2 | Philippine Popular Culture 1

UNIT 2: Theories of Popular Culture

1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Compare and contrast the different theories or perspectives of popular
culture;
b. Apply the theories of popular culture in certain examples or situations.

1.1 Introduction

Popular culture can be explained through various assumptions or theories.

These theories present their perspectives from an ideological vantage point
and from their understanding of human behavior and of society in general.
Such theories become the basis of analysis and interpretation of why certain
problems and issues occur, as such they offer solutions or recommendations
with which people may decide for their future life or behavior.

1.1.1 The theory of mass society. Mass society formed during the 19th-century
industrialization process through the division of labor, the large-scale
industrial organization, the concentration of urban populations, the growing
centralization of decision making, the development of a complex and
international communication system and the growth of mass political
movements. The term "mass society", therefore, was introduced by
anticapitalist, aristocratic ideologists and used against the values and practices
of industrialized society. Theories of popular culture are often subjected to bias
and originate from a generalist perspective.

As Alan Swingewood points out in The Myth of Mass Culture, (Swingewood,

1977: 5-8) the aristocratic theory of mass society is to be linked to the moral
crisis caused by the weakening of traditional centers of authority such as
family and religion. The society predicted by José Ortega y Gasset, T. S. Eliot
and others would be dominated by philistine masses, without centers or
hierarchies of moral or cultural authority. In such a society, art can only
survive by cutting its links with the masses, by withdrawing as an asylum for
threatened values. Throughout the 20th century, this type of theory has
modulated on the opposition between disinterested, pure autonomous art
and commercialized mass culture.

Thus, popular culture may have influenced the Filipino and Asian values to
be more inclined towards individualism and materialism, and tend to detach
the individual from family and the traditional values that keep the family
home together.

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Follow up:

What is the impact of mass society on the family as a microcosm and the
nation as a macrocosm?
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1.1.2. Parasociality theory. This theory views the celebrity culture in the Philippines
as a symbolic function of parasociality or "illusionary intimacies" (De Guzman
Centeno, 2016). A parasocial relationship is defined as the set of one-way symbolic
interactions from the viewer to the media persona (actor, singer, presenter, etc),
with the viewer investing emotional energy, interest, and time in the media
persona (Horton & Wohl, 1956). In these interactions, interpersonal meanings are
constructed upon celebrities in the context of consumption and political
endorsements. Celebrification is an embedded trait of Philippine democracy and
consumption ideals, and such phenomenon is nuanced by the notion of habitus
where celebrities mirror spaces of social classification. While celebrity culture is an
important element in social connection and social identity sustained by traditional
and social media use, it is also a component in citizens' own accounts to issues of
public concern, democratic exercise on political election matters, and in the
everyday consumption decisions.

Figure 1. Parasocial interaction (Horton & Wohl, 1956) Source: lkbenjulie@Facebook

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Follow Up:
Could your life be affected by a celebrity or entertainer? Explain your view.
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1.1.3 The theory of culture industry. The term culture industry (German:
Kulturindustrie) was coined by the critical theorists Theodor Adorno (1903–
1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895–1973), and was presented as critical
vocabulary in the chapter "The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass
Deception", of the book Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), wherein they
proposed that popular culture is akin to a factory producing standardized
cultural goods—films, radio programmes, magazines, etc.—that are used to
manipulate mass society into passivity (Horkheimer & Adorno, 2002).
Consumption of the easy pleasures of popular culture, made available by
the mass communications media, renders people docile and content, no
matter how difficult their economic circumstances (Horkheimer & Adorno,
2002: 107) The inherent danger of the culture industry is the cultivation of
false psychological needs that can only be met and satisfied by the products
of capitalism; thus Adorno and Horkheimer especially perceived mass-
produced culture as dangerous to the more technically and intellectually
difficult high arts. In contrast, true psychological needs are freedom,
creativity, and genuine happiness, which refer to an earlier demarcation of
human needs, established by Herbert Marcuse (Durham, 2003).

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For follow up:

In general, do you have preference for digitally designed, computer

generated, and imported products over local, hand-made, and original
ones? Does this attitude contribute to social progress? Explain your
answer.

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1.1.4 Consumerism theory. According to the postmodern sociologist Jean

Baudrillard, the individual is trained into the duty of seeking the relentless
maximisation of pleasure lest he or she become asocial (Baudrillard, 1998,
p.80). Therefore, "enjoyment" and "fun" become indistinguishable from the
need to consume. Whereas the Frankfurt School believed consumers were
passive, Baudrillard argued that consumers were trained to consume
products in a form of active labour in order to achieve upward social
mobility (Baudrillard, 1998, p.110). Thus, consumers under capitalism are
trained to purchase products such as pop albums and consumable fiction in
order to signal their devotion to social trends, fashions and subcultures.
Although the consumption may arise from an active choice, the choice is
still the consequence of a social conditioning which the individual is
unconscious of. Baudrillard says, "One is permanently governed by a code
whose rules and meaning-constraints—like those of language—are, for the
most part, beyond the grasp of individuals" (Baudrillard, 1998, p.61).

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In Baudrillard's understanding, the products of capitalist popular

culture can only give the illusion of rebellion, since they are still complicit in
a system controlled by the powerful. Baudrillard stated in an interview,
critiquing the content and production of The Matrix:

The Matrix paints the picture of a monopolistic superpower, like

we see today, and then collaborates in its refraction. Basically, its
dissemination on a world scale is complicit with the film itself.
On this point it is worth recalling Marshall McLuhan: the
medium is the message. The message of The Matrix is its own
diffusion by an uncontrollable and proliferating contamination
(Genosko & Adam, July 2004).

Figure 2. RAT RACE Source: Ecosistema Urbano

Advertising allows for more sophisticated forms of propaganda not only for
product consumption but also for political influence. In order to influence
political thinking among people, some form of false information is spread
throughout the media, particularly social media. This is termed as “fake
news.”

Fake news often has the aim of damaging the reputation of a person or entity,
or making money through advertising revenue [Hunt, 2016 Dec 17). Kandel
(2020) considers fake news as a form of information disorder syndrome, which
is the sharing or developing of false information with or without the intent
of harming other, and they are categorized in misinformation,
disinformation and malinformation. The severity of the syndrome is
categorized into three grades. Grade 1 is a milder form in which the

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individual shares false information without the intent of harming others.

Grade 2 is a moderate form in which the individual develops and shares false
information with the intent of making money and political gain, but not with
the intent of harming people. Grade 3 is a severe form in which the individual
develops and shares false information with the intent of harming others
(Kendal, 2020).

Vera Files research at the end of 2017 and 2018 show that the most shared
fake news in the Philippines appeared to benefit two people the most:
President Rodrigo Duterte (as well as his allies) and politician Ferdinand R
“Bongbong” Marcos, with the most viral news driven by shares on networks
of Facebook pages (Vera Files. December 22, 2017.)

Most Philippine audience Facebook pages and groups spreading online

disinformation also bear "Duterte", "Marcos" or "News" in their names and
are pro-Duterte. Online disinformation in the Philippines is overwhelmingly
political as well, with most attacking groups or individuals critical of the
Duterte administration. (Soriano, Jake, December 19, 2018). Many
Philippine-audience fake news websites also appear to be controlled by the
same operators as they share common Google AdSense and Google
Analytics IDs (Vera Files. December 30, 2018; archived from the original on
May 22, 2021. Retrieved June 30, 2020).

According to media scholar Jonathan Corpus Ong, Duterte's presidential

campaign is regarded as the patient zero in the current era of disinformation,
having preceded widespread global coverage of the Cambridge Analytica
scandal and Russian trolls. (Ong, Jonathan Corpus, August 30, 2018). Fake
news is so established and severe in the Philippines that Facebook's Global
Politics and Government Outreach Director Katie Harbath also calls it
"patient zero" [ Rappler. June 23, 2018.] in the global misinformation
epidemic, having happened before Brexit, the Trump nomination and the
2016 US Elections. [Stevenson, Alexandra, New York Times, October 9, 2018).

Ways to spot fake news

The following are ways with which you can curb fake news:
1. Consider the source. Click away from the story to investigate the site, its
mission and its contact info.
2. Check the author. Do a quick search on the author. Are they credible? Are
they real?
3. Check the date. Reporting old news stories does not mean they are relevant
to current events.
4. Check your biases. Consider if your own beliefs could affect your
judgment.
5. Read beyond. Headlines can be outrageous in an effort to get clicks.
What’s the whole story?
6. Find supporting sources. Click on those links. Determine if the information

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given actually supports the story.

7. Find out if it is a joke. If it is too outlandish, it might be satire. Research
the site and author to be sure.
8. Ask the experts. Ask a librarian, or consult a fact-checking site.
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For follow up:
1. Are there spiritual and non-material impacts of consumerism in the life
of the individual and society? What are these impacts, if any?
2. What are the effective ways to combat fake news?
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1.1.5 The theory of progressive evolution. A fifth view on popular culture, which fits
in the liberal-pluralist ideology and is often called "progressive
evolutionism", is overtly optimistic. It sees capitalist economy as creating
opportunities for every individual to participate in a culture which is fully
democratized through mass education, expansion of leisure time and cheap
records and paperbacks. As Swingewood points out in The Myth of Mass
Culture (Swingewood, 1977:22), there is no question of domination here
anymore. In this view, popular culture does not threaten high culture, but
is regarded by Swingewood as an authentic expression of the needs of the
people.

Figure 3. Evolution of societies from the Hunting to Super Smart Society. SOURCE: ResearchGate.

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For follow up:

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What are the concerns facing the idea of progressive evolution relative to
economy, freedom, and harmony in the community.
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1.3 References

Baringer, Sally E. (c. 2006). The Philippines. In Countries and Their Cultures.
Advameg Inc. Retrieved December 20, 2009 from www.everyculture.com.
Baudrillard. J. (1998). The Consumer Society: Myths and Structures.
Crothers, Lane (2021). Globalization and American Popular Culture. Rowman &
Littlefield. p. 48. ISBN 9781538142691.
De Guzman Centeno, D. (2016). Parasociality and Habitus in Celebrity
Consumption and Political Culture: A Philippine Case Study. Asian
Journal of Social Science, 44(4/5), 441–484.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/43954178.
Durham Peters, John (2003). The Subtlety of Horkheimer and Adorno.
Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-2934-6.
Galloway, Lindsey (2 July 2018). "The five countries that set world culture". BBC
Travel. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
https://m.facebook.com/107906457498592/photos/
Jameson, Frederic (1991). Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late
Capitalism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 1991.
Horkheimer, Max and Adorno, Theodor W. (2002). Noerr, Gunzelin Schmid
(ed.). Dialectic of enlightenment philosophical fragments (PDF).
Translated by Edmund Jephcott. Stanford, California: Stanford University
Press. ISBN 978-0804736336. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June
2017. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
Horton, D., and R. Richard Wohl. 1956. Mass communication and para-social
interaction: Observations on intimacy at a distance. Psychiatry 19.3: 215–
229. DOI: 10.1080/00332747.1956.11023049
Lyotard, Jean-François (1979). La condition postmoderne: rapport sur le savoir.
Paris: Minuit.
McGaha, Julie. (2015) "Popular Culture & Globalization". Multicultural
Education 23.1 (2015): 32–37. SocINDEX with Full Text. Web. 5 Aug. 2016.
Swingewood, Alan. (1977). The Myth of Mass Culture, London: Macmillan.
Strinati, D. (2004). An introduction to theories of popular culture. Routledge.
Storey, J. (2018). Cultural theory and popular culture: An introduction. Routledge.
U.S. News.( 2020). "Cultural Influence". Retrieved 25 June 2021.

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West, Gary. (2016). What Is Pop Culture? By Gary West". Archived from the
original on 2016-08-29. Retrieved 2015-03-17.

1.4 Acknowledgement
The authors would like to extend their heartiest thanks and respect to all those who
provided help in the preparation of this module. The information contained in
this module were taken from the references cited above

Unit 1 Assessment. Introduction to Philippine Culture

Part I. Multiple Choice. Select the letter of the best answer and write in a
separate answer sheet.

1. What phenomenon in society caused the weakening of traditional centers of

authority such as family and religion
A. Overpopulation
B. Mass society
C. Culture
D. Economy

2. What is the theory which views the consumption of popular culture through
mass media as enabling the people to become docile and contented?
A. Theory of culture industry
B. Theory of mass culture
C. Theory of consumerism
D. Theory of progressive evaluation

3. What theory states that popular culture is akin to a factory producing

standardized cultural goods which manipulate masses of people to become
passive?
A. Theory of culture industry
B. Theory of mass culture
C. Theory of consumerism
D. Theory of progressive evaluation

4. Which theory sees popular culture as a process of democratization through ss

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education, expansion of leisure time and cheap products?

A. Theory of culture industry
B. Theory of mass culture
C. Theory of consumerism
D. Theory of progressive evaluation

5. Which theory says that popular culture aims maximize enjoyment and fun
rather responding to a human necessity.
A. Theory of culture industry
B. Theory of mass culture
C. Theory of consumerism
D. Theory of progressive evaluation

5. What term was coined by Adorno and Horkheimer?

A. Culture industry
B. Mass culture
C. Consumerism
D. Progressive evaluation

6. What term was developed by Jean Baudrillard?

A. Culture industry
B. Mass culture
C. Consumerism
D. Progressive evaluation

7. Which of the following is not considered a category in pop culture?

A. Entertainment
B. Sports
C. Family values
D. Fashion

21. What is a form of advertising which is characterized by false information

designed to damage the reputation of a person or entity, or making money
through advertising revenue?
A. Fake news
B. Information disorder syndrome
C. Historical revisionism
D. Disinformation

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22. According to Vera Files research, which of the following persons has been
mostly benefited by fake news?
A. Ferdinand E. Marcos
B. Ferdinand R. Marcos
C. Imelda R. Marcos
D. Sara Duterte

23. What is the most important thing in order to spot a fake news?
A. Consider the source
B. Check the author
C. Check the date
D. Check your biases

24. How are you going to determine if the source is credible and real?
A. Consider the source
B. Check the author
C. Check the date
D. Check your biases

25. What country is considered by Facebook official Harbath as the "patient

zero" in the global misinformation epidemic?
A. Russian Federation
B. US
C. Great Britain
D. Philippines

Part II.

What are the elements in Philippine popular culture which can contribute to
unity in diversity and contribute to common good and social progress?
Explain your answer. (10 points)

C. M. D. Hamo-ay