See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/351343941

Solid Waste Management and Policies Toward Sustainable Agriculture

Chapter · May 2021

DOI: 10.1007/978-981-15-7525-9_27-1

CITATIONS READS

3 465

4 authors, including:

Vijay Kant Singh Arkendu Ghosh

Punjab Agricultural University 3 PUBLICATIONS 3 CITATIONS
49 PUBLICATIONS 175 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE

Apurba Pal
Birsa Agricultural University
65 PUBLICATIONS 81 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Vijay Kant Singh on 05 May 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Solid Waste Management and Policies
Toward Sustainable Agriculture

Vijay Kant Singh, Praveen Solanki, Arkendu Ghosh, and Apurba Pal

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Solid Waste and Its Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
What is Waste? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Types of Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Solid Waste Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3R Principle for Solid Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Reducing, Recycling, and Reusing of Solid Waste Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Sustainable Solution for Solid Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Zero Emissions Industrial Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Developing the Production of Bio-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Landfill and Open Dumping Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Agriculture Organic Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Valorization of Organic Matter Solid Waste via Composting and Anaerobic Digestion . . . . . . . 13
Composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Industrial Organic Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Municipal/Domestic Food Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Sludge from Wastewater Treatment Plant for Biogas Production via Anaerobic Digestion
Through Valorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Swachh Bharat Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

V. K. Singh (*)
Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
P. Solanki
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh, India
A. Ghosh
Department of Fruit Science, Horticulture College, BAU, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
A. Pal
Department of Basic Science, Horticulture College, BAU, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1

C. Baskar et al. (eds.), Handbook of Solid Waste Management,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7525-9_27-1
2 V. K. Singh et al.

Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Abstract
Solid waste is consolidated materials from a wastewater and water supply treat-
ment plant, garbage, refuse, and discarded materials from mining, agricultural
operations, industries, and community activities. Several types of solid wastes are
produced such as agricultural wastes, municipal wastes, industrial waste, mining
waste, nuclear waste, medical waste, etc. Management and proper reuse of solid
waste are very important for sustaining and maintaining the entire bio-geo-
ecosystem. Due to increased urbanization and burgeoning population, efficient
management of solid waste is indispensable, so a complete process of collection,
transportation, proper disposal, recycling, and monitoring of solid waste is very
crucial at this stage. The sustainability of the agriculture sector closely coincides
with the appropriate management of solid wastes so that they are reused. Solid
waste management is undertaken to recycle wastes to reduce their detrimental
effects on the various environmental segments such as soil, water, health, and
aesthetics. Several techniques are used for solid waste management like
composting, pyrolysis, recycling, anaerobic digestion, incineration, plasma gas-
ification, landfilling, etc. Anaerobic digestion produces biofuel in the form of
biogas. Plasma gasification results in the generation of electricity from wastes
using the well-said principle “wealth out of waste.” Composting of solid waste
material removes potentially harmful microorganism and provides the most
valuable source of nutrients for sustaining the agri-horti-production. So manage-
ment of solid waste by well-treating in treatment plants produces biosolids that
are useful for sustainable agriculture as it provides essential plant nutrients and
reduces environmental pollution as well (Solanki and Debnath 2014). Emphasis
should be given to identify the role of currently executed policies as well as
lacking support and challenges for solid waste management and sustainable
agriculture development. This chapter mainly focuses on solid waste, its types,
various sources, and disposal technologies used for proper management of solid
waste.

Keywords
Solid waste · Incineration · Composting

Introduction

Sustainable management of solid waste is a biggest challenge in the cities of

developing countries like India, Pakistan, Nepal, and other South Asian countries,
since it is correlated with development, increasing population, as well as high cost
associated with the handling and management of solid waste. Lack of understanding
Solid Waste Management and Policies Toward Sustainable Agriculture 3

and knowledge over different factors associated with the handling of solid waste is a
major concern. Population increase, rapid urbanization, booming economy, and the
rise in the standard of living in developing countries have greatly accelerated the
rate, amount, and quality of the municipal solid waste generation (Minghua et al.
2009). Waste is “any substance or object which the producer or the person in
possession of it discards or intends or is required to discard.” “Organic waste” refers
to any type of solid, semi-solid, liquid, or gaseous materials with different physico-
chemical characteristics, with a highly complex composition, organic in nature
which are disposing currently as controlled landfills, incineration, etc. and used
them to the agricultural soils by making compost. Since incineration is a very
expensive and environmentally criticized technique, other recycling or reusing
options are considered better.
It is projected that in the whole world currently there are about 3 billion
populations generating 1.2 kg of waste per person per day, almost 1.3 BT of
municipal solid waste (MSW) a year or 1.2 kg per capita per day. In 2025, this
will probably increase to 4.3 BT from urban residents, about 1.42 kg per inhabitant
per day of MSW (2.2 thousand millions of tons a year). However, they are highly
variable since there are differences in the rates of waste generation between coun-
tries, between cities, and even within cities. Incorporation of organic wastes into the
soil from sewage treatment plants (STPs) or selective collection of urban garbage has
been done for several decades in so many countries in the world (Solanki et al.
2017). These have created and altered few preventive rules against probable prob-
lems with the contaminants present in them, emphasizing potentially toxic metals,
organic contaminants, and pathogens (Solanki et al. 2018). Urban solid wastes
(USWs) are wastes resulting from households; civil construction, health service;
wastes from pruning and grass cutting; wastes from ports, airports, bus terminals,
and train terminals; wastes from cleaning manholes, and wastes from sweeping,
markets, and others (Dotaniya et al. 2018). Industrial solid wastes (ISWs) include the
wastes of processing industries, radioactive wastes, and agricultural wastes (Solanki
et al. 2019). They are extremely varied and present diversified characteristics, since
they depend on the kind of product being manufactured. Radioactive wastes (nuclear
wastes) are those that emit radiation above the limits allowed by Brazilian standards,
generally resulting from nuclear fuels, which, according to the legislation that
specifies them, are in the exclusive purview of the National Committee of Nuclear
Energy. Agricultural wastes are those generated by activities pertaining to agricul-
ture and livestock, such as containers of fertilizers, agricultural pesticides, feed,
remnants of harvests, and manure. Since agrochemical containers are highly toxic,
they have specific legislation. Agrochemicals include a variety of pesticides (e.g.,
herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides), growth regulators, desiccants, and adju-
vants. In addition to packaging, other waste streams can include washings, unused
concentrates, and contaminated clothing. Pesticide washings arise from the rinsing
of pesticide spray tanks following spraying. The recommended practice is to apply
the washings to an unsprayed area of crop, avoiding waste and reducing risk to the
environment. Widespread attention to agricultural waste management has clearly
been limited to date. Agricultural waste is exempt from waste management controls
4 V. K. Singh et al.

due to the limited amount of waste generated in relation to other sectors, as well as
recent economic difficulties in farming (and related industries). A number of con-
cerns have been raised, including the visual effects of long-term stockpiling of
plastics and other waste on farms, as well as the possible environmental and
human health risks associated with other traditional practises (e.g., burning and
burial of waste on farms). This section summarizes the main drivers for change in
agricultural waste management practices, including the proposed legal controls on
waste and a range of other drivers affecting farmers and all parties in the input supply
chain. Water, which up to the last generation was considered an abundant natural
resource, has become a limiting factor that was compromised because of high
pollution in some regions, as a result of the inadequate discharge of urban sewage
which is the main polluter of water sources. However, sewage treatment generates a
sludge rich in organic matter, heavy metals, and nutrients whose final disposal
should be planned systematically during the planning phase of treatment plants,
thus avoiding partially canceling out the benefit of effluent collection and treatment.
Assessment of the processes from the most favorable to least favorable that
protect the environment alongside resource and energy consumption is known as
waste management hierarchy. Avoidance includes actions to minimise the amount of
waste produced by households, industry, and all levels of government; resource
recovery includes reuse, recycling, reprocessing, and energy recovery, all of which
are consistent with the most effective use of recovered resources; and disposal
including management of all disposal options in the most environmentally respon-
sible mannerand waste management hierarchy is a collection of precedence for the
efficient use of resources. It seems from the waste hierarchy that some types of
waste, such as hazardous chemicals or asbestos, cannot be safely recycled, so that
direct treatment or disposal is the most suitable management option. It is necessary to
consider waste for disposal, not for discarding or open dumping. In the process of
disposal, organized actions are required for the purpose of using and not only
eliminating the waste, and reutilization of waste is certainly the most acceptable
option from the sustainability of economic, environmental, agriculture and social
standpoint. Solid Waste Management Rules 2016 gives a reasonable drafting to
tackle the challenges related to municipal solid waste management (MSWM) in
India. Solid Waste Management Rules 2016 was the improvement over the Solid
Waste Management Rules 2000 which was the first rule made by the Government for
Indian cities. To tackle with management-related problems, the Government of India
gives important strategic direction and funding through national mission such as
JNNURM, AMRUT, Smart Cities, and Swachh Bharat Mission. After making such
rules and missions, it is important to operate the strategies in the integrated way for
solid waste management.
Solid Waste Management and Policies Toward Sustainable Agriculture 5

Solid Waste and Its Type

What is Waste?

Waste includes all the materials that are no longer of use to the people, who either
intend to get rid of or had already discarded it. It is used as a resource if it is put in the
right place. Items which can be considered as waste are household rubbish, sewage
sludge, waste materials from the manufacturing activities, packaging items,
discarded cars, discarded electronic devices, garden waste, old paint containers,
etc. Thus all our daily activities can give rise to a large variety of different wastes
arising from different sources (Solanki 2014; Solanki et al. 2017a).

Solid Waste

According to RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act), solid waste means
any waste, garbage, or refuse; sludge materials from the wastewater treatment plant,
water supply treatment plant, and air pollution control facility; and other discarded
materials coming from industrial, mining, commercial, and agricultural operations
and from community activities. Solid waste also includes wastes generated from
institutional construction and residential, commercial, or industrial as well as waste
materials from demolition processes and municipal services (Solanki et al. 2017b).

Types of Solid Waste

Agricultural Waste
Agricultural waste includes most of the organic waste from the animal excreta in the
form of farmyard manure, sludge, soiled water and silage effluent, or plant residues
in the forms of leaves and branches and waste such as plastic, scrap machinery,
fencing, pesticides, waste oils, and veterinary medicines. Agricultural wastes are the
residues from the growing and processing of fresh agricultural products like cereal
crops, dairy products, fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, etc. These
wastes are non-product outputs of production and processing of agricultural products
whose economic values are less than the cost of collection, transportation, and
processing for beneficial use. The composition of agricultural waste varies
depending on the type of material and can be solid, liquid, or gas.
Agricultural waste also known as “agro-waste” comprised of food-processing
waste (e.g., only 20% of maize is canned and the remaining is waste), animal waste
(manure, animal carcasses), crop waste (corn stalks, drops and culls from fruits and
vegetables, prunings, sugarcane bagasse), and hazardous and toxic agri-chemical
waste (pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, etc.). Expanding agricultural production
has naturally resulted in increased quantities of livestock waste, agricultural crop
residues, and agro-industrial by-products.
6 V. K. Singh et al.

Municipal Waste
Municipal solid waste (MSW) includes household waste; market area waste; slaugh-
terhouse waste; commercial area waste; institutional waste (e.g., from school, shops,
supermarket, institutions, community halls); horticultural wastes, i.e., wastes from
parks and gardens; wastes from road sweeping; silt from drainage; and biomedical
and veterinary waste. MSW contains, mostly, hazardous substances including some
batteries, paints, mercury-containing waste (Dotaniya et al. 2020), pharmaceuticals,
vehicle maintenance products, and many other products (Slack et al. 2004). It does
not include the waste which is generated from industrial production or construction
and demolition processes. Major part of these wastes is food wastes, paper, metal,
rags, and glass, with some hazardous household wastes like batteries, electric light
bulbs, discarded medicines, and automotive parts. However, MSW and its proper
management is one of the important challenges to the environment. To overlook the
problems related from the MSW, municipalities are the main responsible factor.
They have to provide an effective and efficient system to the inhabitants. However,
they are often facing so many problems beyond the ability of the municipal authority
to handle MSW (Sujauddin et al. 2008). This is essentially due to financial resources,
lack of organization, and complexity (Burntley 2007). Composition of MSW varies
from one municipality to another and from country significantly. Several studies
reported that the MSWs generated from the developing countries are mainly from
households (55–80%), followed by market or commercial areas (10–30%). The latter
consist of variable quantities generated from industries, streets, institutions, and
many others (Nabegu 2010). It is defined as any solid or semisolid substance or
object resulting from human or animal activities, discarded as useless or unwanted
materials, extremely mixed mass of wastes, which may originate from household,
commercial, industrial, or agricultural activities.

Industrial Waste
It is a manufacturing waste that comes from a wide range of different processes, such
as sludges, product residues, slags, ashes, kiln dust, etc. Major part of industrial
waste comes from the three types of industries, i.e., food-processing, metallurgy, and
nonmetallurgy industries. Such wastes are categorized into three forms, i.e., solid,
liquid and gas; however, they may differ from industry to industry according to the
base or raw materials used for making the product, the manufacturing processes, and
the product outlets. Industrial wastes may be organic, inorganic, biodegradable, and
nonbiodegradable in nature. Industrial waste is also produced by the activities such
as that of mills, mines, and factories. Most of the industrial waste has neither
hazardous nor toxic substances. The manufacturing industry generates wastes from
the different streams of wide range of industrial processes. Maximum waste gener-
ated by industrial sectors includes the production of basic metals, wood and wood
products, paper and paper products, tobacco products, etc. Due to burgeoning
population and great industrial growth, waste from manufacturing sector continues
to rise, despite the national and international guidelines and declarations to reduce
waste from industry.
Solid Waste Management and Policies Toward Sustainable Agriculture 7

Solid Waste Generation

Increasing population, improving standard of living, and increasing urbanization

have increases both the quantity and type of solid waste generated by domestic,
industrial, mining, and agricultural activities. Globally, the estimated quantity of
waste generation was 120 MT in 2002, out of which 16 MT were municipal solid
waste (MSW) and 110 MT were industrial wastes.
Up to 2025, approximately 190 MT of solid wastes are expected to be generated
(Yoshizawa et al. 2004). However, Asia alone generates about 44 MT of solid waste,
and MSWs comprise 790 MT, of which about 48 (6%) MT are generated in India
(Yoshizawa et al. 2004; CPCB 2000). By the year 2047, MSW generation in India is
expected to reach 300 MT. The problem related to solid waste generation (SWG) is
an issue of concern everywhere in the world. SWG is one of the biggest challenging
issues in developing countries that suffer from severe environmental pollution
problems caused by the large quantities of SWG (Al-Khatib et al. 2010). Several
studies reported that collection of solid waste, its storage, transportation, and ulti-
mately final disposal are a foremost problem in urban cities. Most of the developing
countries fail in management of solid waste due to the limited available resources
and the competing priorities over their resources. The main reason of these problems
associated with solid waste management is attributed to the poor economy of these
areas which accounts for the low achievement in solid waste management. In the
consideration of these factors, SWG and their composition are influenced by other
socioeconomic factors including the average family size, number of rooms, monthly
income, and development status (Sankoh et al. 2012) because it has been reported
that there is a direct correlation between solid waste composition and the social
activities in the community (Gidarakos et al. 2006). The main issues which become
hurdles in the MSW management in all the countries are sociocultural, economic,
political, legal, and environmental factors. Therefore, there should be adoption of
new technology for the municipal solid waste management and generation that
should be taken into consideration.

Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste

Disposal of municipal solid waste is a widespread problem in both urban and rural
areas of the several developing countries. Canals and open drains are widely used to
dump MSW. Due to absence of systematic garbage collection system, convenient
landfills, open canals, and drains are being blocked by dumping huge amounts of
solid and garbage wastes. Such toxic materials having hazardous materials have
harmful impact on the environment due to their degradable constituents. Degradable
constituents add high loads of biological oxygen demand to the ecosystem. So, lack
of MSW management and its proper disposal is significantly reducing the environ-
mental problems like soil, water, and other pollutions. Due to such environmental
problems that are directly associated with the human health disorder, it increases the
greenhouse gas emissions (Weigand et al. 2003; Narayan et al. 2017).
8 V. K. Singh et al.

Collection of municipal solid waste is inadequate in varying degrees especially in

the rural areas where waste is thrown directly into the river and waterways or is
indiscriminately dumped in the roadsides. Reasons for this are lack of finance, lack
of awareness of the environmental, inadequate solid waste management, and lack of
enforcement. Many landfills are unsanitary landfills due to land acquisition prob-
lems, insufficient collection, disposal fees, and insufficient number of landfills. The
waste is dumped into rivers and ponds, burned, or left uncollected. The household
hazardous wastes (HHW) are disposed of in landfills along with general household
waste (HW). It is generally a misconception that the amount of HHWs are small;
thus, risks of disposal are negligible. Separate disposal of MSW and industrial and
other wastes raises the importance of toxic and hazardous element contained in such
wastes (Slack et al. 2005). There are great concerns about the presence of several
chemicals in the household products (Blundell 2003). The consequences and the
impact to the environment that resulted from the disposal of HHW are also of
concern. Thus the disposal of such HHW to landfill should, therefore, cope with
the current legislation in order to decrease the risk to the environment (Slack et al.
2005). Globally, about 71% of MSWs are disposed of in landfills (Zacarias-Farah
and Geyer-Allély 2003). On the other hand, more than 53% of the landfilled wastes
consist of hard board paper, yard waste, papers, and food that are biodegradable by
the anaerobic bacteria (Barlaz et al. 2010). Most of MSWs as well as many other
solid wastes are disposed of in landfills. Thus, a basic understanding about the proper
landfill design is helpful. Therefore, landfills have evolved from just open dumps to
highly engineered facilities and site that are designed to contain waste.

3R Principle for Solid Waste Management

Reducing, Recycling, and Reusing of Solid Waste Materials

Reducing solid waste generation as much as possible at the source point is the key
step in solid waste management. Recycling or recovery is a very good option and
method, and it has been successfully applied in mills and factories, particularly at
those with small- or medium-scale production capacity. There is a wide range of
products made from recycled plastic, including polyethylene bin liners and carrier
bags; flooring and window frames; PVC sewer pipes and building insulation board;
video and compact disc cassette cases; composters; seed trays; fiberfill for sleeping
bags and duvets; a variety of office accessories; fencing and garden furniture; and
water butts and garden sheds. However, the demand is high only for plastic, glass,
and cardboard materials and some special metals for recycled wastes. Recycling of
plastic waste materials is one of the important ways to reduce waste because,
approximately, 40% of plastic waste is disposed in landfills because of poor waste
segregation. As we know, most of the plastic are non-degradable, so they take much
time to break down, possibly up to hundreds of years. If the quantity of plastic waste
increases day by day, its recycling will be a major concern. It can be opportunities as
well as attractive market for the investment and development. Guidelines given by
the government should be followed strictly.
Solid Waste Management and Policies Toward Sustainable Agriculture 9

In case of organic waste, recycling is not a beneficial, economic, and environ-

mental trait. Organic waste can be used as feedstock for aerobic or anaerobic
digestion because these methods are more cost-effective and environmentally
friendly. The products resulting from those processes, such as fertilizers and biogas,
are useful products in countries that have an economy relying widely on agriculture.
Reuse is the preferable strategy for the handling of plastic materials due to its low
energy uses.
Production of long-life, multi-trip plastic packaging should be focused because
those types of plastic packaging can replace less durable and single-trip alternatives,
so that waste is reduced efficiently. It is popular because it is an economically viable
undertaking. This undertaking is currently accomplished by medium-scale or house-
hold enterprises and is predicted to grow where it offers a beneficial economic
impact. Plastic cans may last up to 10–20 years and can then be recycled at the
end of their useful life. If reusing waste is applied successfully, the amount of plastic
waste requiring disposal will be less, thereby lessening the burden on waste disposal.
Additionally, it can reduce energy consumption and can save money. Recycling has
been done by the separation of valuable to non-valuable materials by waste-pickers.
They remove the most valuable materials, either before garbage enters the waste
stream or en route at households, especially in the lower- and middle-income areas of
many municipalities. Thereafter, waste-pickers provide recovered materials to the
mills where waste will be recycled into new products.

Sustainable Solution for Solid Waste Management

Scheinberg et al. (2010) reported that there are indications that high rates of recovery
for recycling are associated with tipping fees at the site of disposal. High disposal
pricing has the positive effect on recovering the generated solid waste. This goes to
the beneficial reuse or the value chains of solid waste. Gonzalez-Torre and Adenso-
Diaz (2005) reported that social influences and altruistic and regulatory factors are
important reasons why certain communities can develop strong recycling habits. In
order to increase the rates of recycling, the local government must encourage the
markets for the recycled materials and should increase the professionals in the
recycling companies. Important factors were mentioned by other fellows including
a financial support for different recycling projects (Nissim et al. 2005), to support the
infrastructure of the recycling companies in their country (Henry et al. 2006).
MSW management solutions must be financially sustainable, technically feasible,
socially and legally acceptable, as well as environmentally friendly. Sorting the
MSW at the source is a process that is possible, and to combine with the recycling
materials as well as waste to energy generation methods. Waste management, in fact,
addresses the use of multidisciplinary approaches covering from engineering,
humanities, sociology, and biology (Francois et al. 2006). Although technologies
like disposal or mechanical sorting of the MSW in landfills do not drastically
improve the MSW management. The level of development of a country
reflects the impact on the management of solid waste and the selection of such
10 V. K. Singh et al.

management (Cheng et al. 2007). For producing renewable energy and other new
products including compost for waste management, many developed countries
employ various methods (Riber et al. 2009). These countries invest in waste
recycling for the benefit of agriculture activities (Philippe and Culot 2009; Khanna
and Solanki 2014). Selection of solid waste management depends on the decisions
taken by city leaders as well as the structures related to the nature, quantity, and
quality of local waste produced (Baldwin and Dripps 2012).
Thus, physical features of MSW including composition, calorific value (heating
potential), and moisture content (MC) should be well known to select the suitable
methods of management. Nevertheless, the MC may reach up to 55–70% depending
on the climate conditions and solid waste composition (Hui et al. 2006). It has been
estimated by UNEP (2010) that solid waste management contributes for the green-
house gas (GHG) emission between 3% and 5%. This is mainly due to the emission
of CH4, CO2, and N2O that escapes from the open dumps. Additional gas emissions
of CO2 are from the upstream processes such as transportation and waste collection
(UNEP 2010). Management of waste via different ways, i.e., energy production,
application of compost as an organic fertilizer to the soil, and storing carbon in
landfills, can certainly reduce or save GHG emissions. UNEP (2010) suggested that
internationally recognized institutions recommended a future waste management
focused on the 3R concept (namely, reduce, reuse, and recycle). These 3R are
waste prevention, circular economy establishment, cleaner productions, and valori-
zation of the waste by transformation into a source of energy and materials (UNEP
2010). Waste management, thus, represents one of the main issues that have to be
faced by mankind nowadays.
Wastes are deposited in government-owned landfills and managed by a private
consortium. However, waste collection has just stopped at urban collection levels of
approximately 70–90%, and there are still many open disposal sites, which have
negative effects on human health and the environment. The starting point of these
solutions can be identified by environmentally sound management of waste, apply-
ing zero emissions industrial ecosystems, including agro-based industrial systems.
Although reusing, composting, recycling, biorefineries, bio-digestion, and bio-
extraction are encouraged. Environmentally sound waste management system is
considered as sustainable waste management solutions.
For sustainable waste management, the solution must be finding beyond ordinary
safe disposal or recovery. Waste that is generated must seek to the address the root
cause of the problem by attempting to change unsustainable patterns of production
and consumption. Additionally, it should be realized by using the technical, organi-
zational, and financial resources available in a particular locality, followed by waste
policy (waste hierarchy), waste planning, regulatory framework, and enforcement of
the law. Particularly, waste management should be regulated by waste policies, in
which waste prevention, waste minimization, reuse, recycling; environmentally safe
waste treatment and sanitary landfilling are included. Another important component
is waste planning and the coordination of other policies on national, regional, and
local levels. Waste planning makes it possible to take into consideration a large
number of different factors that have an impact on the waste management system.
Solid Waste Management and Policies Toward Sustainable Agriculture 11

Zero Emissions Industrial Ecosystems

Zero emissions ecosystem approach is employed when returning “residual products”

as inputs to further processes in industrial closed-loop systems. This may involve
redesigning both products and processes in order to eliminate hazardous properties
that make the residues unusable and unmanageable in quantities that overburden
both the industry and the environment. A foundation of zero emissions systems is
provided by the concept of industrial metabolism, which stands for the whole
integrated collection of physical processes that convert raw materials and energy,
plus labor, into final products and wastes in a steady-state condition. Waste can be
prevented through designs based on the full life cycle of the product, therefore
offering opportunities for reduced costs and reduced negative environmental
impacts. As well as, focusing on the renewable resources like energy, materials
and resources pursues to achieve the sustainable future.
Foundation to apply a zero emissions industrial ecosystem, especially a zero
emissions agro-based industrial system model, is based on the concept of solving
problems of large quantities of waste generated, reducing the negative impact on the
environment, saving money, and enhancing sustainability of the development
(renewable energy, renewable resources) and faster progress, irrespective of how
large or small the industrial system is, what kind of production activities are used,
how homogeneous or heterogeneous, and even its location.
In agro-based industrial system, application of AIZES model is generally possible
because analyzing the material flow and pursuing sustainable solutions for waste
prevention and minimization support the direction toward “there is no chance for
waste”; in particular, capital costs for the model are not high. There is a strong belief
that the economic development relies largely on agriculture and agro-based indus-
tries in East Asia. Agriculture contributes about 25–30% of total export earnings,
and the countries are now becoming self-sufficient in food crops. It means that food
waste from the food-processing industry can be a potential feedstock to produce
renewable energy. This practice not only reduces the amount of organic waste
disposed but also increases the reuse of wastes, i.e., organic, agricultural, manure,
sludge, and residues for biogas conversion, which can approach a fundamental
avoidance of environmental degradation. Use of organic waste to generate energy
like electricity and gas looks like a practical approach due to the rising amount of
waste generation as well as the over-reliance on fossil fuels. Since the goal is to
increase the bio-energy use, direction will be a path of adapting “waste to renewable
energy” and greenhouse emission reduction.

Developing the Production of Bio-products

Adaptation of natural cycle of materials and energy has been sought for the solution
of sustainable waste management. Switching to plant-based plastics might be such
an approach; because of this, the production of bio-products is being considered.
Bio-plastic bags are made from plant or crop starch. After use, the packaging can be
12 V. K. Singh et al.

disposed together with organic waste. It can be broken down when exposed to
sunlight. Sustainable waste management should consider bio-products because of
their environmentally friendly traits as well as the different advantages. Large
amounts of waste materials and crop residues of agricultural products from a variety
of crops, i.e., fruit and vegetables, are being considered for the production of bio-
products.

Landfill and Open Dumping Sites

The most used and cheapest disposal of solid waste is the landfills as waste
management techniques (Mahmood et al. 2015). MSWs are originated from different
activities carried out in homes, in public and private service as well as buildings, and
commercial services. They all form an important portion of the solid waste nowa-
days (Dogruparmak et al. 2011). Open dumping is the common practice for disposal
of waste, for example, waste is dumped on swamplands and in low-lying areas.
Approximately 50–80% of solid waste is collected each day and then disposed in
landfills or dumpsites. Site selection of the landfill is extremely important due to the
lack of public acceptance that results in several social problems (Hadjibiros et al.
2011).
The most important processes are quantification and characterization of all the
sustainable solid waste management systems. At a particular place, for integrating
technologies, studying about the composition and categories of solid waste is
important including recycling and resource recovery in the concerned solid waste
management systems. Effective planning and development strategies about the
quantity and categories of wastes are of great importance for sustainable manage-
ment of solid waste. Concerning the integrated solid waste management program,
information also can certainly assist in infrastructure, policy development, and
planning for any sizing decisions. Proper treatment of these waste managements
for preventing any serious environmental health risks is strongly required
(Dogruparmak et al. 2011). Developing living standards, increasing population,
and rapid urbanization today have created huge amounts of solid waste in all
countries worldwide (Zhao and Duo 2015). Unfortunately the capacity of the
landfills is mostly surpassed due to a lack of waste management planning, so the
environmental pollution (leachate, gas, odors, flies, vermin, and pathogens) poses
serious problems.

Incineration

Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of waste

materials containing organic substances. It is also known as thermal treatment
because it converts the waste into ash, flue gas, and heat. It is one of the alternative
options for waste treatment. This method appears to be an extremely attractive
option. However, operating efficiency depends on the waste characteristics as well
Solid Waste Management and Policies Toward Sustainable Agriculture 13

as the waste composition. Many incinerators still exist to treat medical and hazard-
ous wastes. It seems that about 80–95% of medical waste is burned in the inciner-
ators. However, this method is found to be an inappropriate approach for most low-
income developing countries due to the high financial startup and operating capital
requirements.

Agriculture Organic Solid Waste

Agricultural as well as the agro-industrial activities generate a large amount of

lignocellulosic by-products including fruit peel, straw, stem, stalk, cobs, husk, and
bagasse, among others. Such wastes are mainly composed of cellulose (35–50%),
hemicellulose (25–30%), and lignin (25–30%) (Behera and Ray 2016). The main
constituent of the lignocellulosic materials is glucose; hemicellulose is a heteroge-
neous polymer that is mainly comprised of five different sugars, namely, L-arabinose,
D-glucose, D-galactose, D-xylose, and D-mannose, as well as some organic acids.
Lignin is formed by a complex three-dimensional structure of phenylpropane units
(Mussatto et al. 2012). Regardless of the rising price and the considerable shortage of
grains as a custom animal feed, it was reported by Graminha et al. (2008) that the
lignocellulosic materials have a great potential to produce edible animal feedstuff. In
recent times, the SSF was successfully applied to produce hydrolytic and lignin lytic
enzymes. The lignin peroxidase was successfully produced by using corn cobs as a
substrate in SSF (Mehboob et al. 2011). Various pretreatments of straw were
implemented by using SSF for cellulose and lignin degradation for the purpose of
increasing the digestibility of the feed (Chang et al. 2012). SSF can have a potential
to produce enzymes and to improve the digestibility of rich fiber materials including
soybean cotyledon (Lio and Wang 2012). According to Dave et al. (2012), the
Jatropha seed cake is used for the production of celluloses through SSF without
any pretreatment. Cow dung contains a high nitrogen content that made it suitable
for methane production (Abdullah et al. 2016).
High-quality of biofertilizer can be produced by employing liquid amino acid
hydrolyzed from animal carcasses as an additive to mature compost of either pig
manure or chicken by SSF. Side by side, the production of activated carbon and
biochar was favored by utilization of cow dung and chicken manure (Nguyen and
Lee 2015; Meena et al. 2017a, b).

Valorization of Organic Matter Solid Waste via Composting and

Anaerobic Digestion

In the research conducteed by Cooperband (2002) suggested that worm farming is

the simple alternative process in which the digestion of the organic manure inside
where the earthworms producing high-quality compost and a protein source
(worms). In addition, the anaerobic digestion is also known as biogas producer or
biomethanation. It is the controlled degradation of organic manure by the anaerobic
14 V. K. Singh et al.

bacteria in the absence of oxygen (Abdel-Shafy and Mansour 2018). Anaerobic

digestion is a technically complex in which minimal variations in the controlling
parameters, such as temperature or pH, can generate malfunctions of the process
(such as odors). However, the produced biogas, as the final resulting from this, is an
important and low-cost source of energy. It is considered as an eco-friendly source of
local energy matrix that reduces dependence on fossil energy sources.

Composting

Composting process is a controlled degradation of organic matter (OM) in the

presence of oxygen. The advantage of producing compost is the technical simplicity
of the process. Low economic revenue never limits the interest of this process
(Dotaniya et al. 2019). It is a low-technology approach for reducing into size and
weight. Due to high operating and maintenance costs, composting has not been
tremendously successful, because the high cost of compost compared to commercial
fertilizers, and the available market. However, it has proved to be a safe and effective
way to accelerate the decomposition and stabilization of biodegradable components
of bio-waste from MSW, foremost to production of compost for soil amendment or
as an organic nutrient source. Composting is gaining interest as a suitable option for
chemical fertilizers with environmental profit, since this process eliminates or
reduces toxicity of MSW and leads to a final product which can be used in improving
and maintaining soil quality. Many studies have shown that the compost improves
physical and chemical properties of soils by increasing nutrient content, organic
matter, water holding capacity, and cation exchange capacity.

Industrial Organic Solid Waste

Industrial organic waste including fruit and vegetable processing plants, slaughter-
houses, poultry processing, sugar industry, the dairy industry, paper and pulp
manufacturing. These organic wastes have the potential to be used as a substrate
or support in SSF processes to produce valuable products. Sawdust, one of the
examples of solid waste and available by-product material of wood industry, is used
as a support or substrate in SSF to obtain high laccase production by using white-rot
fungi, namely, Coriolopsis gallica (Daassi et al. 2016). In addition to that, the
slaughterhouses and the leather industry generate several organic wastes containing
protein such as animal fleshing, skin trimming, hair wastes, chrome shaving, buffing
wastes, and keratin wastes that are underutilized. It was reported that the animal
fleshing is utilized as a substrate in SSF for protease production (Ravindran et al.
2011). Slaughterhouses’ hair wastes mixed with aerobic activated sludge or anaer-
obically digested sludge showed a high yield of protease production (Yazid et al.
2016). It has been also widely reported that fruit and vegetable wastes can be used
for production of organic acid and vital enzymes (Panda et al. 2016). Vegetable
wastes show a great potential for energy bioconversion due to their high and easily
Solid Waste Management and Policies Toward Sustainable Agriculture 15

degradable organic content, particularly in the biofuel production (Singh et al. 2012).
Sugarcane bagasse and molasses, by-products of the sugar industry, were reported
for the production of invertase via SSF (Veana et al. 2014). Molasses was selected as
a low-cost substrate to replace cane sugar to produce ethanol (Kanwar et al. 2012).
Organic matter associated with a strong odor in the waste of tapioca industry that
contains considerable which could cause environmental pollution was successfully
converted into poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) via SSF. Thus an alternative industrial
process and significant reduction in the total production cost could be achieved
(Sathiyanarayanan et al. 2014). This proved that the food-processing industries,
usually, generate several by-products that are able to be used in SSF for producing
several valuable bio-products (ElMekawy et al. 2013). Industrial seafood waste by-
product, that is, crustacean, can be used in the production of chitinase and
chitosanase with a wide range of applications and implementation in biomedical,
food, and agrochemical sectors (Nidheesh et al. 2015). Meanwhile, fish processing
wastes are favorable because these wastes are easy to obtain at low cost and provide
appropriate SSF conditions for microorganism cultivation. Due to rich contents in
lipids and proteins, such fish processing wastes have been found suitable to produce
esterase (Esakkiraj et al. 2012).

Municipal/Domestic Food Solid Waste

Wastes generated from sources like municipal and domestic food are very hetero-
geneous in nature, so they have variable physical and chemical characteristics. These
food solid wastes include yard waste, food waste, plastics, wood, metals, papers,
rubbers, leather, batteries, inert materials, textiles, paint containers, demolishing and
construction materials, as well as many others (Debnath et al. 2014). The heteroge-
neity of such generated solid waste is creating a major problem in sorting and its
proper strategic utilization as a useful resource. That is why there is a proper need for
the fractionation and sorting of these wastes before meaningful treatment process.
For successful story of any designed of solid waste segregation depends mainly on
the public awareness and the active participation of such waste generators in the
different communities (i.e., how they follow the fundamental and principles of waste
sorting and separation). Due to the high financial cost of treatment of wastewater,
several developing countries treat their domestic wastewater inadequately (Abdel-
Shafy and Aly 2007). Countries particularly developed countries are facing a serious
challenge to manage domestic food waste. All these waste substances generated
from food waste are chemically comprised of fats, cellulose, starch, lipids, protein,
and other organic matters. The moisture and salt contents lead to a rapid decompo-
sition of the organic contents in the wastes which results in unpleasant odors. This
condition can attract bugs and flies which are vectors for several diseases. However,
from being perishable, these municipal solid wastes including household kitchen
waste as well as the domestic food waste from restaurants and markets consist of
high lignocellulosic materials that could be decomposed and exploited to produce
valuable bio-products. Principally, MSW and kitchen waste residues constitute
16 V. K. Singh et al.

mainly of potato peel, onion peel, cauliflower leaves, carrot peel, orange peel, pea
pods, and banana stalks and all together were used to produce cellulose by SSF
(Abdullah et al. 2016). These domestic food wastes including waste bread, savory,
onion, waste cakes, fruits, vegetables, and potato peel wastes and cafeteria waste
have been proved as being suitable substrates for glucoamylase enzyme production
by Aspergillus awamori via SSF technology. Domestic bread wastes have been used
to produce amylase (Cerda et al. 2016).
Mantzouridou et al. (2015) reported that cultivation of selected industrial yeast
strains by using substrate of orange peel resulted in a high yield of aroma esters.
Mixed food wastes collected from restaurants and inoculated with fungal inoculum
can produce glucoamylase-rich media and protease-rich media by SSF. Several
studies reported the utilization of household food wastes with high dry content to
produce high yields of ethanol via SSF (Matsakas and Christakopoulos 2015). There
is a wide range of applications such as medicine production, plastics, and laundry
detergents (Sun et al. 2014). Cocoyam peel is a common household kitchen waste
used in Nigeria which presents a capability to become a very useful substrate for
oxy-tetracyclines, which are an important antibiotic to treat many infection diseases
(Ezejiofor et al. 2012). Complex composition of food wastes makes them very
suitable for microbial growth as potential media to produce Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt) bio-pesticide through SSF (Zhang et al. 2015).

Sludge from Wastewater Treatment Plant for Biogas Production

via Anaerobic Digestion Through Valorization

Anaerobic digestion (AD) of the waste materials proved to be an efficient technology

for the treatment of sludge generated from sewage water. The produced biogas is a
mixture of mainly methane and carbon dioxide. Meanwhile, the sludge is stabilized
and its dry matter content is remarkably reduced. Organic matter present in the
sludge is broken down by the anaerobic microbes in the anaerobic digestion and
converted into biogas which is a source of energy and can be used for electricity,
heat, and biofuel production (Khatoon et al. 2017). The benefits of AD process for
sewage sludge treatment are well acknowledged, and the technology is widely well
known worldwide. The obtained sludge contains, normally, the particles removed
from the wastewater. Such particles are, usually, rich with nutrients and organic
matter, while the treated effluent becomes clean to be released to the nature without
any hazardous impact (Narayan et al. 2018a, b).

Policies

In public administration, policy implementation in solid waste management has a

critical issue.
Most of the policies for solid waste management are executed with little or no
discretion locally because governments are increasingly implementing policies that
Solid Waste Management and Policies Toward Sustainable Agriculture 17

are intended to give less or unsatisfactory impact on waste management practice, and
many new initiatives have been taken in the countries around the world over the last
few decades. A common problem has emerged in most countries that have embarked
the solid waste policies especially in promoting recycling and waste reduction. The
process of policy making has not been matched by an equal effort to provide
mechanism for effective policy implementation. The issue of ineffective solid
waste management has reflected the inefficient policy implementation. In fact,
there is a policy with regard to effective solid waste management formulated in
most of the countries. However, the mechanism of the implementation of this policy
is different at developed and developing countries. Moreover, policy has been used
as a tool to achieve the goals of effective or sustainable solid waste management.
Implementation is the process of putting policies into practices although it is the
complex process of planning, promotion, and coordination which is essential to
achieve policy objectives. In the policy process, implementation is an important
phase.
For making intact policies, one should understand the localized mechanism which
is a fundamental need.
For stimulating the new initiatives, dedicated involvement of different performers
for creation and implementation of policy is the crucial factor. Moreover, in indus-
trial decision-making, integration of new prototype has become challenging in many
countries.

Swachh Bharat Mission

“Swachh Bharat Mission” (SBM) is a major ingenuity of the Ministry of Urban

Development (MoUD), Government of India (GOI), which is was launched on
October 2, 2014, on the occasion of Mahatma Gandhi’s birth anniversary. It is a
national campaign to clean the roads, streets, and infrastructure of the country
covering 4041 statutory towns in India. Solid waste management is an important
component of the SBM. The government has allocated of Rs.14,623 crore for the
SBM for urban areas, of which Rs.7366 crore is given for the SWM for 5 years, i.e.,
2014–2019. While addressing the components of SBM for urban areas, state gov-
ernments and urban local bodies (ULBs) are expected to focus on a set of social
priorities and outcomes that define the scope and complexity of the Mission.

Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000

According to the Indian Constitution, the SWM is a state subject and included in the
12th Schedule of the Constitution (74th Amendment) Act of 1992, and ULBs are
mandated to provide MSWM. State laws governing the ULBs also stipulate MSWM
as an obligatory function of the municipal governments. Despite 15 years of
implementation of these rules, ULBs have not been able to put in place good
systems. Wherever people’s representatives and the general public have embraced
18 V. K. Singh et al.

source segregation, door-to-door collection, and environmentally safe handling of

the separated waste components, they have been able to address the problem of solid
waste recycling and disposal. At present, the MSW Management and Handling
Rules 2000 are under revision by MoEF&CC. The draft revised rules were circulated
in 2013 and again in 2015 and will be finalized as Solid Waste Management Rules
2015. The Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization
(CPHEEO), Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, has prepared a
draft manual on MSWM to support cities and towns on planning and implementing a
proper MSWM system in line with the SWM Rules being amended in 2015.

Conclusion

Solid waste is one of the important challenges to the environment. The inadequate
waste management causes alteration in the ecosystems including air, water, and soil
pollution; thus itrepresents a real threat to human, animal, and plant health. Population
increase, rapid urbanization, booming economy, and the rise in the standard of living
have greatly accelerated the rate, amount, and quality of the municipal solid waste
generation. MSWs generated from the developing countries are highly heterogeneous
in nature. The improper bin collection practices and collection, transfer, and/or
transport systems have great effect on the characteristics of the solid wastes. The
plastic waste disposal is a major global environmental problem. As plastics are
essentially hydrocarbons, they possess calorific values that ranged between 30 and
40 MJ/kg. Thus, they can be burned or incinerated in the municipal or other dedicated
wastes with power and heat generation. The most used and cheapest disposal of solid
waste is the landfills as waste management techniques. Waste valorization concerns
with the process of converting waste materials into more useful products including
fuels, materials, and chemicals. Anaerobic digestion of municipal solid waste produces
CH4 from CO2 and H2 (hydrogenotrophs) and/or from CH3COOH (acetoclastics).
Organic solid-state fermentation (SSF) is presented as a promising technology for
organic waste. Microorganisms play an important role in the degradation of organic
wastes into their constituents to convert them into high value-added products. Valo-
rization of organic matter solid waste can be accomplished via composting and
anaerobic digestion. The advantage of producing compost is the technical simplicity
of the process. To cover part of the integrated solid waste management strategy costs, it
was found that valorizing and recycling activities have turned into a valuable income.

References
H.I. Abdel-Shafy, R.O. Aly, Wastewater management in Egypt, in Wastewater Reuse-Risk Assess-
ment, Decision-Making and Environmental Security, ed. by M. K. Zaidi, Springer Publisher,
Netherlands. 375–382 (2007)
H.I. Abdel-Shafy, M.S. Mansour, Solid waste issue: Sources, composition, disposal, recycling, and
valorization. Egypt. J. Pet. 27(4), 1275–1290 (2018)
Solid Waste Management and Policies Toward Sustainable Agriculture 19

J.J. Abdullah, D. Greetham, N. Pensupa, G.A. Tucker, C. Du, Optimizing cellulase production from
municipal solid waste (MSW) using solid state fermentation (SSF). J. Fundam. Renew. Energy
Appl. 6 (03) 1–10 (2016)
I.A. Al-Khatib, M. Monou, A.S.F.A. Zahra, H.Q. Shaheen, D. Kassinos, Solid waste characteriza-
tion, quantification and management practices in developing countries. A case study: Nablus
district–Palestine. J. Environ. Manag. 91(5), 1131–1138 (2010)
E. Baldwin, W. Dripps, Spatial characterization and analysis of the campus residential waste stream
at a small private liberal arts institution. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 65, 107–115 (2012)
M.A. Barlaz, B.F. Staley, F.L. de los Reyes, Anaerobic biodegradation of solid waste, in
Environmental Microbiology, ed. by R. Mitchell, J. Gu, (Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, 2010),
pp. 281–299
S.S. Behera, R.C. Ray, Solid state fermentation for production of microbial cellulases: Recent
advances and improvement strategies. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 86, 656–669 (2016)
T. Blundell, Chemicals in Products Safeguarding the Environment and Human. Health Twenty-
Fourth Report (Royal Commission On Environmental Pollution, London, 2003)
S.J. Burntley, A review of municipal solid waste composition in the United Kingdom. Waste
Management, 27(10), 1274–1285 (2007)
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Report on management of municipal solid WASTES,
Delhi (2000)
A. Cerda, M. El-Bakry, T. Gea, A. Sánchez, Long term enhanced solid-state fermentation: Inocu-
lation strategies for amylase production from soy and bread wastes by Thermomyces sp. in a
sequential batch operation. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 4(2), 2394–2401 (2016)
J. Chang, W. Cheng, Q. Yin, R. Zuo, A. Song, Q. Zheng, . . ., J. Liu, Effect of steam explosion and
microbial fermentation on cellulose and lignin degradation of corn stover. Bioresour. Technol.
104, 587–592 (2012)
H. Cheng, Y. Zhang, A. Meng, Q. Li, Municipal solid waste fueled power generation in China:
A case study of waste-to-energy in Changchun city. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41(21), 7509–7515
(2007)
L. Cooperband, Building Soil Organic Matter with Organic Amendments (Centre for Integrated
Agricultural Systems, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, 2002)
D. Daassi, H. Zouari-Mechichi, F. Frikha, S. Rodríguez-Couto, M. Nasri, T. Mechichi, Sawdust
waste as a low-cost support-substrate for laccases production and adsorbent for azo dyes
decolorization. J. Environ. Health Sci. Eng. 14(1), 1 (2016)
B.R. Dave, A.P. Sudhir, M. Pansuriya, D.P. Raykundaliya, R.B. Subramanian, Utilization of
Jatropha deoiled seed cake for production of cellulases under solid-state fermentation.
Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng. 35(8), 1343–1353 (2012)
P. Debnath, S. Hemalatha, P. Solanki, D. Anil, Biofortification of cereal grains with zinc by
applying zinc fertilizers. Agrotechnology 2(4), 248 (2014). https://doi.org/10.4172/2168-
9881.S1.008. 2168-9881. https://www.longdom.org/conference-abstracts-files/2168-9881-S1.
008-057.pdf
S.C. Dogruparmak, M.K. Yenice, E. Durmusoglu, B. Özbay, H.O. Öz, Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 20(2),
479–484 (2011)
M.L. Dotaniya, K. Aparna, J. Choudhary, C.K. Dotaniya, P. Solanki, E. Narwal, K. Kumar, R.K.
Doutaniya, R. Lal, B.L. Meena, M. Lata, M. Singh, U. Singh, Effect of Soil Pollution on Soil
Microbial Diversity. In: S.K. Nayak, B.B.Mishra (eds) Frontiers in Soil and Environmental
Microbiology. 255–272. CRC Press. (2020)
M.L. Dotaniya, S. Rajendiran, C.K. Dotaniya, P. Solanki, V.D. Meena, J.K. Saha, A.K. Patra,
Microbial assisted phytoremediation for heavy metal contaminated soils, in Phytobiont and
Ecosystem Restitution, ed. by V. Kumar, M. Kumar, R. Prasad, (Springer, Singapore, 2018), pp.
295–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1187-1_16. ISBN ((e) 9789811311871/ (p
9789811311864))
20 V. K. Singh et al.

M.L. Dotaniya, C.K. Dotaniya, P. Solanki, V.S. Meena, M.D. Meena, R.L. Choudhary, Microbial
resources in management of C sequestration, greenhouse gases, and bioremediation processes,
in New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering, ed. by J. S.
Singh, (Elsevier, 2019), pp. 77–92
A. ElMekawy, L. Diels, H. De Wever, D. Pant, Valorization of cereal based biorefinery byproducts:
Reality and expectations. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47(16), 9014–9027 (2013)
P. Esakkiraj, R. Usha, A. Palavesam, G. Immanuel, Solid-state production of esterase using
fish processing wastes by Bacillus altitudinis AP-MSU. Food Bioprod. Process. 90(3),
370–376 (2012)
T.I.N. Ezejiofor, C.I. Duru, A.E. Asagbra, A.N. Ezejiofor, O.E. Orisakwe, J.O. Afonne, E. Obi,
Waste to wealth: Production of oxytetracycline using streptomyces species from household
kitchen wastes of agricultural produce. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 11(43), 10115–10124 (2012)
V. Francois, G. Feuillade, N. Skhiri, T. Lagier, G. Matejka, Indicating the parameters of the state of
degradation of municipal solid waste. J. Hazard. Mater. 137(2), 1008–1015 (2006)
E. Gidarakos, G. Havas, P. Ntzamilis, Municipal solid waste composition determination supporting
the integrated solid waste management system in the island of Crete. Waste Manag. 26(6),
668–679 (2006)
P.L. Gonzalez-Torre, B. Adenso-Díaz, Influence of distance on the motivation and frequency of
household recycling. Waste Manag. 25(1), 15–23 (2005)
E.B.N. Graminha, A.Z.L. Gonçalves, R.D.P.B. Pirota, M.A.A. Balsalobre, R. Da Silva, E. Gomes,
Enzyme production by solid-state fermentation: Application to animal nutrition. Anim. Feed
Sci. Technol. 144(1–2), 1–22 (2008)
K. Hadjibiros, D. Dermatas, C.S. Laspidou, Municipal solid waste management and landfill site
selection in Greece: Irrationality versus efficiency. Global NEST J. 13(2), 150–161 (2011)
R.K. Henry, Z. Yongsheng, D. Jun, Municipal solid waste management challenges in developing
countries–Kenyan case study. Waste Manag. 26(1), 92–100 (2006)
Y. Hui, W. Li’ao, S. Fenwei, H. Gang, Urban solid waste management in Chongqing: Challenges
and opportunities. Waste Manag. 26(9), 1052–1062 (2006)
S. Kanwar, G. Kumar, M. Sahgal, A. Singh, Ethanol production through Saccharomyces based
fermentation using apple pomace amended with molasses. Sugar Tech 14(3), 304–311 (2012)
N. Khanna, P. Solanki, Role of agriculture in the global economy. Agrotechnology 2(4), 221 (2014).
https://doi.org/10.4172/2168-9881.S1.008. https://www.longdom.org/conference-abstracts-
files/2168-9881-S1.008-030.pdf
H. Khatoon, P. Solanki, M. Narayan, L. Tewari, J.P.N. Rai, Role of microbes in organic carbon
decomposition and maintenance of soil ecosystem. Int. J. Chem. Stud. 5(6), 1648–1656 (2017).
2321–4902. http://www.chemijournal.com/archives/2017/vol5issue6/PartW/5-6-133-734.pdf
J. Lio, T. Wang, Solid-state fermentation of soybean and corn processing coproducts for potential
feed improvement. J. Agric. Food Chem. 60(31), 7702–7709 (2012)
K. Mahmood, S.A. Batool, M.N. Chaudhry, A. Daud, Evaluating municipal solid waste dumps
using geographic information system. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 24(2), 879–886 (2015)
F.T. Mantzouridou, A. Paraskevopoulou, S. Lalou, Yeast flavour production by solid state fermen-
tation of orange peel waste. Biochem. Eng. J. 101, 1–8 (2015)
L. Matsakas, P. Christakopoulos, Ethanol production from enzymatically treated dried food waste
using enzymes produced on-site. Sustainability 7(2), 1446–1458 (2015)
S.S. Meena, D.C. Kala, P. Solanki, V. Sarode, Effect of rice husk biochar, carpet waste, FYM and
PGPR on chemical properties of soil. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 6(5), 2287–2292
(2017a). https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2017.605.255
S.S. Meena, J. Yadav, D.K. Singhal, P. Solanki, D.C. Kala, V. Kumar, The assessment of Rice husk
biochar, carpet waste, FYM and PGPR on nutrient uptake of mung bean (Vigna radiata L.).
Ecol. Environ. Conserv. 23(2), 859–865 (2017b). 0971-765X
N. Mehboob, M.J. Asad, M. Imran, M. Gulfraz, F.H. Wattoo, S.H. Hadri, M. Asghar, Production of
lignin peroxidase by Ganoderma leucidum using solid state fermentation. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 10
(48), 9880–9887 (2011)
Solid Waste Management and Policies Toward Sustainable Agriculture 21

Z. Minghua, F. Xiumin, A. Rovetta, H. Qichang, F. Vicentini, L. Bingkai, A. Giusti, L. Yi,

Municipal solid waste management in Pudong new area, China. Waste Manag. 29(3),
1227–1233 (2009)
S.I. Mussatto, L.F. Ballesteros, S. Martins, J.A. Teixeira, Use of agro-industrial wastes in solid-state
fermentation processes, in Industrial waste, vol. 274, (InTech Open Access, 2012)
A.B.. Nabegu, An analysis of municipal solid waste in Kano metropolis, Nigeria. J. Hum. Ecol. 31
(2), 111–119 (2010)
M. Narayan, S. Priyadarshani, A.S. Nain, P. Solanki, A. Gururani, A. Chauhan, Remote sensing
based estimates of methane emission from summer paddy rice cultivation in Udham Singh
Nagar District in Uttarakhand, India. Environ. Ecol. 35(4), 2713–2717 (2017)
M. Narayan, P. Solanki, R.K. Srivastava, Treatment of sewage (domestic wastewater or municipal
wastewater) and electricity production by integrating constructed wetland with microbial fuel
cell. In sewage Intech Open (2018a). https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/60245.pdf
M. Narayan, P. Solanki, A.K. Rabha, R.K. Srivastava, Treatment of pulp and paper industry effluent
and electricity generation by constructed wetland coupled with microbial fuel cell (CW-MFC).
J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 7(6), 493–498 (2018b) http://www.phytojournal.com/archives/
2018/vol7issue6/PartI/7-5-534-855.pdf
M.V. Nguyen, B.K. Lee, Removal of dimethyl sulfide from aqueous solution using cost-effective
modified chicken manure biochar produced from slow pyrolysis. Sustainability 7(11),
15057–15072 (2015)
T. Nidheesh, G.K. Pal, P.V. Suresh, Carbohydr. Polym. 121, 1–9 (2015)
I. Nissim, T. Shohat, Y. Inbar, From dumping to sanitary landfills–solid waste management in Israel.
Waste Manag. 25(3), 323–327 (2005)
S.K. Panda, S.S. Mishra, E. Kayitesi, R.C. Ray, Microbial-processing of fruit and vegetable wastes
for production of vital enzymes and organic acids: Biotechnology and scopes. Environ. Res.
146, 161–172 (2016)
F. Philippe, M. Culot, Household solid waste generation and characteristics in cape Haitian city,
Republic of Haiti. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 54(2), 73–78 (2009)
B. Ravindran, A.G. Kumar, P.A. Bhavani, G. Sekaran, Solid-state fermentation for the production
of alkaline protease by Bacillus cereus 1173900 using proteinaceous tannery solid waste. Curr.
Sci. 100, 726–730 (2011)
C. Riber, C. Petersen, T.H. Christensen, Chemical composition of material fractions in Danish
household waste. Waste Manag. 29(4), 1251–1257 (2009)
F.P. Sankoh, X. Yan, A.M.H. Conteh, J. Environ. Prot. 3, 562–568 (2012)
G. Sathiyanarayanan, G.S. Kiran, J. Selvin, G. Saibaba, Corrigendum to “Optimization of poly-
hydroxybutyrate production by marine Bacillus megaterium MSBN04 under solid state culture”
[Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 60 (2013) 253–261]. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 63, 261 (2014)
A. Scheinberg, D.C. Wilson, L. Rodic-Wiersma, Solid waste management in the world’s cities, UN-
Habitat publication, pp 228 (2010).
A. Singh, A. Kuila, S. Adak, M. Bishai, R. Banerjee, Utilization of vegetable wastes for generation
of bioenergy. Agric. Res. 1(3), 213–222 (2012)
R. Slack, J. Gronow, N. Voulvoulis, Hazardous components of household waste. Crit. Rev. Environ.
Sci. Technol. 34(5), 419–445 (2004)
R.J. Slack, J.R. Gronow, N. Voulvoulis, Household hazardous waste in municipal landfills: Con-
taminants in leachate. Sci. Total Environ. 337(1–3), 119–137 (2005)
P. Solanki, Effect of Sewage Sludge on Marigold and Golden Rod. Thesis Acharya N. G. Ranga
Agricultural University, Rajendranagar Hyderbad (2014). p. 172. http://krishikosh.egranth.ac.
in/handle/1/75355
P. Solanki, B. Akula, S.H.K. Sharma, Effect of sewage sludge on growth and yield of golden rod
(Solidago species). Environ. Ecol. 35(2A), 963–966 (2017a)
P. Solanki, M. Narayan, R.K. Srivastava, Effectiveness of domestic wastewater treatment using
floating rafts a promising phyto-remedial approach: A review. J. Appl. Nat. Sci. 9(4), 1931–
1942 (2017b). 2231-5209. https://journals.ansfoundation.org/index.php/jans/article/view/1468
 22 V. K. Singh et al.

P. Solanki, M. Narayan, A.K. Rabha, R.K. Srivastava, Assessment of cadmium scavenging

potential of Canna indica L. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 101(4), 446–450 (2018). https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00128-018-2416-3. 1432-0800
P. Solanki, M.L. Dotaniya, N. Khanna, S. Udayakumar, C.K. Dotaniya, S.S. Meena, M. Narayan, R.
K. Srivastava, Phycoremediation of industrial effluents contaminated soils, in New and Future
Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering, ed. by J. S. Singh, (Elsevier,
2019), pp. 245–258. ISBN (e) 9780128182598/ (pb 9780128182581)
P. Solanki, S.H.K. Sharma, B. Akula, Sewage sludge and its impact on soil property. Environment
& Ecology. 35(4C), 3186–3195 (2017)
P. Solanki, P. Debnath, Role of biosolids in sustainable development. Agrotechnology. 2(4), 220.
(2014) https://doi.org/10.4172/2168-9881.S1.008
M. Sujauddin, S.M.S. Huda, A.R. Hoque, Household solid waste characteristics and management in
Chittagong, Bangladesh. Waste Manag. 28(9), 1688–1695 (2008)
Z. Sun, M. Li, Q. Qi, C. Gao, C.S.K. Lin, Mixed food waste as renewable feedstock in succinic acid
fermentation. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 174(5), 1822–1833 (2014)
UNEP, Trends in solid waste management: Issues, challenges and opportunities. International
Consultative Meeting on Expanding Waste Management Services in Developing Countries,
18–19 March 2010, Tokyo (2010)
F. Veana, J.L. Martínez-Hernández, C.N. Aguilar, R. Rodríguez-Herrera, G. Michelena, Utilization
of molasses and sugar cane bagasse for production of fungal invertase in solid state fermentation
using Aspergillus niger GH1. Braz. J. Microbiol. 45(2), 373–377 (2014)
H. Weigand, J. Fripan, I. Przybilla, C. Marb, Composition and contaminant loads of household
waste in Bavaria, Germany: Investigating effects of settlement structure and waste management
practice. Proceedings of the 9th International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium,
Cagliari, CD-ROM (2003)
N.A. Yazid, R. Barrena, A. Sánchez, Assessment of protease activity in hydrolysed extracts
from SSF of hair waste by and indigenous consortium of microorganisms. Waste Manag. 49,
420–426 (2016)
S. Yoshizawa, M. Tanaka, A.V. Shekdar, Global trends in waste generation, in Recycling, waste
treatment and clean technology, ed. by I. Gaballah, B. Mishar, R. Solozabal, M. Tanaka, (TMS
Mineral, Metals and Materials Publishers, 2004), pp. 1541–1552. (II)
A. Zacarias-Farah, E. Geyer-Allély, Household consumption patterns in OECD countries: Trends
and figures. J. Clean. Prod. 8(11), 819–827 (2003)
W. Zhang, H. Zou, L. Jiang, J. Yao, J. Liang, Q. Wang, Semi-solid state fermentation of food
waste for production of Bacillus thuringiensis biopesticide. Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng. 20(6),
1123–1132 (2015)
S. Zhao, L. Duo, Bioaccumulation of cadmium, copper, zinc, and nickel by weed species from
municipal solid waste compost. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 24(1), 413–417 (2015)

View publication stats