MODULE 2 –CROP HUSBANDRY

State the conditions necessary for plant growth

For green plants to grow well, they need the following necessary conditions:-
● water

● air

● suitable temperature

● sunlight

● nutrients

(Draw Figure 14.1 in Elliot et. al. (1985) at page 61: Living processes in plants)

DESCRIBE THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE ROOT

Main functions of Roots in a plant

1. Support - hold or anchor the plant firmly onto the soil.

2. Absorption - They extract/absorb water and dissolved-mineral salts from
the soil.
3. Storage - some roots act as storage organs (for the plant’s food reserves)
e.g. root tubers like sweet potatoes. They help to retain moisture in the soil
(as protection against dry conditions).

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE ROOT TIP

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2
 The root tip has four main region/zones and these are:-

● root cap

● region/zone of cell division

● region/zone of cell elongation

● region/zone of cell differentiation and maturation

1. Root cap – it is found at the tip of the root.

Function
– protects the root cells from damage (as the root pushes through the soil
particles)
● it orients the root to grow vertically downwards (Geotropism)

2. Region of cell division – This is found at the tip of the root. This is where
cells are actively dividing (mitotically) in all directions.

3. Region of cell elongation – here cells are becoming longer. This

lengthening of root cells in this region pushes the root further and further
into the soil.

4. Region of cell differentiation and maturation – here cells are becoming

mature and change into different forms to perform different functions.
Example: some epidermal cells mature into root hairs, which absorb water
and mineral salts from the soil.

CROSS SECTION THROUGH A ROOT

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Root part Description of the part
Epidermis/Piliferous a single-celled layer of
layer protective tissue covering the
roots
Root hairs - Very small outgrowths of
epidermal cells.
- Have thin walls and make
close contact with the soil
particles.
- they are many in number
and therefore provide larger
surface area for absorption.
Cortex It contains loosely packed
parenchyma cells with
airspaces in between.
Endodermis This is the inner layer of the
cortex cells.
Inside the endodermis is the
vascular bundle.
Pericycle A row of cells inside the
endodermis surrounding the
vascular bundles
Vascular bundles A collective name for the tissues enclosed by the endodermis.
These are the phloem sieve tubes, cambium and xylem vessels.
Xylem vessels Tall cylindrical vessels made
up of dead cells with tough
lignified cell walls.
Phloem sieve tubes These are the tissues with the Conduct food around the parts
sieve plates between them.
Cambium this is a layer of cells that
separate the phloem and
xylem cells in dicotyledons
Pith Consists of parenchyma cells
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Functions of the part
- protects the inner root cells
(against water loss and entry of
pathogens like bacteria and
fungi).
- produces root hairs.
- absorb water and mineral
salts from the soil.
- It stores food in some plants.
- controls the rate of water
movement from the root hair
cells to the xylem vessels.
- acts as packing tissue
between epidermis and
endodermis
- controls amount and kinds of
minerals that enter the xylem
● Produces lateral roots.
● Produces the cambium
layer.
Conduct water up the plant to
the leaves.
of the plant.
Produces new vascular tissues
(hence the thickening of roots)
Stores food and water.
Acts as packing tissue between
other root tissues.
DESCRIBE THE MOVEMENT OF WATER INTO THE PLANTS BY OSMOSIS

● Roots have hair-like structures called root hairs that absorb water by
osmosis. These root hairs grow between soil particles and make a close
contact with the film of capillary water surrounding them.
● The soil solution has a lower concentration of sugars than the root hair cell
sap. This means the cell sap of the root hairs is a stronger solution. Water
enters the root hairs through the cell membrane that acts as a semi-
permeable membrane.
● This difference in concentration causes water to move from the soil into the
root hair cell sap by osmosis.
● Extra water getting into the root hair cell sap lowers its concentration as
compared to immediate next cortex cell.
● Thus water moves from the root hair to the cortex cell by osmosis.

● Then water would move from cell to cell across the cortex, until it reaches
the xylem vessels.

Summary

1. Water enters root hairs by osmosis

2. Water passes across the root, from cell to cell, by osmosis.

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3. Water is drawn up the xylem vessels, because transpiration is constantly
removing water from the top of them.

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DESCRIBE THE MOVEMENT OF WATER IN THE PLANT

Water moves up the xylem vessels in the same way that a drink moves up a
straw when you suck it. When you suck a straw, you are reducing the pressure at
the top of the straw. The liquid at the bottom of the straw is at a higher pressure,
so it flows up the straw into your mouth. The same thing happens with water in
xylem vessels.

The pressure at the top of the xylem vessels is lowered, while the pressure at the
bottom stays high. Water therefore flows up the xylem vessels. The pressure at
the top of the xylem vessels is constantly reduced by transpiration. Water from
xylem vessels in the leaves will travel to the cells by osmosis to replace it.

Therefore,
● From the root xylem vessels, water is conducted up stem through stem
xylem vessels;
● The root, stem and leaf xylem vessels form a continuous tube.

● Water in the xylem vessels is drawn up by a combination of root pressure

and suction effect of the transpiration stream. Thus water moves from the
stem xylem to the leaf xylem vessels. Water is constantly being taken from
the top of xylem vessels, to supply cells in the leaves. This reduces the
effective pressure at the top of xylem vessels, so water flows up them.
This process is known as the transpiration stream.
● From the leaf xylem water moves to mesophyll and epidermal cells by
osmosis along the concentration

DESCRIBE MOVEMENT OF DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES INTO THE PLANT

Absorption and transport of mineral salts

● Root hair cell sap is more concentrated than soil water in solutes. This
means nutrient solutes such as soluble nutrients are higher in
concentration in the cells of plants than in the soil water.
● Mineral salts are absorbed into root hair cell sap against concentration
gradient, a process called active transport. The cells actively move the
ions across the cell walls from the soil solution into the cell sap with the
use of energy supplied by respiration.
● In active transport, unlike in diffusion, energy is required to make
molecules against a concentration gradient.

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 ● Active transport involves substances called carrier molecules. The carrier
molecules combine with mineral ions and carry the ions across plasma
membrane into the cell.
● Thus the carrier molecules move back and forth conveying ions from soil
water to the root hair cells.
● After absorption mineral salts and water move through the root cells into
the xylem vessels and up the stem into the leaves by a combination of
physical forces.

THE STEM

● The stem is the main part of the plant growing (mostly) above the ground. It
has leaves and flowers at regular intervals and a terminal bud at the
growing point.
● Commonly the stem is erect, but it may be horizontal as in runners (e.g.
water-melon plant); underground as in rhizomes; very short and never
showing above ground as in bulbs and corms; long, thin and weak as in
climbing plants; or strong and thick as in trees.

Functions of the stem

1. it supports structures of the shoot (leaves)
2. spaces out the leaves so that they receive enough air and sunlight
3. allows transport of water from the soil to the leaves, and food from the
leaves to other parts of the plant
4. holds flowers above ground, thus assisting pollination by insects or wind
5. If the stem is green, photosynthesis may occur in it.
6. It stores food in some plants.
(Draw the diagram showing transverse section of the monocot and dicot stems)

TRANSLOCATION

This is whereby dissolved food materials made in the leaves are moved to other
parts of the plant.
● This process takes place through a system of fine sieve tubes called phloem.
These tubes run throughout the plant, alongside the xylem vessels but are quite
separate from them.
● Food materials are translocated to places where they are used up immediately (for
respiration) or stored for future use. When they arrive at the storage organs, they
are kept in insoluble form inside the cells.
● For example, sugars made in the leaves may be translocated to the roots and
stored as starch. Sugars and starch are both carbohydrates, but sugar is soluble

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 and starch is not soluble. So only soluble substances can be translocated and only
insoluble substances can be stored.
● Plants can change one carbohydrate into another as the need arises.

Importance of translocation

It facilitates the movement of manufactured food from the leaves to the rest of the
plant for use.
It facilitates the movement of manufactured food to storage areas to be stored for
future use.
It facilitates the movement of the stored food from the reserve to be used for growth,
development and respiration by the plant.
It helps the plant to avoid accumulation of the manufactured food at the leaves by
transporting it away down to other parts.
It helps in the formation of storage organs.

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 THE LEAF
Transverse section of the leaf

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 Functions of the leaf
1. It makes food in the form of carbohydrates, by photosynthesis.
2. It allows gaseous exchange between the plant and the atmosphere.
3. Leaves carry out transpiration.
4. Some leaves develop into storage organs in some plants, e.g. cabbage.
5. Some plants use leaves for vegetative propagation.

Functions of leaf parts

Part of leaf Structure of the leaf part Function of part

Cuticle is outer non-cellular, transparent, - Prevents excess water

waxy and waterproof layer of the
leaf.
Epidermis One-celled layer on the upper and
lower leaf surfaces.
Epidermal cells do not have
chloroplasts.
Have stomata pores.
Guard cells Bean-shaped epidermal cells.
Contain chloroplasts.
Mostly found on lower epidermis.
Have thicker inner walls than outer
walls.
Palisade Upper layer of the leaf mesophyll.
mesophyll/layer Cylindrically shaped cells that are
closely packed.
Contain numerous chloroplasts.
Spongy Cells are irregularly shaped.
Mesophyll/layer Cells are loosely arranged with
larger air spaces between them.
Contain fewer chloroplasts than
the palisade.
Chloroplasts Disc-shaped organelles found in
the cytoplasm of palisade, spongy
and guard cells.
Veins Found in the spongy mesophyll.
Contains vascular bundles.
Xylem Dead, hollow, and tall cylindrical
vessels.
Cells have lignin/are lignified.
Inner part of vascular bundle.
Phloem Outer part of vascular bundle.
Cells made of sieve tubes/plates
loss from the inner cells.
- Protects inner tissues
from mechanical damage.
- Prevents entry of
pathogens.
Secretes cuticle.
Protects inner tissues.
Maintains shape of the leaf.
- Open and close the
stoma.
- Carry photosynthesis.
Absorbs more light energy
and serves as the main site
for photosynthesis.
Site for photosynthesis.
Allows for gaseous
exchange.
Absorb light energy into the
leaf.
Transports water to leaf
cells.
Transports manufactured
food from leaf to other parts
of the plant.

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Differences between Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons

Part of plant Dicotyledons Monocotyledons

- Xylem arrangement is 4 or - Xylem arrangement

Root 5 stars (tetrarch/pentra- resembles many pointed
arch). stars (polyarch).
- poorly defined endodermis - well defined endodermis
- well defined cambium - Poorly defined cambium.

● Peripheral vascular ● scattered vascular

bundle
● Central pith present
Stem
● Secondary thickening
is commonly shown
● Vascular bundle is
always present
● net veined
bundle
● no central pith
● rarely shown
secondary thickening
● in some plants
vascular bundle
absent
● Parallel veined

● usually has a ● Usually there is no

pronounced central pronounced central
Leaf
vein vein
● Palisade and spongy ● Mesophyll not clearly
Mesophyll clearly sub-divided
defined.

TRANSPIRATION

Transpiration is the loss of water vapour through the stomata in the leaves.

● The evaporation of water through the leaf has a cooling effect on the leave
(because when water evaporates it absorbs heat energy from those leaves).
● During the process of transpiration, there is a continuous flow of water molecules
from the soil into the roots, stem and then the leaves. This continuous flow of water
is called the transpiration stream.

Transpiration rate is affected by the following:

Temperature – The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of transpiration.
Humidity – high humidity leads to a lower transpiration rate. Lower humidity leads to
a higher transpiration rate.

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Wind – higher wind speeds cause excess transpiration.
Plant features – (i) the higher number of stomata increases the surface area for
transpiration. (ii) The higher the leaf surface area, the higher the transpiration. (iii)
The thinner the leaf the higher the transpiration.

Light – stomata open in the light and close in the dark. The rate of transpiration
therefore is higher during the day.

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DESCRIBE MANUFACTURE OF FOOD IN GREEN PLANTS - PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Definition of photosynthesis – it is a process whereby green plants manufacture their

own food from carbon dioxide and water with the help of sunlight absorbed by
chlorophyll.
Or
This is the building up of food compounds from carbon dioxide and water by green
plants using energy from sunlight which is absorbed by chlorophyll.

Features of photosynthesis process

● A fraction of the absorbed light is used to form energy-rich compounds, which will
provide energy.
● It occurs in chloroplasts found mainly in green leaves and any other green part of
the plant such as sepals, stem etc.
● It is a complex process involving a series of chemical reactions controlled by
enzymes.
● Rate of photosynthesis can be affected by light intensity, temperature, carbon
dioxide, concentration and availability of water.

Outline/describe the process of Photosynthesis

In land green plants,

● Water from the roots enters the leaves through the xylem vessels and moves to
the mesophyll cells.
● Carbon dioxide is then absorbed from the air through the stomata.

● Sunlight is then absorbed by chlorophyll or chloroplasts.

● The sunlight then splits water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen atoms.

● Oxygen atoms would be released into the atmosphere as a gas.

● Hydrogen atoms combine with carbon dioxide and mineral salts to form glucose,
fatty acids and amino acids.

Word Equation for photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide + Water 🡪 Carbohydrates + Oxygen

Balanced Symbol Equation

6CO2 + 6H2O 🡪 C6H12O6 + 6O2

UTILSATION OF FOOD IN PLANTS

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The products of photosynthesis: glucose, fatty acids and amino acids can be put to
various uses in the plant such as:-
● Growth and development

● Respiration to release energy

● Storage for future use

● Protection against pests and diseases

● Production of fruits and seeds

● General maintenance of the plant

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RESPIRATION

Definition – Respiration is the oxidation of carbohydrates to release energy.

This oxidation reaction uses oxygen to break down carbohydrates and gives off water
and carbon dioxide. Respiration occurs in the mitochondrion of all living cells at all
times.

Word Equation for aerobic respiration

Glucose + Oxygen 🡪 Energy + Water + Carbon dioxide

Symbol Equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 🡪 Energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O

Types of Respiration
There are two types of respiration: Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic respiration – This mainly takes place in higher order plants. In this case
oxygen used comes from the atmospheric.

Anaerobic respiration – This takes place where there is limited supply of oxygen.
This is often referred to as fermentation.
Some organisms respire in the absence of oxygen. Certain bacteria and fungi get
their oxygen from the chemical breakdown of food substances (sugars, starch
and other compounds).
In this case, the product of anaerobic respiration is ethyl alcohol together with
carbon dioxide and energy.
Thus,
Glucose 🡪 ethyl alcohol + carbon dioxide + energy

Differences between photosynthesis and respiration

Photosynthesis Respiration

Occurs in green plant cells Occurs in all cells

Energy is stored Energy is released
Produces oxygen gas Produces carbon dioxide
Produces food Produces water
Uses carbon dioxide Uses oxygen
Occurs only in light. Occurs at all times

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 FOOD STORAGE

This is the ability of a plant to store/reserve surplus food for future use.
The plant can store food in small amounts in any of its parts. This is mainly stored for a
short duration of time for later use.

Importance of food storage

It provides food for future use (growth & development).

It provides food during unforeseen time (e.g. drought).
It provides food for early growth.
It provides room for translocated food from the leaves.
It provides rapid growth of the new plant/shoot during favourable growth conditions.
NB: Some storage organs can be used for reproduction (e.g. stem tubers and seeds)

Modification of plant parts for food storage

A modified plant part is that part that completely/partially does not perform its
fundamental function; instead, it does other functions for the plants survival.

● The plant can store food in large amounts in this particular part. These parts are
modified parts of the plant that are specialized to hold large amounts of food for
later use.
● Hence, they are called modified food storage organs because they store food in
large amounts instead of or in addition to their basic function. These modified parts
become the principal parts consumed/eaten by humans.

The table below shows different plants and their (modified) food storage organs.

Name of food crop Food storage organ

Carrot, beetroot, radish, turnip Taproot
Spinach, choumollier/rape Leaf
Irish potato Stem tuber
Sweet potato, cassava Root tuber
Onion, garlic Bulb (modified swollen leaves)
Tomato Fruit
Peanut, beans, peas Seeds
Rice, millet, wheat, maize, oat, sorghum Grains (fruits)
Cabbage Leaves
Ginger Rhizome
Cocoyam corm

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 TROPISMS (PLANT RESPONSES)

Tropism is the growth movement of a plant part in response to a directional stimulus.

A directional stimulus means a stimulus from a particular/given direction.

Plants respond to various stimuli in the environment.

Tropisms are named according to the stimuli that cause them, thus:-

● gravity (geotropism)

● light (phototropism)

● water (hydrotropism)

● touch (haptotropism)

1. GEOTROPISM

This is the growth movement by plants in response to force of gravity.

● Roots are said to be positively geotropic, since they grow vertically downwards in
response to gravity.
● Shoots on the other hand are said to be negatively geotropic, since they grow
away from the direction in which the force of gravity is exerted.

What is the importance/significance of geotropism?

● Positive geotropism causes roots to penetrate the soil where they will gain support
and nutrients
● Negative geotropism helps shoots of germinating plants to grow through the soil to
reach the surface to find light and warmth.

Experiment to demonstrate geotropism by roots

When a seedling is placed in a horizontal position, more auxins collect on the lower side
due to gravity.

Conclusion

● In stems such high auxins concentration promotes faster growth, but in roots it
reduces growth.
● Therefore the lower side of the shoots grows faster than the upper side, resulting in
a growth curvature that makes the shoot grow vertically upwards.

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 ● The lower side of the root grows at a slower rate than the upper side resulting in a
growth curvature that makes the root grow vertically downwards.

2. PHOTOTROPISM

This is the growth movement by plant parts in response to light.

● Plant shoots are positively phototropic, as they tend to grow directly towards the
source of light.
● The roots on the other hand are said to be negatively phototropic as they grow
away from light.

What is the importance of phototropism?

● Positive phototropism helps a shoot to bring its leaves into the best position to
absorb light for photosynthesis. Flowers are brought into an exposed position to be
seen and pollinated by flying insects.

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● Negative phototropism enables the roots to penetrate into the soil to gain support
and nutrients.

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 Experiment to demonstrate phototropism in stems

When a seedling is exposed to light from one direction, its shoot grows towards the
light. Light would cause lateral movement of auxins to the darker side. As a result
auxins concentration is higher on the darker side than on the light side. Therefore the
darker side will grow faster than the light side causing the shoot to curve towards
light.

Draw diagram of a plant facing a source of light.

3. HYDROTROPISM

This is the growth movement by plants in response to water. The lateral roots show it, as
they tend to grow towards a source of water in the soil.

Water causes auxins to migrate towards the waterside. Since high auxins concentration
reduces growth in roots, the root side nearer to water grows at a slower rate than the
one facing away from a water source, resulting in a growth curvature that makes roots to
grow towards a water source.

Importance of hydrotropism

It enables roots to find a good supply of water in the soil.

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4. HAPTOTROPISM/THIGMOTROPISM

This is the growth movement by plant stems in response to touch/contact with a surface
(by tendrils and climbing stems of some plants).

This is shown mostly by climbing stems. It happens when such plant, upon growing
comes into direct contact with any hard object such as poles, fences, stems of other
plants, grow tightly around them and hold on.

The part in contact with the hard object has a lower concentration of auxins than the
outer part. Since higher auxins concentration promotes faster growth in shoots, the
greater auxins concentration in the outer part causes faster growth than the part in
contact with the object hence the shoot/tendril continues to coil around the object.

What is the significance or importance of haptotropism?

● It helps climbing stems to grow upwards to the light.

● It gives them mechanical support for weak or non-woody stems.

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REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Reproduction is the process of producing new individuals in the population.

Describe the types of reproduction in plants

(A) ASEXUAL/VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION

This is the production of new organisms/individuals using vegetative parts of a plant (to
produce clones). Each member of a clone is identical to the others and to the parent
plant.

Therefore, in this reproduction a new plant grows from a plant part of a single parent.
Examples
● Irish potatoes can be grown from stem tubers

● Sweet potatoes are grown from stem cuttings.

To grow these crops we take a part of the parent plant and let it grow into a new,
complete plant. This is possible if the plant has the ability to regenerate completely from
small parts of themselves.
The food needed for the growth of the new plant is often stored in a (storage) part of the
plant.

Major characteristic property

● The offspring has all the characteristics of the original parent (shape, colour,
height, taste, scent). They cannot be different as they are really from the same
plant. Therefore, variations between generations are not possible.

Advantages of asexual reproduction

● Pollination agents that fail to perform successfully are not required.

● The hazards of fertilization are avoided.

● The offspring are true to type (identical to the parent)

● Plants that produce sterile seeds can be propagated asexually.

● Mature stems have large food reserves.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

● Improvement of crops through cross breeding is impossible.

● It is difficult to produce large numbers of plants quickly.

● Diseases can easily attack plants at wounds made when cutting planting
material.

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List the plant parts used for vegetative propagation

● Stem, root and leaf cuttings.

● Vegetative buds.

● Twigs or shoots in grafting.

● Plant cells, tissues and organs (as in micro-propagation)

● Crown divisions or splits

● Storage organs such as tubers, suckers, rhizomes, bulbs and corms.

Some crops propagated by means of storage organs

Name of crop Storage organ used

Onions Bulbs

Irish (European) potatoes Stem tubers

Sweet potatoes Root tubers

Pyrethrum Splits

Some grasses (e.g. Kikuyu, couch grass) Rhizomes

Bananas, pineapples Stolons

Sisal Bulbils

Strawberry Runners

ARTIFICIAL METHODS OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Common methods of artificial propagation include grafting, budding, layering and

cuttings.

1. GRAFTING

Grafting is the art of connecting parts of two plants so that they grow as a unit. It involves
the uniting of two cambium layers to get a fusion of growth giving a plant with the good
qualities of two different parents.

The lower stem whose roots are attached to the soil is called the rootstock. The upper
shoot of the other plant that will be attached to the rootstock is called the scion.

The plants must be of the same species or closely related (e.g. sweet orange and rough
lemon) and approximately the same age and size, so that their cambium surfaces may
be brought closer together.

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Describe how plants are propagated using grafting

● Make a clean slanting cut on the scion from the desired plant species

● Making another clean slanting cut on the root stock of the same species (e.g.
sweet orange and rough lemon) using a sharp grafting knife.
● Join the two stems. Make sure they are of the same thickness. Observe polarity.

● Tie the two stems with a grafting tape to secure the union.

● Seal the joint/union with a protective wax to prevent entry of disease causing
microorganisms and to prevent drying of the cut surfaces. This prevents the
union from rotting.
● Stake or support the plant to remain still.

2. CUTTINGS

A cutting is a vegetative portion of a plant with one or more buds and rooted to form new
plants.

There are three types of cuttings: softwood, semi-hardwood and hardwood cuttings.

Describe how plants are propagated using cuttings

● Cut a mature plant part (e.g. leaf/root/stem) using a razor blade or a sharp knife to
make a clean slanting cut below a node. Cuttings should be 10 cm to 15 cm long.
● Remove leaves from the lower half of the cutting

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● Sterilize the growing media

● Dip the base of the cutting in a rooting hormone/powder (such as Seradix B

complex) to speed up the production of roots.
● Then place the cutting in a suitable medium for growth (e.g. water/growth
medium/soil). Observe polarity by ensuring that the basal/lower end of the cutting
is the one pushed into the soil.
● Seal the top part of the stem with paint/wax. Then cover the cutting with a
polythene bag to reduce water loss by transpiration.
● Some cuttings are planted directly in the field, but others are first raised in special
nurseries. Usually plant them to a depth of half their length.
● Water them regularly after planting and avoid disturbing them until they grow buds
or about four leaves.

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This diagram shows how stem and root cuttings are planted or set.

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(B) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

● In sexual reproduction, sex cells called gametes are produced. The gametes are
carried in special organs called flowers.
● The flowers may produce both male and female gametes. The male gametes are
contained in the pollen grains. The female gametes are contained are contained
in the ovules.
● Fertilization takes place when the male and female gametes fuse. The final
propagule is the seed, e.g. maize, beans, etc.
● Some plants produce both male and female gametes in one flower (e.g. in bean
flower). In some plants, the male and female organs are in the same plant but at
different locations, e.g. maize flower (tassel and cob).
● In other plants the male organs are on one plant and female organs in another
plant, e.g. pawpaw.

Advantages of sexual reproduction

1. New varieties can be produced by cross pollination.
2. Large numbers of plants can be quickly produced from seeds.
3. It does not require special skills to use seeds.
4. Plants are unlikely to be affected by the same diseases

Disadvantages of sexual reproduction

1. Some seeds can have a low germination percentage (because of seed dormancy).
2. Crops take a longer time to mature.
3. Cross pollination may result in poor quality (offspring) plants.
4. Some seeds can be difficult and expensive to get.
5. Seeds are small and have little food stored in them.

THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE BEAN FLOWER

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 Flower part Description Function

Sepals These are outside the flower Protects inner parts of the flower
and are often green in colour during bud stage
and relatively small.

Receptacle the expanded end of the flower Supports other flower parts attached
stalk to it.
Flower stalk Found at the basal end of the Supports and attaches flower on to
receptacle. the stem.
Petals Consists of five coloured petals
(standard, of different shapes and sizes. ● they protect the inner parts of
wing and the flower
keel)
● Attract insects for pollination.
Stigma Anvil shaped structure covered Receives pollen during pollination.
with hairs at the top of the style.
Style A long shaft found between the Connects the stigma to the ovary.
style and ovary.
Ovary Pod shaped structure with about
10 ovules ● Contains ovules.

● Develops into a fruit after

fertilization.
Ovules Site for fertilization.
● Produce and contain the female
gamete/sex cell
● develop into seeds after
fertilization
Anther Found at the end of a filament. Produces pollen grains containing
male gametes.
Filament A long shaft forming part of the Supports the anther.
male part of flower.

ANDROECIUM. (or stamen) - This term refers to the male part of the flower made up of
the anther and the filament.

GYNOECIUM. (or pistil) - This is the female part of the flower made up of the ovary,
style and stigma.

Describe the mechanism of pollination in the bean flower

● The bean flower is insect pollinated.

● The anther releases pollen grains.

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● An insect (e.g. a bee) is attracted by the flower colour / scent / nectar and visits
the flowers to collect pollen or nectar.
● When the bee lands on wing of petals its underside is dusted with pollen grains.

● The pollen grains are carried on the body of the visiting insect.

● Then on visiting another flower the pollen grains are brushed off onto the sticky
surface of the stigma resulting in pollination.
● Self pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from anthers to stigmas of a
flower in the same plant.
● Cross pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma
of a flower in another plant.

30
Features that promote insect pollination in a bean flower.

A bean flower is usually cross-pollinated because it has the following features:

● It has large and brightly coloured petals (corolla) to attract insects, e.g. bees
that will bring pollen from other plants.
● The stigma is not feathery and is enclosed in the petals/flower.

● Anthers are firmly attached on rigid filaments.

● It has good smell (scent) that attracts insects.

● It produces nectar in the nectarines at the base of the flower. Insects that
pollinate the flower pass over the stigma when reaching for the nectar at the
base of the flower.
● Large, rough and sticky pollen grains that are in small quantities.

31
DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION IN BEAN PLANTS

Fertilization is the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote (in the embryo
sac).

The result of a successful pollination is fertilization.

Fertilization process is as follows:

● After pollination, the pollen grains absorb nutrients (sugar and water) secreted by
the stigma and swells.
● The cytoplasm in the pollen grain grows as a pollen tube (under the control of the
pollen tube nucleus) down the style. The pollen tube nucleus moves to the tip of
the growing point with two male nucleus following behind it.
● The pollen tube continues growing down the style until it reaches the ovary.

● When it reaches the ovary, it gets to one of the ovules and enters through the
Micropyle.
● On reaching the embryo sac it bursts and the pollen tube nucleus breaks down.

● The tip of the pollen tube breaks open inside the ovule and releases the male
nucleus into the ovule and the male gametes enter the embryo sac. One of the
male nuclei will then fuse with the female nucleus to form a zygote. The other will
fuse with endospermic nucleus to form the endosperm.

The diagram below shows how fertilization takes place in some flowering plants.

32
33
Seed and fruit formation in beans

● After fertilization, the external protective calyx is dropped or modified, the

petals wither and the male parts die.
● The ovary with fertilized ovules is left to develop into a fruit containing seeds.

Development of bean seeds

● Each fertilized ovule (zygote) undergoes repeated cell division forming an

embryo.
● The embryo differentiates into plumule, radicle and a short stalk connecting
these two. In addition, two cotyledons develop and surround the embryo, they
will store food reserves.
● The outer walls form the testa round the cotyledons and become attached to
the placenta through a scar called the hilum.
● As the seed matures the cotyledons harden by losing water from 80% to 15%
by mass, then it dries and becomes dormant.

Fruit formation in beans

● A fruit, fully grown fertilized ovary containing fully grown seeds.

34
● In beans, the ovary containing several ovules develops into fruits.

● The ovary wall becomes the pericarp.

● Fruits of beans are known as pods characterized by thin ovary wall, many
seeds, splitting when ripe down both sides.

35
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE MAIZE FLOWERS.

● The flowers of a maize plant are unisexual. They contain either stamens or
pistils, but not both. The long crowded inflorescences bear flowers of only one
sex. The male flowers are on the terminal branches and the female flowers are
on the axillary branches.
● Maize is closely related to wild grasses whose flowers differ from it by having
both male and female organs in the same inflorescence.

The Male Flower in Maize (TASSEL)

● Male flowers are grouped together into a large cluster, the inflorescence borne
at the top of the shoot.
● The male flowers are small with no petals or sepals in the visual sense, but
green, leaf-like bracts.
● The flowers are in pairs, each pair is called a spikelet and two bracts enclose it.
Two smaller bracts enclose three stamens. When mature, the anthers hang
outside these bracts (as seen below).

36
 The Female Flower in Maize (COB)

● The female inflorescence is completely wrapped in a smaller number of leaves

(called the sheath) and forms the cob.
● The ovaries are arranged spirally on the inflorescence stalk. Each fertile flower is
enclosed by thin transparent bracts.

Describe the mechanism of pollination in the maize flower

● Maize flowers are wind pollinated. Wind blows pollen grains from ripe anthers that
hang outside flowers. Then the pollen grains are carried in the air currents and
eventually land on ripe stigmas of same or different plant. Thus resulting in
pollination.
● Maize is usually cross-pollinated. Self-pollination is usually avoided because the
male flowers mature before the female ones. The tassels and the silks do not ripen
at the same time. This condition is known as dichogamy. The other reason might
be that maize is genetically self-incompatible: this means even if pollen grains
land on the stigma they would not be able to fertilize the ovules in the ovaries.
● How can farmers avoid self pollination in maize? This can be done by covering
the tassel or by removing the tassel altogether.
● In the maize at first, the anthers hang outside the flower bracts. The pollen sacs
split and the wind blows the pollen grains away.
● Later the feathery stigmas protrude (or emerge) from the flower, and pollen grains
floating in the air are immediately trapped by the stigmas.

Features that encourage wind pollination in maize

37
 i. Long styles that hang stigmas outside flowers.
ii. Long flexible filaments that hang large anthers outside flowers.
iii. Feathery stigma outside the flower.
iv. Lack of strong scent and nectar.
v. Large quantities of small light and smooth pollen grains.
vi. Absence of conspicuous corolla.

38
Summary of reproduction

Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

Seeds are used to produce new plants Vegetative parts are used to produce new
plants
New plants (offspring) not identical to their New plants (offspring) are identical to their
parents parents

Plants take a longer time to mature
Seeds have smaller food stores giving
lesser chances of survival
Variation/improvement of plants can be
achieved
Plants take a shorter time to mature
Vegetative parts have larger food stores
giving more chances of survival
Less variation/improvement of plants

Differences between insect pollinated and wind pollinated flowers

Feature Insect pollinated flowers Wind pollinated flowers

Example of plant Bean Maize

Colour of petals Brightly coloured Dull colour

Size of flower Big/large Small

Anthers and stigmas Anthers and stigmas
Position of anthers/stigmas enclosed firmly in the hanging loosely outside the
flower/petals flowers

Presence of nectar Have nectar Have no nectar

Presence of scent Have strong scent Have no scent

Amount of pollen produced Less pollen Plenty of pollen

Nature of pollen grains Heavy and sticky Light and smooth

39
CROP PRODUCTION AND LAND PREPARATION
Land Preparation

There are a number of activities which are done to make a suitable seedbed for
planting in a field. These are as follows (in their order):-
● clearing and stumping

● ploughing

● discing

● harrowing

A. Clearing and stumping

Trees, rocks, stones and stumps are removed from the field before tillage
operations can get underway..

B. Stumping
This means removal of tree stumps (disana) and their roots. A stump is the
base of a tree trunk left standing after the tree has fallen. Stumping is the
removal of stumps.

State reasons for clearing and stumping

1. Facilitates mechanical tillage operations such as ploughing, discing,

harrowing.
2. To get rid of pests / pathogens / diseases hidden in the stumps.
3. To increase space/land available for crop production.
4. To prevent/avoid competition between crops and vegetation for resources
(e.g. sunlight, space, water and nutrients).
5. To avoid injury to the farmer/worker.

C. Soil/seedbed preparation

The soil is ready for planting if its tilth, depth and structure facilitate planting,
seed germination and subsequent growth of plants. To achieve this, tillage
operations have to be carried out.

Reasons for preparing the soil/seedbed before planting.

1. To control weeds.
2. To incorporate/add organic manure into the soil for rapid decomposition.
3. To loosen up soil, thus improving aeration and water percolation.
4. To provide suitable soil condition for planting, seed germination and
growth of plants.

40
5. To control pests and pathogens living in the soil.
6. To obtain level seedbed for good water penetration.

41
D. Explain the following methods of soil preparation

(a) Ploughing

● This is a primary tillage operation whereby a plough, (tractor or animal-

drawn) is used to break up the soil and turn it under, thus burying trash
and exposing fresh soil to the air.
● A depth of 25-30 cm would normally be enough for field crops. A mould
board plough and a disc plough are normally used for ploughing. A chisel
plough or a ripper is usually used for deep ploughing to break soil pans.

Aims of Ploughing/cultivation are:-

● To prepare the soil for sowing/the seeds.

● To let air enter the soil (aeration).

● To allow water to enter the soil (drainage)

● To loosen the soil so roots can develop (root development/penetration).

● To bury organic matter/manure.

● To get rid of weeds (weed control).

(b) Discing

● This is the secondary tillage operation that follows ploughing. Discing

breaks up soil clods (makwete) and surface crusts. Discing the soil
improves soil granulation and surface uniformity.
● Discing is performed after ploughing or at a later date after organic
residues have decomposed.
● It is also done to cover seeds sown by broadcasting.

(c) Harrowing

● This is a secondary tillage operation aimed at producing a level soil of

suitable tilth. During harrowing the soil is further granulated and
smoothened to make it ready for planting.
● Harrowing destroys furrows and ridges created during ploughing and
discing. A harrow is used for harrowing. There are different kinds of
harrows: a disc, spring tooth and spike tooth harrow. A harrow is like a

42
 large rake. It is pulled over the soil to break up the lumps of soil and make
a fine seedbed.
● Harrowing also levels the seedbed. A fine and level seedbed would allow
for:-
● Undisturbed root and shoot development

● Good seed-to-soil contact

● Conservation of moisture for germination.

43
DESCRIBE THE UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION

Deforestation is cutting of live trees at a faster rate than they are being replaced
(by planting new ones).
The removal of all trees (deforestation) for the purpose of ploughing is important,
but there are also some undesirable consequences.

(a) Loss of windbreakers. Trees act as windbreaks and if removed wind would
break stems of weak plants.
(b) Increased rate of soil erosion. Roots of trees hold the soil to prevent
erosion. Cutting down of trees leaves the soil bare therefore increasing the
rate of soil erosion.
(c) Loss of habitat for wildlife. Birds and other organisms living in trees
become homeless and have no food to eat when trees are cut down. The
slightest disruption to the life cycles of the forests can mean the extinction
of literally hundreds of plant and animal species. This disturbs the natural
ecosystem.
(d) Increased amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Deforestation by
burning of forests increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the air. This
helps to create what is known as the Greenhouse effect with possible
changes in the rainfall patterns globally. Trees recycle oxygen by the
process of photosynthesis. If removed the recycling process is disturbed
and this can lead to global warming.
(e) Loss of organic matter. Removal of trees cuts off the regular source of
organic matter to the soil through leaf fall and decay of tree roots, resulting
in reduced fertility.
(f) Leads to desertification. This means turning good soils into a desert. It
describes the process whereby land becomes less and less productive
due to human activities and effects of climate change.
(g) Decreased supply of timber and timber products. Cutting down too many
trees reduces the supply of timber and timber products leading to a higher
demand hence price increase at the markets.
(h) Loss of biodiversity. This means there will be limited supply of genetic
material for research purposes. It will be difficult to carry scientific
research with fewer tree species for medicine.
(i) Loss of aesthetic (beauty) value in the landscapes. Deforestation removes
trees that make landscapes beautiful, which impacts negatively on eco-
tourism.

44
 MAIN TYPES OF CROPS GROWN LOCALLY

The following crops are found and grown locally (i.e. in Botswana):-

Type of crop Examples of crops

Cereals Maize
Field crop Sorghum
Millet
Roots Beetroots
Carrot

Bulbs Onion
Tubers Irish potato
Sweet potato
Ginger
Legumes Ground nuts
Vegetables Green beans
Green peas
Field beans
Cowpeas
Leafy Spinach
Kale
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Lettuce
Rape
Fruits Tomato
Egg plant
Green pepper

45
1. MAIZE (Zea mays)

Maize is a cereal crop, which belongs to the grass family called Graminacea.
Other members of this family include sorghum, millet, barley etc. Maize is the
second most important crop in the world after wheat.

Soil requirements
● Maize can be grown in a wide range of soils from sand to clay, provided
the soils are well drained.
● Deep loam soils, which are rich in organic matter, give high yields.

● It is poorly affected by water-logging conditions especially during the first

weeks of growth.
● Maize can withstand slightly acidic soils. Optimum pH range is 5.5 – 7.0.

Climatic requirements

● Maize requires an average warm temperature, 24 °C – 30 °C.

● It is a summer crop and therefore sensitive to frost. It will not grow below
10 °C.
● Maize requires abundant moisture. It needs an even distribution of annual
rainfall of about 600 - 900mm during the growing season.
● Moisture is critical from the beginning of flowering (silking) to the end of
grain formation / filling stages.
● Maize needs a lot of light for a higher rate of photosynthesis.

Sowing / planting time and method

● Early planting in the first half of November normally yields higher than late
planting. This helps the maize to out-compete weeds.
● Planting in rows is recommended.

● Depth of planting of maize is usually 5 – 7cm, but 10cm is recommended

for large seeded cultivars and for dry planting.
● Seedlings should be thinned when they are 15cm tall.

Seed rate, spacing and plant population

46
 ● The standard inter-row spacing of maize is 90cm (between rows) and
30cm between plants in a row (intra-row spacing).
● This should give a population of about 20 000 – 40 000 plants per hectare.

● Seed rate of 15-25kg/ha will achieve these populations with two seeds pr
hole.

Fertilizer requirements
Maize responds very well to nitrogen, phosphorus and kraal manure. Fertilizer
requirements should be based on the results of a soil analysis/test. The following
table should serve as a guide:-

Fertilizer Time of application Rate of application

Kraal manure Basal dressing – few 12 tonnes/ha every 3
weeks before planting. years

Single super phosphate Basal dressing using 200kg/ha to provide 21kg

(10.5%P) broadcasting method. of phosphorus per
hectare.

Limestone ammonium Top dressing using side 150kg/ha to provide 44kg

nitrate (LAN 28%N) dressing method 5-6 of nitrogen per hectare.
weeks after emergence.

Urea (46%N) Top dressing by side 100kg/ha

dressing method 5-6
weeks after emergence
or when plants reach
knee-height.
Agricultural lime on acid 6 weeks before planting 500kg/ha every 3 years
soils

Choice of suitable varieties in Botswana

A cultivar is a cultivated variety.
Factors to consider when choosing a variety to grow include the following

● availability of seeds (are seeds available locally/abroad)

● availability of market/demand (is its demand high or low)

● costs of seeds (are the seeds expensive/cheap)

● time taken to reach maturity (does it take long/short to mature)

47
 ● climatic conditions (are the climatic conditions harsh or favourable for the
variety)
● consumer tastes and preference (is it preferred by consumers)

● resistance to pests and diseases (can it tolerate the local pests/diseases)

● soil conditions/soil type (is the soil suitable for the variety)

● purpose of the crop (what is the crop used for)

● expected yields

The recommended maize cultivars for Botswana are:-

● Kalahari Early Pearl.

● Potchefstroom Pearl

● SR 52

● PN 473

● R20

● CG 4141

48
Common pests of maize and their control

A number of destructive caterpillars can damage the maize crop at any stage
in the field. These include
● sorghum stalk borer (Chilo partillus)

● American bollworm (Heliothis armigera)

● Army worm

● cut worm

● maize weevil

(i) Sorghum stalk borer (Chilo partillus)

The moth lays its eggs between the leaf sheath and the stem.
Damage caused -The young caterpillars feed on the leaf first then burrow into
one stem where they will then pupate. They finally emerge as moths from the
side of the stalk. This feeding on the stalk reduces the yield.

Control
● Pesticides such as Endosulfan can be used to kill the larvae.

● Collect and destroy the crop residue soon after harvesting to avoid build-
up of the stalk borer, which may affect the next maize crop.
● Practice winter ploughing to destroy crop stubble

● Crop rotation with fallow.

● Seed treatment with suitable insecticide

● Pour Dipterex granules or Thiodan into the funnel at the top of each plant.
Spray Endosulfan (35% E.C.) at the rate of 650ml/ha directly into the
funnel of each plant.

Diseases of maize

Diseases such as, the following, can attack maize:-

● leaf blight

● maize streak virus

● cob rot

● downy mildew

49
 ● maize smut

● maize rust

Maize smut disease

Cause – this disease is caused by fungi

Symptoms
● affect male and female flowers

● affected parts swell and finally burst to release black powdery spores

● floral leaves usually develop into collection of leave-like growths

50
Control
● practice correct spacing

● use certified seeds for planting

● burn all infected plants and plant remains

● crop rotation and use of resistant varieties

Weed control

Weeding should start as soon as the crop emerges. This will prevent weeds from
competing with the seedlings.

Some useful weed control methods are:

● plant as early as possible

● inter-row weeding by cultivation

● crop rotation (to avoid witch weed) with sunflower

● Use herbicides like SIMAZINE and ATRAZINE for pre-emergence, and

MCPA and 2, 4D for post-emergence.

Recognition of crop maturity

The crop is ready for grain harvesting 3 to 4.5 months after sowing. It is
recognized by the following features:-
● The cobs hang down.

● The plant, husks/leaves/stalks are brown/khaki and dried up.

● The seeds feel hard and dry with 12-35% moisture content.

● The seeds/grains become glossy or shiny.

Harvesting of yield

Maize is either grown for fresh cobs or for dry grains.

● Fresh cobs are ready fro harvesting 90-105 days after planting and dry
cobs after 125 days.
● Harvesting is done by hand or by use of combine harvesters.

● After harvesting the cobs are dried either naturally or artificially in

traditional granaries or cribs.

51
Storage
● Shelled maize grain must be dried to 12% moisture content before it can
be stored in bags/sacks, silos, metal tanks, grain baskets (sesigo), cribs,
granaries, etc. Well-dried grain is less likely to be attacked by insects and
fungi.
● Storage areas should be cleaned thoroughly before a new crop is stored
in them.
● Cracks and other hiding places for insects should be sealed.

● The sacks should be new, clean and well woven to allow easy ventilation.

● Maize on cob is stored temporarily in heaps or longer in cribs to dry

further. Cribs are stores of wire netting raised above the ground.
● Maize grains are treated with pesticides to protect them from fungi and
insect pests, and to protect seedlings from the same dangers. They are
treated by soaking or dusting. Example Malathion 5%.
Marketing

● Grain maize can be sold to local traders, co-operatives, BAMB (at a

guaranteed minimum price), milling companies. Import parity pricing policy
is used by BAMB to determine the price of grain maize for farmers.
● Fresh cobs are sold to individual members of the community or retailers.
Forces of demand and supply determine prices for fresh cob maize.

Uses of maize and its by-products

● Source of human food products e.g. mealie meal, mealie rice, cornflakes,
samp.
● Source of industrial products e.g. oil, glycerine, starch, syrup and beer.

● Bran and stalks are raw materials for livestock feed, e.g. in silage, dairy
meal,
● Plant stalks/leaves may be a source of organic/compost manure.

● Cobs and dry stalks can be used as fuel for cooking.

● Stalks can be used as litter/bedding in livestock houses.

● Stalks can be used as mulch in crop fields.

Relevant legislation

52
 1. Control of Maize Milling Act of 1961 provides for the control of milling
(tshilo) and purchasing through issuing of commercial miller’s licence or
restricted miller’s licence.
2. Agrochemicals Act of 1999 provides for registration and licensing of
agrochemicals, promotion and advertising of agrochemicals, labeling of
agrochemicals and precautions to be taken in handling agrochemicals.

Record keeping
Farmers must keep accurate records of everything done in order to know how
successful the farm is. This will help them to maintain efficiency standards and
point out problems easily. Two main types of records, which can be kept, are:-

Production records Financial records

Labour use records Income and expenditure
Water and fertilizer records Sales records
Maize crop record (hectarage, yields, Creditors and debtors
planting and harvesting times, Cash book
varieties, inputs used, etc) Balance sheet
Machine/tractor use record Profit and loss account
Field operations record

53
A. Production records

Examples
1. Farm diary – this is the day to day record of everything that takes place
on the farm such as delivery of orders, planting of crops, spraying of crops
etc. the diary is a useful record and acts as a reminder of when particular
events took place. It may look like this:-

Date Activities / Observations

12/11/2002 Arrival of seeds

13/11/2002 sale of 100 old bags of maize @ P65 per bag

23/11/2002 cultivation of Field 1

2. Crop records – for each crop grown, records of the variety, spacing, and
fertilizers used and yield should be kept. This information can be used to
make changes and improvements in the future.

Item description Record

Name of the crop

Variety:

Date of planting

Depth of planting

Spacing

Seed rate

Fertilizer used and date

Fertilizer rates of application

Date of harvest

Yield in kg/ha

Pests and diseases encountered

54
B. Financial records

Financial records or accounts are those, which record details of transactions

involving money. They may include cash analysis book, debtors account,
creditors account, assets and liabilities, sales accounts, and profit and loss
account.

The income and expenditure

INCOME/REVENUE COSTS/EXPENDITURE

Dat Item Description Total Date Item Description Total

e Revenue Cost

Total Returns (TR) Total Costs (TC)

Profit/Loss = Total Revenue – Total Costs

Profit and loss is calculated by subtracting total costs from total returns. If returns
are more than the costs then the farmer has gained profit. If costs are more than
returns then the farmer is running at a loss.

55
2. SPINACH

Climatic requirements

● Spinach is a cool season crop and therefore requires cool weather. It requires an
optimum temperature range of 10-30°C.

● It grows well in winter/autumn and can resist light frost. But the growth rate is
slow when there is frost.

Soil type and soil pH requirements

● It requires deep, fertile, moist and well drained soils.

● It requires sandy loam soil with soil pH range of 6.0 – 7.0.

Seedbed preparation

● Cultivate the soil to a depth of 20-25cm well in advance of planting time.

● If necessary broadcast lime or composted kraal manure over cultivated area and
then disc it in.

● Broadcast 2: 3: 4 (24) fertilizer over the disced area at a rate of 600kg/ha a week
or so before planting.

● Harrow the soil to a fine tilth and level it in readiness for sowing spinach seeds.

Sowing or Planting time and method

Choice of suitable varieties

● Fordhook giant

● Lucullus

Time of sowing

● Good planting times are from April to August. Recommended sowing times for
most regions of Botswana are March to April and August to September.

56
 Method of sowing

Spinach can be sown in two ways: that is direct sowing in beds and sowing in a
nursery seedbed.

Direct sowing in beds– sowing directly means the seedlings will mature sooner.

● Sow or drill seeds about 1cm deep in furrows 30-45cm apart (interrow-between
rows).
● Water thoroughly.

● As seedlings grow thin them out to 25cm apart (intrarow – between plants in a
row).
Sowing in a nursery and transplanting– means seeds are used and seedlings
are better protected.

● Sow the seeds in furrows 1cm deep and about 10cm apart.

● Water thoroughly and take out all the weeds.

● After spinach seedlings had emerged thin them until they are 2cm apart and
10cm in height.
● When seedlings are 10cm high transplant them on a cool day or late in the
afternoon.
● Water the seedbeds and dig out the plants with the soil clinging to the roots.

● Plant seedlings 25cm apart (intrarow) in rows 30cm apart (interrow).

● Water seedlings twice a day. If it is very hot, shade the seedlings until they are
strong enough.

Seed rate – 30 seeds per meter in a row or 5-9kg/ha.

Spacing – row spacing of 30-45cm between rows and spacing between plants at
final thing is 20-25cm.

Fertilizer requirements
Basal dressing – broadcast and dig into the soil compost or composted kraal
manure at the application rate of 6kg/m2 before planting. Or if no manure is
available, add 60g/m2 of 2: 3: 4(24) compound fertilizer.

Top dressing – spinach requires high amounts of nitrogen. So apply 14g/m2 of

LAN a week after thinning. Thereafter repeat the treatment every 2-3 weeks. Use
side dressing or ring dressing method to apply the fertilizer.

Common pests of spinach and their control

57
Most serious pests of spinach include aphids, cutworms, cabbage moth, leaf miner,
looper and spinach fly beetle.
Pest Damage caused
Aphids Attack the leaves of the crop and
cause:
- reduced plant vigour; yellowing and
curling of leaves; stunted growth;
growth of sooty mould; and wilting of
plants.
- aphids also transmit mosaic virus
from one plant to another.
Cutworms - these small caterpillars live in the
soil and bit the plant’s stem at
ground level at night:
Bagrada Attack the plant and suck the sap.
bugs
58
Control
- spray with Dimethoate 50% (Roger) at the
rate of 5ml/5litres of water.
- spray with kerosene-soap emulsion.
- spray or dust with pyrethrum, rotenone,
and sabadilla.
- introduce ladybird beetles for biological
control.
- dust or bait the ground around the plants
with cutworm bait or use Aldrin or Dieldrin.
The worms will eat the bait and die.
Spray Malathion at 2g/litre of water.
Common diseases of spinach

These include leaf spot, damping-off, mosaic, downy mildew and fusarium wilt.

Leaf spot

Cause – this disease is caused by a fungus.

Symptoms – small light brown circular spots with dark edges. They give scorched
appearance to the leaves when they become many.

Control and prevention measures

● use captan dust or Dithane M45 at the rate of 10g/5litres of water.

● Plant resistant spinach varieties if available.

● Remove and destroy infected leaves.

Recognition and Signs of crop maturity

● Leaves are uniformly dark green in colour;

● firm and strong stalk;

● Crisp texture;

● fully wrinkled leaf blade;

● large edible size.

Harvesting

● Harvesting of spinach leaves starts about 40-60 days after planting and
continues for 3-4 months.
● Cut the outer mature leaves with a sharp knife 4cm above ground level without
injuring the new buds.
● Pick just a few leaves at a time so that the plant can continue growing.

● As soon as the flower stem appears, all leaves should be harvested and the
plants removed.

Marketing

● Leaves are sold soon after harvesting while still fresh.

59
 ● Wash the leaves in clean cold water.

● Tie them in 0.5kg bundles/bunches.

● Wrap the leaves in plastic bags.

● Place the leaves with stems upright in cold water, or put them in a shade or cool
place.
● Leaves can be chopped and then frozen/refrigerated.

● Spinach can be marketed to individual consumers at farm gates, supermarkets,

schools, clinics/hospitals, and retailers.

Uses of the crop and its by-products

● Spinach leaves are used as food (cooked or raw salad).

● Spinach can be a source of raw material for food processing industries.

● Spinach leaves can be used as livestock feed (e.g. fed to rabbits).

Record keeping

Refer to similar record keeping as in maize production.

60
2.4 CROP PROTECTION

2. 4. 1. WEEDS

Explain negative effects of weeds on crop plants

i. Weeds reduce crop growth or yields due to competition with crops for basic
growth resources such as water, mineral nutrients, sunlight and growing space.

ii. Weeds reduce the quality of crop products due to contamination with weeds
seeds.

iii. Weeds reduce crop resistance to pests and diseases.

iv. Weeds harbour (shelter) some pests and pathogens. Some pests live in some
weeds as their alternative host, and then attack the nearby crop later.

v. Some weeds block irrigation and navigation. Weeds block irrigation, drainage
and navigation channels. E.g. Cyperus sp and Commelina sp can reduce the
capacity of water reservoirs.

vi. Some weeds are poisonous (allelopathic) to crops as they release toxic or
poisonous or growth inhibiting substances into the soil that kill/reduce crop
growth.

Explain the positive effects of weeds on crops

1. Leguminous weeds add nitrogen to the soil by the use of root nodules.
2. Some weeds shelter beneficial organisms such as predators of pests and
pollinators of crops e.g. bees.
3. Weeds reduce soil erosion by providing ground cover, (especially when
growing between crop rows). They hold the soil together.
4. Weeds may be used as mulch for crops in seedbeds.
5. Weeds add organic matter to the soil due to decay/decomposition of their
remains in the soil.
6. Weeds recycle nutrients as their roots tap nutrients from deeper soil
horizons and return them to the soil surface as litter when they shed their
leaves and decay.

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Identify four common weeds found in Botswana

English name Scientific name Local name

Black jack Bidens pilosa
Mexican poppy Argemone mexicana Lepero
Thorn apple Datura stramonium Mokhure
Couch grass Cynadon dactylon Motlho
Star grass Aristida congesta seloka
Devil’s thorn Tribulus terrestris Mosetlho
Upright starbur Acanthospermum Setlhabakolobe
hispidium
Pigweed Amaranthus thubengi Thepe
Witch weed Striga asiatica Molelwana

State different ways of classifying weeds

Classification of weeds can be done according to the

● length of growing period (life cycle)

● morphology and

● method of dispersal.

(a) Length of growing period (Life cycle), that is:-

i. Annuals – complete their life cycle in a year or less. Normally they grow,
produce seeds and then die within a year.
ii. Biennials – these take two years to complete their life cycle. During the first
year they grow vegetatively and then the second year they produce flowers and
seeds.
iii. Perennials – they live for more than two years. They live from season to
season producing seeds each year (e.g. trees)

(b) Morphology (form).

● On this basis weeds are classified according to the leaf size and shape thus:

(i) Broad-leafed weeds – seedlings have a pair of seed leaves/cotyledons; leaves

are usually wide and do not encircle the stem; leaf veins have a branched
pattern; and plants often have taproots.

(ii) Narrow leafed weeds – seeds have a single cotyledon/seed leaf; leaves often
form a sheath around the stem and veins run parallel along the leaf. This class is
further subdivided into sedges and grasses.

● Some weeds can be classified as:

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(iii) Woody plants – big trees or
(iv) Herbaceous weeds – e.g. herbs

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 (d) Method of dispersal.

There are many ways in which weeds can be spread from one place to another

i. By Wind– some weed seeds that are very light or have wings or shaped
like parachutes in their structure can be carried by wind over a long
distance and become established in a new place. E.g. Combretum
species.
ii. By Animal– there are weeds whose fruits/seeds have tiny hooks or
barbs on them, which catch on to the fur of passing animals. They
would then drop off later when the animal has moved away. Some
seeds are eaten by animals and remain undigested. Later on they are
passed out with animal droppings in another place.

iii. By Water– some weed seeds are carried away by floodwater to other
far areas. As the flood water goes down the seeds become deposited
elsewhere. E.g. the lily plant.

iv. By Explosion (self dispersal) – some plants produce their seeds in pods.
As the pods dry in the sun their surfaces expand, and at night they
contract in the cool air. Eventually this causes the seed pods to split and
seeds are exploded out into the air. When some legume weeds seeds
dry their pods explode and spread their seeds over the surrounding
areas.
Some weeds such as couch grass spread by means of runners or
rhizomes. This enables the weed to spread around the area it affected.

Study and draw the table below to illustrate some dispersal of weeds fruits and seeds.

64
WEED CONTROL METHODS
CULTURAL METHODS OF WEED CONTROL

(a) Establishment of a good crop cover – adopting recommend spacing ensures a

quick coverage of the ground by the crop there by smothering the weeds through
shading.

65
 (b) Good husbandry practices – timely (late/early) planting; use clean certified seeds
for planting; apply fertilizers to give the crop an early and healthy start that
enables them to out-compete weeds.
(c) Mulching – the mulch prevents sunlight from reaching weed seedlings eventually
the weeds die. Mulch smothers the weeds. Weed seedlings cannot grow through
the heavy mulch. It also adds organic matter into the soil.
(d) Crop rotation – certain weeds such as the witch weed (Striga asiatica) on
maize/sorghum can be controlled by fallowing or planting legumes in crop
rotations.
(e) Flooding – flooding kills practically most weeds by submerging them. This is
common in paddy rice fields. This is effective where land is level and there is
abundant water. It is effective against perennial dryland weeds on clay soil.
(f) Burning – this kills weeds and their seeds if the fire was hot and persisted long
enough. This is common with controlling annual weeds on pastures. Most
burning is done before crops are planted (pre-plant burning). Burning gets rid of
excessive vegetation.

Advantages
1. Effective in controlling parasitic
weeds
2. It is easier to integrate with other
methods of weed control.
3. It is environmentally friendly.
Disadvantages
1. Only effective when combined with
other methods.
2. Requires farmers to have basic
skills and knowledge of crop
husbandry.
3. Requires proper timing for
successful implementation

MECHANICAL WEED CONTROL

(i) Hand pulling – weeds between rows of certain cultivated crops are pulled out
using hands. This method is suitable for controlling annual and biennial
weeds.
(ii) Cultivation – this includes both primary tillage during seedbed preparation,
and secondary tillage done while the crop is growing. Implements used
include hand hoe, harrows, row cultivators, ridgers etc. Cultivation aims at
either disturbing the root system of weeds or burying the weeds.
(iii) Slashing – this is violently cutting weeds using blades, slashers, knives etc.

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 Advantages
1. Both small and large farmers can
use them.
2. Loosen the soil resulting in
improved water infiltration and
aeration.
3. Incorporates organic matter into the
soil during tillage.
4. Effective in controlling annual and
perennial weeds.
Disadvantages
1. May cause damages to plant roots
2. Frequent tillage damages soil
structure.
3. Hand weeding and hoeing are
labour intensive and costly on a
large scale.
4. Mechanical cultivation cannot
control weeds in the intra-row
spaces.

CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL

● This involves the use of chemicals (known as herbicides) to control weeds.

● Herbicides control weeds by directly scorching them or interfering with their

physiological processes such as photosynthesis and respiration.
● This interference results in retarded growth and eventual death of weeds.

Advantages
1. Faster than other methods of weed
control.
2. Highly efficient in controlling weeds
over larger areas.
3. More effective in controlling weeds
within rows (i.e. intra-row spaces).
4. Weeds can be selectively
controlled without injury to crops.
5. Herbicides can control stubborn
perennial weeds that cannot be
controlled by other methods.
Disadvantages
1. Development of herbicides
resistance in weeds.
2. Herbicides are poisonous / toxic to
humans and animals.
3. Expensive method of weed control.
4. Herbicides pollute the environment
(water and air) due to repeated
use.
5. Special equipment is required for
herbicide application.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF WEEDS

● This method uses living organisms (known as biological agents) to control

weeds. These biological agents are usually predators.
● The biological agent either kills the weeds or suppresses its growth through
various ways.
● In this method, insects, geese, goats and sheep serve a useful purpose in
controlling weeds.

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● In particular, insects that are parasitic on weeds are used to eat the foliage
(leaves) and other parts of the plant.

68
Examples of biological control of weeds:

1. Successful biological control of weeds using invertebrates/vertebrates

● Goats have been used to control the Lantana camara weed in East Africa.

● The cacti moth (Cactoblastis cactorum) larvae effectively controlled harmful

species of prickly pear (Opuntia spp) in Australia.
● The grasshopper Paulina acuminata was used to control Salvinia molestana in
Lake Kariba in Zambia (in 1974).
● Donkeys can be used to control couch grass in Botswana.

● Manatees, ducks and fish have been successfully used in the control of aquatic
weeds.
● Cochineal insect (Dactylopius ceylonicus) for the control of Opuntia vulgaris in
Southern India in 1863.

2. Use of plant canopy

● The main effect of plant canopy is to shade the weeds underneath
and reduce their ability to photosynthesize carbohydrates.
● Finally weeds lose their competitive ability to crop plants.

3. Allelopathy
● This is whereby some plants release toxic substances (called
phytotoxins) into the soil.
● These toxic chemicals will in turn poison some weed plants.

Advantages and disadvantages of using biological control

Advantages Disadvantages
1. It makes use of natural processes 1. It may take time to find a suitable
that are environmental friendly. biological agent.

2. It is relatively cheaper than other 2. Insects have to be bred and released

methods. exactly at the right time.

3. Promotes integration of farming 3. The agent might attack the crop if the
systems. weed gets finished.

4. The effect is permanent. 4. The agent might attack/destroy

predators of serious pests.

69
 5. The population of the agent may not
be large enough to control weeds
effectively.

6. vi. Biological agents may fail to adapt

to a new environment.

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 PESTS
Describe the classification of pests according to mode of feeding.

Depending on how the insects feed (feeding habits), which in turn is influenced
by the type of mouth parts they have, and the damage they cause to crop plants,
insect pests can be classified three main groups.

The three pest groups are-

Pest group Mode of feeding Examples of pests

Grasshoppers
Biting and Have specifically adapted mouthparts Locust
chewing pest (mandibles) with which they bite off and Termites
chew plant tissue like leaves, stems, leaf miners
flower buds, fruits and seeds. beetles
cutworms
corn crickets
leaf miners

Piercing and Have mouthparts that are specially Aphids

sucking pests adapted into a needle-like stylet (the Bagrada bug
proboscis), with which they pierce plant Mealy bugs
tissue and suck plant sap. scale insects
white flies
leafhoppers

Boring pests Have mouthparts also specialized for Weevils

biting and chewing, but they tunnel into Stalk borers
plant tissue, remain inside the tissue American bollworm
where they consume large quantities of
the tissue.

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Mouth parts for different pest groups

(a) Piercing and sucking mouth parts – e.g. mosquito and aphid

(b) Mouth parts of a biting and chewing pest – e. g. locust/grasshopper.

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BITING AND CHEWING PESTS Example – Locust / Grasshopper

Life cycle of a locust

The locust undergoes incomplete metamorphosis during its life cycle.

Metamorphosis – this refers to changes, which an insect undergoes from the

moment it is hatched until it is a mature adult capable of reproduction
It has a three stage life cycle consisting of:-

Egg 🡪 Nymph 🡪 Adult

1. Male and female locusts mate, and fertilization takes place in the female locust.
2. Female digs a hole into the ground, lays her eggs and covers them in a protective
egg pod underground.
3. Eggs hatch into nymphs after about 30 days.
4. The nymphs then reach the surface of the soil.
4. The nymphs feed and grow to undergo 4 to 5 moults.
5. Nymphs develop into adults with fully developed wings and fly away, reach sexual
maturity and mate.

Method of spread
● Winged adults migrate larger distances from one area to another by flying.

● Young hoppers spread over small distances by jumping / hopping.

Damage caused on crop plants

Locust cause damage to crops by:

1. Cutting and chewing leaves and shoots of young plants.
2. Reducing leaf area and hence photosynthesis.
3. Swarms cause complete defoliation leading to severe crop losses.
4. Reduced crop vigour.

Control
Biological control Chemical control Cultural control

Use natural enemies like Use of pesticides such as Use of crop husbandry
practices such as:-
● Reptiles ● Dieldrin – swarms
are sprayed with ● early planting
● Birds
this chemical.
● effective weeds
● Mammals and ● Aldrin – it is added control
● Egg predators like to sorghum bran
● fertilization of the
and used as bait.
ants. crop to ensure
● Carbaryl – it is used vigorous growth
for spraying
swarms.

Host crops

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Maize
Sorghum
Millet and other related crops.

74
Life cycle of a locust

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BORING INSECTS - Example – The Maize Stalk borer

● These insects cause damage by boring through grains or stems of plants.

● The most damaging stage is the larval stage but the emerging adults may also
be responsible for boring holes in the plant.
● As in all cases of complete metamorphosis, the pupa is the resting stage, which
may produce a new adult in the current season or over winter in crop remains.

Life cycle of stalk borer

This insect undergoes complete metamorphosis – i.e. it has a four-stage life cycle.

Egg 🡪 Larva 🡪 Pupa 🡪 Adult

It is the larval stage that, or caterpillar, which causes the chief damage by eating the
stalks of growing maize. The adult stage of the insect is the moth.

1. The adults mate and the female lays eggs between the sheath and stem of the maize
or sorghum plant.
2. Eggs hatch into larvae /caterpillars after10 days.
3. They burrow into the maize stalks and begin eating the plant tissue until it is fully
grown.
3. After a few weeks, and series of moults, the mature larvae develop into a silky cocoon
called the pupae. This stage enables the insect to survive the dry season by forming a
hard case.
4. When conditions are favourable, usually early in the new rainy season the adult
moths emerge from the pupa cases and continue the life cycle.

Method of spread
● The young larva can only move short distances through the maize plants.

● At the end of the larval stage, the stalk borer develops into a silky cocoon, which
hides in the crop residue and can be moved with crop residues.
● The adult stage (moth/butterfly) has wings and can fly longer distances.

Effects or damage caused

● Larvae feed on leaves resulting in holed and windowed leaves.

● Larvae burrow and make tunnels in stem/cobs and starts eating the plant tissue.

● Destroy the internal structure of the stem.

● Water and mineral absorption by the plant becomes poor.

● The plant weakens and finally dies.

● Reduced crop yield.

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Control
● Stalk borers can be controlled by

● Crop rotation to avoid the pupae.

● fallowing

● burning of the crop residue

Host crops
Sorghum, maize, sweet reed, etc.

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78
PIERCING AND SUCKING PESTS - Example: The Aphid

Aphids are very small, 1 – 3mm in length. They reproduce very rapidly in the warm
seasons. They occur in large numbers on leaves and growing tips of plants.

Life cycle
The life cycle of aphids is similar to that of the grasshopper. These insects undergo
incomplete metamorphosis. They have a three-stage life cycle:-

EGG 🡪 NYMPH 🡪 ADULT

But unlike locusts they can produce both sexually and asexually.

A. Asexual reproduction in aphids

This is the usual method of reproduction when conditions are favourable (i.e. during
rains).

1. Winged female aphid alights on the young growth of a suitable host, she settles down
to feed and reproduce. She does not require a male to fertilize her eggs but reproduces
live nymphs directly (i.e. viviparously).
2. The nymphs feed on the juices extracted from the plant where they were born, and
undergo a series of moults when they shed their skin or cuticles.
3. After several days, the new aphids are ready to reproduce their own young. Only
wingless females are produced at first, but as the host plant becomes overcrowded and
begins to die, some of the females grow wings and fly to another plant to set up a new
colony.

B. Sexual reproduction in aphids

4. Shortly before the rains die out, some young males are born. They later become
sexually mature and mate with the wingless females.
5. This time females lay eggs instead of nymphs. These eggs have a hard protective
shell, which enables them to survive the unfavourable dry season.
6. Under favourable conditions (of the next wet season) the eggs hatch out into nymphs ,
which develop into wingless females. These now start reproducing parthenogenetically,
so the usual life cycle resumes.

Parthenogenesis – the type of asexual reproduction in which the aphids are produced
without fertilization.

Viviparity – the process of laying nymphs rather than eggs.

Method of spread
As the aphids become overcrowded and the plant dies, some females grow wings and
fly away (migrate) to another plant to start new colonies.

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Effects or damage caused by aphids on crops

1. Aphids suck the plant cell sap.

2. They reduce the rate of plant growth and production
3. Aphids cause lesions (wounds), which lead to secondary infection.
4. Aphids cause leaf discolouration and distortion.
5. They encourage the growth of sooty (black) mould on upper surfaces of affected
leaves.
6. They act as vectors for viral diseases.
7. They cause stunted growth in cases of severe infestation.
8. These insects inject toxic saliva into the plant.

Host plants attacked by aphids

Aphids attack a wide range of crop plants including: groundnuts, maize, sorghum,
beans, sugar cane, cassava, cabbage, rape/choumollier, citrus trees etc.

Methods of Control
(a) Cultural control
1. Early planting so that crop plants grow big enough before build up of aphid population.
2. Crop rotation, whereby farmers alternate suitable hosts with unsuitable ones.
3. Plant resistant varieties.
4. Prompt weed control to prevent rapid increase in aphid population.

(b) Chemical control

5. Spray affected plants with DIMETHOATE 40 (Systemic pesticide).
6. Dress plant seeds with MENAZON (systemic pesticide) to protect seedlings during
early stages of growth.
7. Forliar application with MALATHION (contact pesticide). This should be sprayed
when aphids appear and should be repeated weekly.
8. Spray affected plants with KEROSENE emulsion to suffocate aphids to death.

(c) Biological control

9. Use of ladybird beetles, which eat aphids (a biological control method).
10. Release 1250 mealybug destroyers (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) per hectare.

NEMATODES
Plant parasitic nematodes are microscopic (small) wire-like worms living in the soil. They
are unique in their persistence as soil-borne plant pests. Some parasitic nematodes
have specialized mouth parts for piercing and sucking.

Effects or damage caused by nematodes

1. Gall formation – some nematodes inject toxic saliva into plant tissues leading to
formation of galls. Sometimes root knots or swellings are formed on the roots containing
the larvae
2. Stunted root growth – some nematodes feed on roots causing restricted root growth
which will then lead to stunted plant growth.
3. Reduced/poor crop growth and yields – nematode infected crops have restricted
water supply resulting in poor growth and yields of crops.
4. Nematodes cause wounds or lesions on roots when feeding and this may lead to
secondary infections.

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5. Blocked xylem vessels – some nematodes cause galls to form in the vascular bundles
of infected roots, causing blockage of xylem vessels.

Control
Cultural control
1. Crop rotation – rotate susceptible and non-susceptible crops to discourage nematode
attack.
2. Use clean planting materials that are certified free from pests and diseases.
3. Use resistant varieties most of the time.
4. Quarantine and legislation – all agricultural imports and exports should be inspected
to ensure they are free of nematodes.
5. Heat treatment – sterilize potting soil with steam or bake it at 93-95 oC to kill
nematodes.
6. Cultivate the land during the dry season to expose nematode cysts.
7. Add plenty of organic manures to the soil to induce the growth of saprophytic fungi,
which produce substances toxic to parasitic nematodes.

Chemical control
8. Soil Fumigation with nematicides (EDB = ethylene dibromide or dibromoethene,
methyl bromide, basamid, dichloropropene-dichloropropane) should reduce nematode
population. This should be done well before planting.

RODENTS
These include rats, mice, moles, squirrels and rabbits.

Damage caused to crops by rodents.

1. Ring barking of trees.
2. Destruction of seedlings.
3. Unearthing and eating of planted seeds.
4. Consumption of stored produce (e.g. Seeds/grains)
5. Deduced quality of stored produce due to contamination with faecal material.
6. Dig out and eat roots and tubers of field crops.
7. Eat fruits, grains and leaves of crops.

Control methods
Cultural control
i) Use traps-when traps are set correctly and regularly, they can claim many victims in a
short time.
ii) Use rodent proof stores-stores should be equipped with rat guards to prevent rats and
other rodents.
iii) Bush clearing-bush clearing around storerooms and fields discourages rats and other
rodents.
iv) Quarantine and legislation-all imported goods should be certified free from rodents by
exporting agencies.
Biological control
v) Use of cats-In homes, stores and small gardens cats can be used to control rats.
Chemical control
vi) Use of rodenticides-for example baits fumigants or spread on the routes usually taken
by the rodents.

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 PLANT DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL
A disease is any deviation from the normal condition of the plant caused either by the
pathogens or by physiological factors.

Pathogens are disease-causing living organisms. Examples are fungi, protozoa,

bacteria, viruses and nematodes.

Physiological factors (physiopaths) are factors in the environment, which could cause
harm to the plants. Examples are nutritional deficiency, high temperatures, frost, water
logging etc.

1. BACTERIAL DISEASES

These are diseases caused mainly by bacterial infection. Examples are:-

● bacterial blight of cowpeas

● black rot of cabbage

● soft rot of vegetables

● bacterial wilt of tomatoes

Bacterial wilt of tomatoes (caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum)

Infection
These bacteria are soil-borne and it gets into the plant tissue through:
● Wounds in the roots and affect the vascular bundles, particularly the xylem
vessels. Thus water and nutrient conducting/transportation process is
interrupted.
● Spreading from infected to healthy plants through splash and/or flood irrigation
water, contaminated or infected planting materials, and soil, on implements and
feet of workers.

Harmful effects
● Temporary or permanent wilting of infected plants.

● Death of infected plants.

● Chlorosis, necrosis and leaf shedding.

● Discoloured xylem vessels.

● Mass of slimy bacteria form in vascular bundles of roots and stem.

● Pith decays.

Control

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● Use certified seeds and seedlings.

● Avoid using infected/contaminated soils/land.

● Fallowing infected soil for several seasons.

● Using resistant varieties (of tomatoes if available).

● Removing infected plants and burn them.

● Using (wide) crop rotation between susceptible and non-susceptible crops.

● Weeding to deny the bacteria alternative hosts.

● Treating planting materials with antibiotics (bactericides).

● Sterilizing or fumigation of soil used in plant nurseries.

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2. FUNGAL DISEASES

These are diseases caused by fungi.

Examples are
● Sorghum downy mildew

● Sorghum smuts

● Maize smut

● Leaf blight of sorghum/maize

● Early and late leaf spot of groundnuts

● Charcoal rot on sorghum/maize

Leaf spot of groundnut

Mode of infection

Source of infection is the air-borne fungus of the conidia type (asexual reproductive
structures of the fungus) carried from infected plants and crop residues. The fungus
mainly affects the leaf tissue especially in older leaves.

Harmful effects

- Severe leaf spotting resulting in (early) loss of leaves.

- Reduced photosynthesis capacity of infected plants.
- Appearance of lesions (wounds) on stems and pegs.
- Reduction in crop yield.

Control methods

● Destruction of crop residues and volunteer crops.

● Early planting.

● Adequate or proper spacing between crops.

● Optimal fertilization of the soil.

● Apply benomyl (Benlate) 0.05% W. P. 4-8g in 10 litres of water every 3 weeks,

starting 4-6 weeks after planting.
● Apply captafol (Difolotan) 0.2% W. P. 20-25g in 10 litres of water every 2 weeks
from 4-6 weeks after planting.

3. VIRAL DISEASES

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These are diseases mainly caused by viruses.

Examples are
● Maize dwarf mosaic virus (on sorghum)

● Maize streak virus (on maize)

● Groundnut rosette virus

● Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus

● Tobacco mosaic virus

Maize streak disease

Mode of infection

● This disease is transmitted by piercing and sucking insects as vectors especially

the leafhopper (Cicadulina mbila). It is more common in warmer areas.
● The maize streak virus is introduced into the tissue of the host plant by sap
sucking leafhoppers. The pathogen mainly affects the leaf tissue.
● Wild grasses and irrigated dry season cereals are sources of seasonal carryover
of the virus and the (leafhopper) vector.

Harmful effects

- Leaves turn light green with alternate yellow and green streaks parallel to the leaf
veins in infected plants.
- Small and partially filled cobs.
- Reduced a crop yield which is proportional to the time of infection.

Control methods

● Early planting in the rains.

● remove infected plants and burn them

● Maintain clean strips between fields to prevent leafhoppers from crossing over
from infested fields.
● Plant resistant varieties of maize if available.

● Avoid planting maize by irrigation during the dry season.

● Spray with carbaryl W. P. 10-20g in 10 litres of water once a week for 2-3 weeks
when plants are still small to control leafhoppers.

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 FARM CHEMICALS

PESTICIDES

A pesticide is any chemical substance used to kill or control pests.

Classify pesticides according to what they control

Pesticide category Target pest controlled

Insecticide Insects
Nematicides Nematodes
Rodenticides Rodents (rats and mice)
Fungicides Fungi
Bactericides Bacteria
Aphicides Aphids
Herbicides Weeds/herbs
Acaricides Mites
Molluscides Molluscs (snails and slugs)
Avicides birds

Pesticides can also be grouped according to their mode of action. The main
classification here is as follows:-
● contact pesticides

● stomach pesticides

● systemic pesticides

Contact Pesticides

● These are pesticides which when applied, are absorbed through the skin or
cuticle of the pest.
● They are often applied as fine sprays.

● Spraying may be done directly on pests when it is moving on exposed surface or

on foliage at risk.

Examples are:-
● Malathion/parathion

86
● DDT (dichloro diphenyltrichloroethane)

● BHC (benzene hexachloride)

● Carbaryl

● Pyrethrin

● Nicotine

● Bromophos

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 Stomach pesticides/poison

● Stomach pesticides are those that enter the insect through the mouth with food.

● These chemicals are usually used in baits or sprayed on the plants and taken in
or ingested as the pest feed on the plant.
● They target and effectively control the biting and chewing pests.

● They may be sprayed or dusted on the crop.

Examples are:-
● dieldrin

● fluorine

● rotenone

Systemic Pesticides

● Systemic pesticides are those that are absorbed into the host plant and move
throughout the plant tissue by the sap. Therefore, once these chemicals have
been sprayed on crops, they are translocated to all parts of the crop.
● As pests pierce and suck the sap, the pesticide is also taken in to the body.

● They are usually effective against sap-sucking and boring pests.

Examples are:-
● Rogor

● Dimethoate

● Menazon

● Diazinon

● Phorate

HERBICIDES

Herbicides are chemical substances used to control or kill weeds. They are also known
as weedicides or weed killers.
There are two types of herbicides:
● selective

● non-selective

(a) Selective Herbicides

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 ● These are chemicals that kill certain types of weeds/plants.

● They contain growth-controlling substances that act against the growing point
(buds) of plants. That is after the crops have emerged from the soil.
● If used properly that can kill target weeds and leaf the crop unharmed.

● The most common selective herbicides are the growth regulator types, which
normally kill most broad-leaved weeds
● Broad-leaved weeds are caused to grow in an abnormal, twisted way and die.
Narrow-leaved plants (e.g. grasses) are not affected.
● These selective weed killers are good for controlling broad-leaved weeds in
cereal crops.

(b) Non-selective herbicides

● These are chemicals that kill any type of plant. These chemicals act either by
poisoning the plants or by stopping them from carrying out one of their
important life processes, e.g. photosynthesis.
They are used for
● Pre-emergence treatment of weeds to kill all weeds just before the crop
seedlings emerge out of the soil. These herbicides should be applied after
sowing but before the plants come out.
● Minimum tillage - in this method the herbicide is applied before sowing. The
herbicide kills weeds so that seeds can be sown without cultivating/ploughing the
soil.

The table below shows examples of some common herbicides

Herbicide Type Use

Atrazine pre-emergence control of broad-leaved weeds in maize

2, 4-D selective systemic - control of broad-leaved weeds in maize
Post-emergence and sugar cane
Pre-emergence - control of broad-leaved weeds in
groundnuts

2, 4, 5-T Selective, contact control of woody weeds

Dalapon Selective, systemic control of grass weeds in most crops
Post-emergence
MCPA Selective, systemic Control of broad-leaved weeds in maize &
other grain crops.
MCPB Selective, systemic converted to MCPA within the plant; used
for control of legumes

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Paraquat non-selective, controls most weeds before/after
emergence of the crop

Sodium Chlorate Non-selective controls a wide range of weeds in crops or

on paths

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Study question: Differentiate with examples selective and non-selective herbicides.

Solution: see table below

Selective herbicides Non-selective herbicides

Kill certain types of plants/weeds Kill all types of plants/weds

used for post and pre-emergence Only used at pre-emergence to kill all
treatment weeds
Examples: Examples:
● Oran ● Atrazine

● Duron ● Glyphosate

● Dalapon ● Gramoxone (paraquat)

● cotoraz/fluometuron ● Sodium chlorate

● 2-4D,

● MCPA

● MCPB

● 2,4

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USE OF FARM CHEMICALS
Pesticide formulations

● Pesticide formulation is a pesticide preparation or form supplied by the

manufacturer for practical use.
● The formulated pesticide material usually consists of active ingredient and
an inert material.

● Active ingredient (actual toxicant) is the actual chemical compound that is

designed to kill/poison a given pest/weed.

● Inert material is the carrier or medium in which the active ingredient is

contained.

Types of Pesticides formulations

Type of Description
formulation
Sprays Pesticide in the form a wettable powder (WP), water soluble powder
(WSP), emulsifiable concentrate (EC) or miscible liquid (ML) that forms a
suspension, emulsion or solution with water for spraying. They are
applied as sprays that wet the foliage (leaves) of the crop and the pests
that may be on it.
Dusts Pesticide in which the active ingredient is formulated into dry, very fine
powder for direct application. They are dusted onto the plant or into the
planting holes or path for pests. They usually kill the pests by contact or
ingestion.
Granules Pesticide in which active ingredient is formulated as small solid particle
of up to10mm in diameter: which can be directly applied, especially
directly to soil.
Aerosols Pesticides formulated with active ingredient dissolved in an inert liquid
under pressure, on releasing the pressure the pesticide is discharged as
a gas at ordinary room temperature. These chemicals are packaged
under high pressure. They are then released in the form of a fine mist
into the air or onto the crop. Examples are Doom, Dyroach, and Target
odourless.
Fumigants Pesticides in which the active ingredient is formulated to act in the
gaseous state, i.e. when injected into the soil or applied as granules to
the soil, they change into gaseous form. These are fumes/gases, which
are used to suffocate the pests by entering their breathing system.
Fumigation can be done by igniting insecticide tablets to produce some
smoke that penetrates the stored grain to kill weevils is silos. Soil
nematodes can also be fumigated. Examples are bromomethane or
methyl bromide.

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93
BAITS*

● Baits are poisonous chemicals mixed with food to attract pests.

● Substances that attract insects are sometimes mixed with insecticides, e.g.
Malathion, so that the insects are killed when they feed on the plant material.

SEED DRESSINGS*

● Certified seed is usually treated with an insecticide, which protects it during

storage and germination.
● All seeds released by the Seed Multiplication Unit (SMU), Sebele, Botswana, are
dressed with poisonous chemicals that kill pests.
(*it is optional to write them)

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING FARM CHEMICALS

Study question: Describe the necessary precautions taken when handling and storing
chemicals to minimize pollution and poisoning.

Before application

● Read instructions, label, including the small print carefully.

● Calculate amount of chemical and volume of water required to obtain correct

dilution.
● Check application equipment for leaks, calibrate with water and ensure it is in
proper order.
● Mix thoroughly so that the chemical is dissolved.

● Carefully fill the sprayer tank and avoid spilling any spray.

● Wear appropriate protective clothing to avoid contact with the skin, eyes and
mouth.

Head – Non-absorbent hat.

Face – face musk to prevent entry of spray into the face.
Clear plastic goggles - to protect the eyes.
Respirator or breathing equipment with an air filter.
Body – non-absorbent overalls
Hands and feet – rubber gloves and boots.

NB. Overalls should cover tops of boots to prevent spray dripping down the trousers
and into the boots and coming into contact with the feet.
Face musk is very useful when spraying upwards on a windy day into the tall
branches of fruit trees.

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During application
● Spray on a calm day (not windy) to avoid spray being blown into the face.

● Do not eat, drink or smoke when spraying or mixing chemicals.

● If any spray settles on the skin or enters the eyes, wash with clean water
immediately.
● Never blow out blocked nozzles with your mouth.

● Do not spray near animals/water resources as this can cause pollution and
poisoning.
● Use the correct chemical for the pest being controlled.

● Avoid contamination of the skin, especially the eyes and the mouth.

After application

● Wash your hands thoroughly with warm water and soap.

● Secure chemicals in a locked storeroom.

● Keep out of reach of children

● Store chemicals in cool, dry and well ventilated places and tightly sealed

● Never leave pesticides unattended in the field

● Return unused pesticides to the store.

● Safely dispose of all containers.

POSSIBLE ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS OF FARM CHEMICALS

● The use of non-selective pesticides kills off predators and pollinating agents
along with pests.
● The use of pesticides may disrupt natural balances in a given ecosystem.

● The use pesticides may result in pesticide pollution, which is a health hazard to
humans and animals.
● Pesticides tend to get concentrated (accumulated) along the food chains, leading
to pesticide pollution, e.g. DDT.
● Pesticides leave residues in crops and food.

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● Pests may develop resistance to pesticides used resulting in rapid increase in
their population.
● Some pesticides are phytotoxic (poisonous), so can cause direct harm to crops.

● Herbicides pollute the air and water, killing birds and fish, and making their flesh
unsuitable for human consumption.
● Some herbicides persist in the soil, (i.e. they have a long residual effect.)

● Pesticides can poison livestock and man, so t heir use is health hazard
(danger) to man.

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 ● FIELD PRACTICAL NO. 1

THE KNAPSACK SPRAYER

This is a high volume sprayer carried by means of straps at the back of the applicator (or person
who applies the spray). It is used to apply pesticides in liquid form to plants in order to control
pests and diseases.

Calibration of a knapsack sprayer

The aim of this exercise is to determine the spray volume (SV), which is the rate at which water is
applied to a known area.

The procedure is as follows:-

1. Select and measure a sample/test area (usually 100m2).

2. Fill the spray tank with a known volume of water (in litres).
3. Proceed to spray at a normal speed and constant height until the test area is completed.
4. Measure the amount of water remaining in the tank.
5. Determine the amount of water used by subtracting the final water volume from the initial
volume of water.
6. Calculate the spray rate of the sprayer using the formula:-

Spray rate = Initial Volume (Vi) – Final Volume (Vf)

Area of test site (As)

Or Spray rate = Vf – Vi (litres/m2)

As

To calculate the amount of spray mixtures needed to spray a given area use the formula below:-

Quantity of spray mixture needed (Qm) = Spray rate x Area of field (Af)

Or Qm = (Vf – Vi) x Af (litres) where Af is the area of field

As

Exercise on calibration of a knapsack sprayer

Study the table below and use the formulae above to calculate
(a) Spray rates
(b) Amount of spray mixtures needed (Qm) to cover the following fields.

Field Total area of Initial volume of Final volume of Area of test site
field (m2) water (litres) water (litres) (m2)

A 20 000 50 20 100

B 40 000 20 10 10

C 100 000 20 10 10

Show all you’re working.

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