Igneous rocks:

Igneous rocks are one of the three main classes of rocks,

alongside sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. These rocks form through the
cooling and solidification of molten rock, or magma. Depending on where and
how this cooling process occurs, igneous rocks can be classified into two main
types: plutonic (or intrusive) and volcanic (or extrusive).

Types of Plutonic (Intrusive) Igneous Rocks:

Plutonic igneous rocks form when magma cools and crystallizes slowly beneath
the Earth's surface. This slow cooling allows for the growth of large, interlocking
mineral crystals, which are typically visible to the naked eye. Some common
examples of plutonic igneous rocks include:

1. Granite:
It Composed mainly of quartz, feldspar, and mica (Ferro-magnesium
rich Minerals, dark color and basic). Granite can range in color from white
to black, with various shades of gray, pink and red. Granite has a coarse-
grained texture. It’s hardness rating of 6-7 relatively hard and density of
around 2.75 g/cm³.

2. Diorite:
It Contains plagioclase feldspar, biotite, hornblende, and sometimes
quartz. Diorite commonly appears in dark gray to black shades, exhibiting a
speckled or mottled texture. IT exhibits a coarse-grained texture,
characterized by prominently visible mineral grains. It’s hardness rating of
6-7 relatively hard and density of around 2.9-3.0 g/cm³.

Type of Volcanic (Extrusive) Igneous Rocks:

Volcanic igneous rocks form when magma reaches the Earth's surface and cools
rapidly. The rapid cooling results in smaller crystals that are usually too small to be
seen without magnification. Common examples of volcanic igneous rocks include:

1. Andesite:
It typically consists of plagioclase feldspar, biotite, pyroxene, and
amphibole minerals. It usually appears in shades of gray to black and exhibits
 a fine-grained texture. Andesite forms from the rapid cooling of magma at the
Earth's surface, resulting in small mineral crystals that are generally not
visible to the naked eye. It has a hardness rating of around 6 and a density
ranging from 2.3 to 2.8 g/cm³. Andesite is commonly found in volcanic areas
associated with subduction zones and volcanic arcs.

2. Basalt:
It is composed mainly of pyroxene and plagioclase feldspar, and often
contains olivine as well. Basalt forms from rapid cooling of lava at or near the
Earth's surface, resulting in a fine-grained texture with small, often
microscopic, mineral crystals. It is dense, with a hardness rating of around 6
on the Mohs scale, and has a density ranging from 2.8 to 3.0 g/cm³.

Common Minerals in Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are typically composed of a combination of the following minerals:

i. Quartz
ii. Mica
iii. Feldspar
iv. Amphibole
v. Pyroxene
vi. Olivine

Sedimentary rocks:
Sedimentary rocks are one of the three main classes of rocks, alongside igneous
and metamorphic rocks. They form at the Earth's surface through the accumulation and lithification
(compaction and cementation) of sediments derived from the weathering of pre-existing rocks,
biological activity, or direct precipitation from solution.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks:

1. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks:
Clastic sedimentary rocks such as conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, and
shales form from the accumulation and lithification of fragments of older rocks. These fragments
(clasts) are transported and deposited by wind, water, or ice, and then compacted and cemented
together. Examples include:
  Conglomerate:
It Composed of rounded gravel-sized particles, typically made of quartz, chert, or
other durable rock fragments. These particles are poorly sorted, exhibiting a wide range
of sizes and shapes. The rock is generally hard, with a rough texture, and is cemented
together by substances like silica, calcite, or iron oxides.

 Sandstone: Made of sand-sized particles, mainly quartz, feldspar, and sometimes rock
fragments. It is well-sorted, with a consistent particle size. The particles are commonly
cemented by silica, calcite, or iron oxides. Its hardness ranges from 6 to 7 on the Mohs scale.
Sandstone generally has a gritty texture and a porous structure.

 Shale: It consists of clay-sized particles primarily composed of clay minerals like

kaolinite, fillite, and montmorillonite, alongside quartz and organic matter. It is well-
sorted, with very fine particles arranged in thin, parallel layers known as lamination.
Shale typically registers a hardness of around 3 on the Mohs scale. It has a smooth
texture and often splits into thin sheets, a characteristic known as fissility.

2. Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks: Biogenic sedimentary rocks form through the accumulation of
biological debris or by chemical activities of organisms. Examples include:

 Limestone:
It Often formed from the accumulation of marine shells and coral reefs. Limestone
is primarily composed of calcite (CaCO₃), with occasional traces of other minerals such as clay,
silt, or sand. It is typically found in massive or bedded formations and can exhibit crystalline,
oolitic, or fossiliferous structures. Limestone has a hardness of around 3 on the Mohs scale and
reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, producing effervescence.

 Chert:
It Formed from the accumulation of silica-rich remains of organisms such as
diatoms and radiolarian Chert consists primarily of microcrystalline quartz (SiO₂). It is a
dense and hard rock, commonly occurring as nodules or layers embedded within
limestone. Chert typically ranks around 7 on the Mohs scale of hardness. It is very tough
and dense, characterized by its conchoidal fracture patterns.

Metamorphic rocks:
Metamorphic rocks are formed from the alteration of pre-existing rocks
(igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks) through heat, pressure, and chemically
active fluids. This process, known as metamorphism, occurs deep within the Earth's crust where
conditions differ significantly from those at the surface. Metamorphism causes changes in the
mineral composition, texture, and sometimes the chemical composition of the rocks without
melting them.
Types of Metamorphic Rocks:
1. Schist:
Schist is characterized by its highly crystalline structure and significant water
content. It is also known for its foliation, meaning its mineral grains can easily split into
flakes or slabs. This rock can be split along the planes where its platy minerals are
aligned. Schist's composition includes platy minerals such as mica, talc, chlorite, or
graphite, along with granular minerals like feldspar and quartz. Common minerals found
in schist are muscovite, biotite, quartz, and feldspar, with porphyroblasts including
garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite, and cordierite.

2. Marble:
Marble rock is primarily composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3),
comprising over 90% of its mineral composition. It also contains varying
amounts of other minerals such as quartz, mica, feldspar, iron oxides,
graphite, pyrite, and dolomite. The quality and suitability of marble for
different applications depend on the purity of its calcium carbonate content.
Marble exhibits a range of colors including white, pink, gray, brown, green,
yellow, or blue, determined by its mineral composition. It is relatively soft,
with a Mohs hardness rating of 3, and has a massive structure with medium-
sized, interlocking calcite crystals, giving it a granoblastic, granular texture.