ANALYSIS OF ERRORS

Precision and Accuracy

Two terms are commonly associated with any discussion of error: "precision" and
"accuracy". Precision refers to the reproducibility of a measurement while accuracy is a
measure of the closeness to true value. The concepts of precision and accuracy are
demonstrated by the series of targets below. If the center of the target is the "true value",
then A is neither precise nor accurate. Target B is precise (reproducible) but not accurate.
The average of target C's marks give an accurate result but precision is poor. Target D
demonstrates both precision and accuracy - which is the goal in lab.

All experiments, no matter how meticulously planned and executed, have some degree of
error or uncertainty. In general chemistry lab, you should learn how to identify, correct,
and evaluate sources of error in an experiment and how to express the accuracy and
precision of measurements when collecting data or reporting results.

Measurement Error
Definition: The measurement error is defined as the difference between the true or actual
value and the measured value. The true value is the average of the infinite number of
measurements, and the measured value is the precise value.

Types of Errors in Measurement

The error may arise from the different source and are usually classified into the following
types. These types are

1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors
 1. Gross Errors
The gross error occurs because of the human mistakes. For examples consider the person
using the instruments takes the wrong reading, or they can record the incorrect data. Such
type of error comes under the gross error. The gross error can only be avoided by taking
the reading carefully.

For example – The experimenter reads the 31.5ºC reading while the actual reading is
21.5Cº. This happens because of the oversights. The experimenter takes the wrong
reading and because of which the error occurs in the measurement.

Such type of error is very common in the measurement. The complete elimination of such
type of error is not possible. Some of the gross error easily detected by the experimenter
but some of them are difficult to find. Two methods can remove the gross error.

Two methods can remove the gross error. These methods are

 The reading should be taken very carefully.

 Two or more readings should be taken of the measurement quantity. The readings are
taken by the different experimenter and at a different point for removing the error.
 2. Systematic Errors
The systematic errors are mainly classified into three categories.

1. Instrumental Errors
2. Environmental Errors
3. Observational Errors

2 (i) Instrumental Errors

These errors mainly arise due to the three main reasons.

Inherent Shortcomings of Instruments – Such types of errors are inbuilt in instruments

because of their mechanical structure. They may be due to manufacturing, calibration or
operation of the device. These errors may cause the error to read too low or too high.

For example – If the instrument uses the weak spring then it gives the high value of
measuring quantity. The error occurs in the instrument because of the friction or
hysteresis loss.

(b) Misuse of Instrument – The error occurs in the instrument because of the fault of the
operator. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give an enormous result.

For example – the misuse of the instrument may cause the failure to adjust the zero of
instruments, poor initial adjustment, using lead to too high resistance. These improper
practices may not cause permanent damage to the instrument, but all the same, they cause
errors.

(c) Loading Effect – It is the most common type of error which is caused by the
instrument in measurement work. For example, when the voltmeter is connected to the
high resistance circuit it gives a misleading reading, and when it is connected to the low
resistance circuit, it gives the dependable reading. This means the voltmeter has a loading
effect on the circuit.

The error caused by the loading effect can be overcome by using the meters intelligently.
For example, when measuring a low resistance by the ammeter-voltmeter method, a
voltmeter having a very high value of resistance should be used.
 2 (ii) Environmental Errors
These errors are due to the external condition of the measuring devices. Such types of
errors mainly occur due to the effect of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or
because of the magnetic or electrostatic field. The corrective measures employed to
eliminate or to reduce these undesirable effects are

 The arrangement should be made to keep the conditions as constant as possible.

 Using the equipment which is free from these effects.
 By using the techniques which eliminate the effect of these disturbances.
 By applying the computed corrections.

2 (iii) Observational Errors

Such types of errors are due to the wrong observation of the reading. There are many
sources of observational error. For example, the pointer of a voltmeter resets slightly
above the surface of the scale. Thus an error occurs (because of parallax) unless the line
of vision of the observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimize the parallax error
highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales.

3. Random Errors
The error which is caused by the sudden change in the atmospheric condition, such type
of error is called random error. These types of error remain even after the removal of the
systematic error. Hence such type of error is also called residual error.

Significant figures:
The digits used to express a number are called significant digits. Thus each
number 7845,0.4758, 3.589 contains four significant figures while the numbers
0.00386,0.000587 contains only 3 significant figures. Similarly 45000,7300.00 have 2
significant figures.
Approximate numbers:
There are two types of numbers, exact and approximate. Exact numbers are 2, 4,
7 4
9, 13, ,6.45,…..But π,  1.33333 , which cannot be expressed by a finite number of
2 3
digits. Such numbers which represent the given numbers to a certain degree of accuracy
are called approximate numbers.
Types of errors:
Rounding off errors:
22
with large number of digits example: 7  3.142857143 .The
There are numbers which

process of dropping unwanted digits is called rounding off errors.

Example:
1.7.893 to 7.89
2.12.865 to 12.9
3.6.4356 to6.44
Truncation error:
It is caused by using approximate results or on replacing an infinite process by a
finite one. Rounding off of 13.658 gives 13.66, whereas truncation gives 13.65.
Example:
x 2 x3 x2 x3
If e x  1  x    .......  X is replaced by e x  1  x   X /.
2 6 2 6
Then the truncation error is X  X '
Truncation error is a type of algorithm error.
Inherent errors:
Errors which are already present in the statement of a problem before its solution
are called inherent errors. Such errors due to the given data being approximates or due to
the limitations of mathematical tables.

Errors in Measurement
An error in measurement does not mean that the measurement is incorrect. It means that
the measurement is not exact due to the measuring device or instrument.The errors in
measurement are classified into:

• Absolute error
• Relative error
• Percentage error

Absolute, Relative and percentage error:

If X is a true value of a quantity and X / is its approximate value then
 Absolute error E a  X - X'  Error

X  X' Error
 Relative Error = E r  
X True value

 Percentage Error = E p  1 0 0 * Er
Er

Note:
1
If a number is correct to n decimal places. Then the error = 10  n
2
Example:
1 4
If a number is 3.1416 correct to 4 decimal places. Then the error is 10  0.00005 .
2
Useful rules for estimating Errors:
If the approximate value of a number X having n decimal digits is X / .Then
 Absolute error due to truncation to k digits = X  X '  10nk

10 nk
 Absolute error due to rounding off to k digits = X  X ' 
2
X  X'
 Relative error due to truncation to k digits =  101k
X

X  X ' 1 1k
 Relative error due to rounding off to k digits =  10
X 2

Examples
1. A rock weighs 2.467 kg. The students weighed it on a scale and it measured 2.45
kg.Find the
(a) absolute error
(b) relative error
(c) percentage error
Solution:
The actual value is 2.467 kg and the measured value is 2.45 kg.
(a) Absolute Error = Actual Value – Measured Value = X  X /
= 2.467 kg – 2.45 kg
= 0.017 kg
Therefore, the absolute error is 0.017 kg.
X X/
(b) Relative Error = absolute error / actual value=
X
= 0.017kg/ 2.467kg
=0.00690.
Therefore, the relative error is 0.00690.
X X/
(c ) Percentage Error = Relative Error x 100% =  100
X
= 0.0069 x 100%
= 0.69%
Therefore, the percentage error is 0.69%.

2. Round off the numbers 865250 and 37.46235 to four significant figures and
compute Ea , Er , E p in each case.
Solution:
Number rounded off to four significant figures X / = 865300
E a  X - X'  865250 - 865300  50

X  X' 50
Er    6.71  10 5
X 865250

E p  Er  100  6.71  10 3

Number rounded off to four significant figures X ' = 37.46

Ea  X - X'  37.46235 - 37.46000  0.00235

X  X' 0.00235
Er    6.27  10 5
X 37.46235

E p  Er  100  6.27  103

3. The actual length of a field is 500 feet. A measuring instrument shows the length
to be 508 feet. Calculate the absolute error and relative error of the measured
length of the feet and field.

Solution:
The actual value is 500 and the measured value is 508.
(c) Absolute Error = X  X /
= 500  508  8
Therefore, the absolute error is 8.
X X/
(d) Relative Error =
X
= 8 / 500
= 0.016
 Therefore, the relative error is 0.016.
X X/
(c ) Percentage Error =  100
X
= 0.016 x 100
= 1.6 %
Therefore, the percentage error is 1.6 %.

4. Suppose that you have a task of measuring the lengths of a bridge and a rivet,and
come up with 9999 and 9cm, respectively.If the true values are 10000 and 10 cm
respectively,compute the percentage relative error in each case.
5. The height of an observation tower was estimated to be 47m, where as its actual
height was 45m. Calculate the percentage relative error in the measurement.

6. An error is something you have done which is considered to be incorrect. If the

actual size of the nano particle X is (a) 0.004997 (b) 0.00545828 then find the
following

i. The truncated value of X (up to three significant figure)

ii. The rounded off value of X is (up to three significant figure)
iii. After truncating, rounded off to three significant figure, find the absolute
error, relative error and the percentage error.
iv. Compare truncated error and rounded off error. Which type gives the accurate
value?
Solution:

(a) We have X = 0.004997 = 0.4997*10 -2

i. After truncating to three decimal places, its approximate value
X /  0.499  10 2

Absolute Error = X  X / | 0.4997 *10 2  0.499 *10 2 | 0.000007.

X X/ 0.4997  10 2  0.499  10 2


Relative Error = X 0.4997  10  2
 0.140  10  2  1013

This proves rule (3).

X X/
Percentage Error =  100
X
  0.140 102 100
 1.4%

ii. After rounding off to three decimal places, its approximate value
X /  0.500  10 2

Absolute Error = X  X / | 0.4997 *10 2  0.500 *10 2 | 0.000003.

X X/ 0.4997  10 2  0.500  10 2


Relative Error = X 0.4997  10  2
 0.600  10 3  0.06  10 31

Which is less than 0.5  10 31 .This proves rule (4).

X X/
Percentage Error =  100
X

 0.600 103 100

 0.6%

(b) We have X = 0.00545828 = 0.545828*10 -2

After truncating to three decimal places, its approximate value
X /  0.545  10 2

X  X /  0.000828  10 2
Absolute Error =
 0.828  10 5  10  23

This proves rule (1).

X X/ 0.545828  10 2  0.545  10 2

Relative Error = X 0.545828  10 2
 1.5169  10 3

X X/
Percentage Error =  100
X

 1.5169 103 100

 0.151%
 After rounding off to three decimal places, its approximate value
X /  0.546  10 2

X  X /  0.545828  0.546  10 2  0.000172  10 2

Absolute Error =
 0.172  10 5

Which is less than  0.5  1023 .This proves rule (2).

X X/ 0.545828  10 2  0.546  10 2


Relative Error = X 0.545828  10 2
 0.3151 10 3

X X/
Percentage Error =  100
X

 0.3151103 100
 0.03151%

7. Round off the following numbers correct to four significant figures : 3.26425,
35.46735, 4985561, 0.70035, 0.00032217, 18.265101.
8. Round off the number 75462 to four significant figures and then calculate the
absolute and percentage error.
9. If 0.333 is the approximate value of 1/3. Find the absolute relative error.
10. Find the percentage error if 625.483 is approximated to three significant figures.
11. Find the relative error in taking =3.141593 as 22/7.

Answers: 7. 3.264, 35.45, 4986000, 0.7004, 0.0003222, 18.26.

8. 0.7546, -0.0002*105, 0.00265
9. 0.0003, 0.001
10. 0.077 and 11. 7. -0.0004.

12. Archery is the art of using a bow to shoot arrows. A person who participates in an
archery shoots the target using arrows.

The accuracy of the target is a measure of how close the arrow hits the target at
the center and is shown in the figure below.
 Precision refers to how closely individual measurements agree with each trial.
If some arrows is not close to the target and remaining all in the target, then it
refers to have an error.

Write the suitable results for the following pictorial representation of arrows
hitting the target

Pictorial Representation Result (Accuracy/Precise)

Precise, not Accuracy

Precise, Accuracy

Not Precise, not Accuracy

 Not Precise, not Accuracy

13. To demonstrate the relationship between accuracy and precision, suppose we have
three measuring devices: a standard 30 cm metal ruler, a old and warped 30 cm
wooden ruler, and a micrometer. If we were to use these devices to measure 100
objects of which we knew the exact length and were to plot the errors of the
approximations of our measurements, the errors may be distributed as shown in
Figures 1, 2, and 3.

Fig 1 Plot of errors in measurement using a 30 cm steel ruler.

Fig 2
Plot of errors in measurement using an old and warped 30 cm wooden ruler.

Fig 3
Plot of errors in measurement using a micrometer

i. From the above which ruler has less accuracy? Ans: Wooden
ii. The ruler from the above figures which has more precise.
Ans: Micrometer
iii. State True or False
 The number has more precision and accuracy as an estimator of π are
3.1417 and 3.1392838 respectively. Ans:False

14. The refrigerator thermometer is read ten times and registers degrees Celsius as:
39.1, 39.4, 39.1, 39.2, 39.1, 39.2, 39.1, 39.1, 39.4, and 39.1.

However, the real temperature inside the refrigerator is 37 degrees C. The

thermometer is
(a) accurate but precise (b) not accurate but precise

(c) not accurate and not precise (d) accurate but not precise