As a waiter you want to be pleasant to people without appearing totally servile.

Singular - of an unusual quality or standard; noticeable

It was a building of singular grace and beauty.
He showed a singular lack of skill in painting.

Sinister - seeming evil or dangerous; making you think something bad will happen
The ruined house had a sinister appearance.
There was a sinister undertone in his words.

Slander - a false spoken statement about someone that damages their reputation, or the making of
such a statement
She regarded his comment as a slander on her good reputation.
Many teachers saw the statement as a gross slander on their profession.

Sloth - the bad habit of being lazy and unwilling to work

The report criticizes the government's sloth in tackling environmental problems.
Sloth bears are among the least known bear species.

Sobriety - the state of not being drunk

I can assure you I'm in a state of complete sobriety.
He's celebrating 12 months of sobriety.

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Solicitous - showing care and helpful attention to someone
He made a solicitous enquiry after her health.
She was very solicitous for our welfare.

Solvent - having enough money to pay all the money that is owed to other people
Many insurance companies are under pressure to increase premiums to stay solvent.
The company is solvent and has no outstanding debts.

Soporific - causing sleep or making a person want to sleep

His talking has a soporific effect.
The slow and steady rhythm of a train is soporific.

Sordid - dirty and unpleasant

There are lots of really sordid apartments in the city's poorer areas.
It was a shock to discover the truth about his sordid past.

Spawn - to cause something new, or many new things, to grow or start suddenly
The new economic freedom has spawned hundreds of new small businesses.
The band's album spawned a string of hit singles.

Specious - seeming right or true but actually wrong or false

His whole argument is specious.
Although he could not deliver on them, the salesman made us several specious promises.

Sporadic - happening sometimes; not regular or continuous

The findings are derived from sporadic and statistically unreliable surveys.
She makes sporadic trips to Europe.

Spurious - false, although seeming to be real or true

They made spurious claims of personal injury.
He had managed to create the entirely spurious impression that the company was thriving.

Squalor - dirty and unpleasant conditions

These people are forced to live in squalor.
He had lost his job and was living in squalor.

Squander - to waste money, time, etc. in a stupid or careless way

She squandered her chances of winning.
Government should not squander the taxpayers’ money.

Stagnation - the fact of no longer developing or making progress

We are seeing stagnation in the market for cows and sheep.
The black colour of the water is due to stagnation.

Static - not moving, changing or developing

Oil prices have remained static for the last few months.
Sales were up 5% on last year, but pre-tax profits remained static.

Staunch - always showing strong support in your opinions and attitude

He gained a reputation as being a staunch defender/supporter of civil rights.
His staunch faith gave spiritual strength to many.

Steadfast - not changing in your attitudes or aims

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He remained steadfast in his determination to bring the killers to justice.
The group remained steadfast in its support for the new system, even when it was criticized in
the newspapers.

Stigmatize - to treat someone or something unfairly by disapproving of him, her, or it

People should not be stigmatized on the basis of race.
Anybody standing in line can see when they pay with Food Stamps, and it stigmatizes them.

Stipulate - to state clearly and definitely that something must be done, or how it must be done
She agreed to buy the car, but stipulated racing tyres and a turbo-powered engine.
A delivery date is stipulated in the contract.

Stoic - a person who is able to suffer pain or trouble without complaining or showing what they
We knew she must be in pain, despite her stoic attitude.
He showed a stoic resignation towards his fate.

Stratum - one of the parts or layers into which something is separated

The report shows that drugs have penetrated every stratum of American society.
Excavated coins can often be dated from other objects in the same stratum.

Stricture - a severe criticism, especially of somebody’s behaviour

She merely ignored any strictures on the way she dressed.
The strictures of the United Nations have failed to have any effect on the warring factions.

Strife - violent or angry disagreement

He led the union through several years of labor strife.
20 years of civil strife have left the country's economy in ruins.

Stringent - very strict and that must be obeyed

Safety standards were less stringent in those days.
We need to introduce more stringent security measures such as identity cards.

Stymie - to prevent something from happening or someone from achieving a purpose

He found himself stymied by an old opponent.
Financial difficulties have stymied the company’s growth.

Subjugate - to defeat somebody/something; to gain control over somebody/something

Her personal ambitions had been subjugated to (= considered less important than) the needs of her
family.
Reporters must subjugate personal political convictions to their professional commitment to balance.

Sublime - of very high quality or great beauty.

The book has sublime descriptive passages.
The location of the hotel is sublime.

Subordinate - having a lower or less important position

The individual's needs are subordinate to those of the group.
In some societies women are still subordinate to men.

Substantive - dealing with real, important or serious matters

The report concluded that no substantive changes were necessary.
Substantive research on the subject needs to be carried out.

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Subtle - not very obvious or easy to notice
The room was painted a subtle shade of pink.
There are subtle differences between the two versions.

Subversive - a person who tries to destroy or damage a government or political system by attacking it
secretly or indirectly
He was a known political subversive.
The FBI had the duty of obtaining evidence of subversive activity.

Succinct - expressed clearly and in a few words

Keep your answers as succinct as possible.
Keep your letter succinct and to the point.

Succumb - to not be able to fight an attack, a temptation, etc.

They were all offered bribes and some of them succumbed.
She succumbed to the temptation of another drink.

Supercilious - behaving towards other people as if you think you are better than they are
The dress shop assistant was very supercilious.
He spoke in a haughty, supercilious voice.

Superficial - never thinking about things that are serious or important

The book shows only a superficial understanding of the historical context.
The movie bears a fairly superficial resemblance to the original novel.

Superfluous - unnecessary or more than you need or want

She gave him a look that made words superfluous.
The report was marred by a mass of superfluous detail.

Surfeit - an amount that is too large

The country has a surfeit of cheap labour.
Indigestion can be brought on by a surfeit of rich food.

Surreptitious - done secretly, without anyone seeing or knowing

She sneaked a surreptitious glance at her watch.
They were seen leaving the premises in a surreptitious manner.

Surrogate - replacing someone else or used instead of something else

For some people, reading travel books is a surrogate for actual travel.
She saw him as a sort of surrogate father.

Sycophant - a person who praises important or powerful people too much and in a way that is not
sincere, especially in order to get something from them
The prime minister is surrounded by sycophants.
The advisers are sycophants and they will never tell him to retire.

Synthesis - the mixing of different ideas, influences, or things to make a whole that is different, or
new
The artist’s work is a synthesis of different styles and techniques.
Proteins are essential to the synthesis of muscles and body tissue.

Tacit - not expressing or talking about something directly or openly

The leader has plenty of tacit supporters worldwide, including a number in Europe.
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By tacit agreement, the subject was never mentioned again.

Taciturn - tending not to say very much, in a way that seems unfriendly
He's a reserved, taciturn person.
The taciturn man sat alone at the bar.

Tangential - having only a slight or indirect connection with something

The matter you raise is rather tangential to this discussion.
During the student’s presentation, she was so nervous her speech was filled with tangential thoughts
that were not related to each other.

Tangible - that you can touch or feel

The tension between them was almost tangible.
We need tangible evidence if we're going to take legal action.

Tantamount - having the same bad effect as something else

If he resigned it would be tantamount to admitting that he was guilty.
Her silence was tantamount to an admission of guilt.

Tautological - saying the same thing twice in different words, when this is unnecessary
The phrase “free gift” is tautological because all gifts are inherently free.
Using the phrase “true fact” is tautological because a fact is, by definition, true.

Temerity - a willingness to do or say something that shocks or upsets other people

She had the temerity to call me a liar.
Most patients do not have the temerity to challenge their medical diagnosis.

Temperate - neither very hot nor very cold

In winter, the birds fly from the Arctic to more temperate zones.
These plants are only found in temperate regions.

Tenable - easy to defend against attack or criticism a tenable position

His theory is no longer tenable in the light of the recent discoveries.
The old idea that this work was not suitable for women was no longer tenable.

Tenacious - that does not stop holding something or give up something easily; determined
The baby took my finger in its tenacious little fist.
The party has kept its tenacious hold on power for more than twenty years.

Tenet - one of the principles on which a belief or theory is based

This is one of the central tenets of their moral thinking.
A major tenet of the women’s movement has been that society needs their talents.

Tentative - not definite or certain because you may want to change it later
We made a tentative arrangement to meet on Friday.
We have tentative plans to go to Hawaii in February.

Tenuous - so weak or uncertain that it hardly exists

His links with the organization turned out to be, at best, tenuous.
The police have only found a tenuous connection between the two robberies.

Terse - using few words and often not seeming polite or friendly
He was shouting terse orders for vehicles to pull over.
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The president issued a terse statement denying the charges.

Theology - the study of religion and religious belief

His theology studies focus on the relationship between God and humanity.
She is pursuing a degree in theology to become a minister.

Tirade - a long, angry speech expressing strong disapproval

She launched into a tirade of abuse against politicians.
My father’s tirades against politicians were famous.

Torpor - the state of not being active and having no energy or enthusiasm
The bear was in a state of torpor during the winter months.
She fell into a deep torpor after the surgery.

Touchstone - an established standard or principle by which something is judged

Perfect service is the touchstone of a fine restaurant.
Grammar was regarded as the touchstone of all language performance.

Tout - to advertise, talk about, or praise something or someone repeatedly, especially as a way
of encouraging people to like, accept, or buy something
She's being touted as the next leader of the party.
There were hundreds of taxis at the airport, all touting for business/custom.

Transcend - to be or go beyond the usual limits of something

What we felt for each other transcended all other emotions.
The best films are those which transcend national or cultural barriers.

Transgress - to go beyond the limit of what is morally or legally acceptable

They had transgressed the bounds of decency.
Those are the rules, and anyone who transgresses will be severely punished.

Transient - lasting for only a short time; temporary

A glass of whisky has only a transient warming effect.
The city has a large transient population.

Trepidation - great worry or fear about something unpleasant that may happen
He knocked on the door with some trepidation.
We view future developments with some trepidation.

Turpitude - very bad behaviour

Theft is a crime involving moral turpitude.
In less than an hour, the judge decided to execute the killer for his moral turpitude.

Ubiquitous - found or existing everywhere

Blue is derived from the ubiquitous indigo plant.
The mobile phone, that most ubiquitous of consumer-electronic appliances, is about to enter a
new age.

Unconscionable - morally unacceptable

It would be unconscionable for her to keep the money.
To make people feel shame or guilt for being ill is unconscionable.

Unctuous - friendly or giving praise in a way that is not sincere and that is therefore unpleasant
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His impression of the president was unctuous and poorly done.
His unctuous hand gestures let everyone know he was upset about the encounter.

Uniform - the same; not changing or different in any way

The office walls and furniture are a uniform grey.
Small businesses are demanding that they receive uniform treatment from the banks.

Unremitting - never stopping, becoming weaker, or failing

He suffered from unremitting pain in his back.
The soldiers faced unremitting attacks from the enemy.

Unwitting - not aware of what you are doing or of the situation you are involved in
The two women claimed they were the unwitting victims of a drug dealer who planted a large
quantity of heroin in their luggage.
He became an unwitting accomplice in the crime.

Urbane - good at knowing what to say and how to behave in social situations; appearing relaxed and
confident
His urbane manners impressed me.
He was charming and urbane, full of witty conversation.

Usurp - to take control of a position of power, especially without having the right to
Local control is being usurped by central government.
He attempted to usurp the principal's authority.

Utilitarian - designed to be useful and practical rather than attractive

Like many factories, it's a very ugly utilitarian building.
The old hospital was demolished in 1911 and replaced with a much more utilitarian building.

Utopia - an imaginary place or state in which everything is perfect

No society can profess itself to be a utopia.
Their utopia is slowly turning into our dystopia.

Vacillate - to keep changing your opinion or thoughts about something, especially in a way that
annoys other people
The country’s leaders are still vacillating between confrontation and compromise.
The president continues to vacillate over foreign policy.

Vapid - not showing interest or intelligence

The vapid conversation bored her.
He's attractive, but vapid.

Vehement - showing very strong feelings, especially anger

They launched a vehement attack on the government's handling of environmental issues.
The lawyer made a vehement argument in favor of his client.

Venal - prepared to do things that are not honest or moral in return for money
They are accused of being involved in venal practices.
The venal police officer accepted the money the drug dealers gave him to look away from their
illegal deals.

Venerate - to honour or very much respect a person or thing

Robert Burns is Scotland's most venerated poet.
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The monk was subsequently venerated as a saint.

Veracity - the quality of being true; the habit of telling the truth
They questioned the veracity of her story.
They had no reason to doubt his veracity.

Verbose - using or containing more words than are necessary

He was a notoriously verbose after-dinner speaker.
The editors received streams of verbose articles from young hopeful journalists.

Verisimilitude - the quality of seeming true or of having the appearance of being real
She has included photographs in the book to lend verisimilitude to the story.
To add verisimilitude, the stage is covered with sand for the desert scenes.

Vernacular - the language spoken by ordinary people in a particular country or region

His vernacular identified him as a Frenchman.
Because she spoke in the southern vernacular, she often used the word “ya’ll” in conversation.

Vestige - a small part of something that still exists after the rest of it has stopped existing
These old buildings are the last vestiges of a colonial past.
The government has to remove any last vestiges of corruption.

Vicarious - felt or experienced by watching or reading about somebody else doing something, rather
than by doing it yourself
He got a vicarious thrill out of watching his son score the winning goal.
She took vicarious pleasure in her friend's achievements.

Vicissitude - one of the many changes and problems in a situation or in your life, that you have to
deal with
The vicissitudes of life led the once positive man to become cynical and negative.
My vicissitude in college was tackling seven classes and a job.

Vilify - to say or write unpleasant things about somebody/something so that other people will have a
low opinion of them
They were vilified by the press as ‘international terrorists’.
A campaign was mounted to vilify the leaders of the organization.

Vindicate - to prove that something is true or that you were right to do something, especially when
other people had a different opinion
I have every confidence that this decision will be fully vindicated.
The investigation vindicated her complaint about the newspaper.

Vindictive - having or showing a wish to harm someone because you think that
they harmed you; unwilling to forgive
He accused her of being vindictive.
She liked to believe that she wasn’t vindictive by nature.

Virtuoso - a person who shows very great skill at doing something, especially playing a musical
instrument
He was a virtuoso violinist.
Her retelling of The Comedy of Errors is virtuoso.

Virulent - dangerous and spreading quickly, or (of poison) having an effect very quickly
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A particularly virulent strain of flu has recently claimed a number of lives in the region.
Pestilence is a deadly or virulent epidemic disease.

Visionary - original and showing the ability to think about or plan the future with great imagination
and intelligence
She has long been recognized as a visionary leader in the green technology sector.
She was a visionary physician who was always thinking of better ways to care for her patients in the
future.

Vitiate - to destroy or reduce the effect of something

He said that American military power should never again be vitiated by political concerns.
The negative reviews could vitiate the reputation of the restaurant.

Vitriolic - full of anger and hate

He does not deserve the vitriolic criticism he has received.
The newspaper launched a vitriolic attack on the president.

Vocation - a type of work or way of life that you believe is especially suitable for you
She feels that she missed her vocation by not working with children.
She struggled for years to find her true vocation.

Vociferous - expressing your opinions or feelings in a loud and confident way

Opposition from senior party members became increasingly vociferous.
Local activist groups have become increasingly vociferous as the volume of traffic passing through
the village has increased.

Volatile - changing easily from one mood to another

He was a very volatile character when playing.
She was a more volatile personality than her sister.

Volition - the power to choose something freely or to make your own decisions
His volition to succeed drove him to work tirelessly.
The student chose to study abroad of her own volition.

Wanton - causing harm or damage deliberately and for no acceptable reason

He displayed a wanton disregard for the facts.
She accused him of wanton betrayal and left him.

Willful - done deliberately, although the person doing it knows that it is wrong
I think he showed a willful disregard for safety.
The man’s willful silence was a way to intentionally hurt his wife and avoid talking out their issues.

Wistful - thinking sadly about something that you would like to have, especially something in the
past that you can no longer have
I thought about those days in Spain and grew wistful.
I became wistful when I saw my ex-boyfriend with his new love.

Zealous - showing great energy and enthusiasm for something, especially because you feel strongly
about it
He thought the reporters were too zealous in their attempts to get into the event.
He congratulated the participants for their zealous participation.

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