CHAPTER 11: SOILS

11.3: SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
a) Define soil, soil profile, soil catena, soil degeneration, soil erosion
b) Discus the composition of soil and soil forming processes
c) Describe the properties and characteristics of soil
d) Describe soil profile and soil catena
e) Explain soil degeneration
f) Classify soils according to order
g) Discus the significance of soils
h) Discus ways and means of managing and conserving soils
i) Identify different types of soils and their uses within the local environment
j) Demonstrate the ability to manage and conserve soils
DEFINITIONS
a) Introduction: Definition: What are soils?
This is the surface layer of disintegrated rock particles, mineral particles, water and air that overlie
crustal rocks and on which plants grow
b) Composition of Soil. Describe the following aspects of soil composition:
i) Inorganic Components/Mineral Particles (45% of soil)
- These include mixtures of potassium, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorous, and other trace
elements such as iron, which are inorganic
ii) Soil organic matter/humus + living organisms (5% of soil)
- This is derived from decaying plants, animals, or from secretions of living organisms
- Mainly food source for living organisms within soil
- Organic acids further weather soil
iii) Soil water (25% of soil)
- This comes from precipitation and underground sources
iv) Soil air (25% of soil)
- This is contained within the air spaces between soil particles
- Causes oxidation, releasing nitrogen making it available to plants
- Oxygen is used by living organisms that further break down organic matter
- Waterlogged soils are anaerobic
c) Formation of Soil. Describe the following processes of soil formation
i) Through weathering of parent rock

Weathering occurs Thin layer of soil forms Plants colonize the soil Humus forms. Soil deepens
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 - The action of weathering causes rocks to break down to form rock particles
- Plants begin to grow on the weathered materials , their roots further breaking apart rocks
- Leaves/dead matter from plants accumulates on top of the weathered materials
- Bacteria cause the materials to begin to rot, forming humus
- Deep physical, chemical and biological weathering continues, causing the soil to form distinct
layers called horizons . This is mature soil
ii) Through organic accumulation. This occurs by:
- Mineralization, which is the breakdown of dead plant tissue by micro-organisms
- Through humification. The mineralized plant materials further break down, grouping into
large molecules to form humus
iii) Through leaching. This is the movement of soluble/dissolved and suspended chemical
components of soil from horizon A to horizons B or C by percolation of water
- The leaching processes are:
 Ferralisation/Laterization
o It occurs in hot and wet/humid regions
o Weathered materials are removed in solution from horizon A to horizon B
o Red soils/laterites/ferrisols are left in horizon A
 Eluviation
o Weathered materials e.g. clay are removed in solution from horizon A to horizons B and C
 Illuviation
o It occurs in hot areas with low rainfall
o Materials leached to horizon B are re-deposited in horizon A , in a process called re-
precipitation
o They become compacted/cemented together, forming a hard soil mass
 Podsolization
o Base minerals like humus/iron and aluminum oxides are severely leached downwards
o Grey-white, leached out acidic soils are left behind
 Calcification
o It occurs in areas of low temperatures and rainfall
o Minerals like calcium are re-deposited in the same horizon
 Ribification
o It occurs in areas with alternating hot/dry and hot wet seasons
o Wetting results in leaching and drying results in dehydration of the soils
o It forms bright red dehydrated soils
 Salinization
o It occurs in arid areas
o Water with dissolved mineral salts moves upwards by capillary action (upward leaching)
o When water evaporates, salts are deposited in horizon A, forming salty soils
o The top layer becomes hardened, impeding plant growth and soil formation
d) Factors influencing soil formation. These include:
i) The nature of the parent rock
- It influences the chemical composition of soil formed
Parent Material After weathering Reason
Granite and sandstone Sandy soils Rich in quartz
Volcanic lavas Clay soil Low in amount of quartz
Plants loams Soils are rich in humus
- It determines the type of weathering due to their chemical composition
- It determines the fertility of the soil

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 - It determines the speed of weathering, e.g. soft rocks weather rapidly
- Parents materials control the texture of the soil, from fine to coarse
- It determines the degree to which water and air can circulate in the soil layers
ii) Climate
 Rainfall
- It accelerates slaking and chemical weathering where it falls in high amounts, resulting in
deep soils
- Drier areas have light shallow soils, due to slower weathering
- Rain-wash transports weathered materials and deposits them to form alluvial soils
 Temperature
- Soil form faster in areas with high temperatures as it promotes rapid chemical and physical
weathering /Weathering is slower in cold climates so soils form slowly
- It determines the type of organisms found in an area, resulting in variation of soil types
according to the type of organisms found
 Wind
- Winds are agents of erosion, removing weathered materials from one area and depositing
them in another , e.g. loess, sand
 Rainfall and Temperature
- Organic and mineral matter decompose faster in the presence of high temperatures and
rainfall
iii) Living organisms
 Vegetation cover
- Areas with large vegetation cover produce a lot of plant litter. These rot to create large
amounts of humus
- The roots of bigger plants penetrate and make passage of water and air easier, increasing the
amount of soil water/air in a soil
- Deep plant roots absorb minerals from deep in the soil. When they die these minerals are re-
deposited on the top soil as part of humus
 Micro-organisms
- Some bacteria fix nitrogen into root nodules of plants
- Bacteria/fungi cause plant matter to decay, increasing humus content in the soil
 Invertebrates and burrowing animals
- E.g. worms/moles mix organic matter with mineral soil components
- Their burrows aerate the soil /allow easier penetration of water/air into the soil
 Human activities
- Overgrazing/monocropping/Farming marginal lands loosen soil particles, exposing them to
agents of erosion
- Mining/construction opens the earth’s surface, allowing water/air to circulate freely
- Constructions cover the ground, limiting the amount of water/air circulating in the soil
- Careful addition of manure/lime/use of cover crops/crop rotation/fallowing conserve soils
/create fertile soils
- Irrigation accelerates leaching
- Deep ploughing allows free circulation of water/air in the soil
- Afforestation/reforestation introduces leaf litter, allowing the formation of humus in soils
iv) Topography
 Gently sloping, well drained land has maximum soil development. This is because water
percolates slowly , minimizing leaching/there is minimum erosion. This forms mature soils
 On steeps slopes, run off accelerates erosion rather than infiltration, resulting in poor

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 /shallow soils
 Flat/slightly depressed areas are marshy, inhibiting circulation of air/inhibits leaching. This
results in the absence of bacteria that form humus, forming peat bogs
 Soils on hilltops are heavily leached, hence poor
v) Time
 Deep, well developed soils form in areas where soils have had a long time to form
 There are some types of soil which develop very fast, so other factors like climate,
topography and parent rock play an important part
e) Properties and characteristics of soil:
- Soils have varied physical and chemical properties, creating differences in:
i) Soil structure
 This is the way soil particles are grouped together in into larger sized particles /joined
together in groups called peds/floccules
 It forms as humus within the soil expands and contracts due to the heating and drying of soil
 It determines the rate of water absorption and the ease with which the soil can be cultivated
 Some are more prone to erosion
 Thus the process through which soil particles join is called flocculation, and is influenced by
amount of air moisture found in a soil
- The structure of a soil can be:

 Crumb – the aggregates are small, soft rounded and porous

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  Granular – the aggregates are friable (easily broken up into smaller pieces), rounded but
irregular. They firm granules
 Plate – the aggregates are arranged on top of one another horizontally, creating
plates/leaflets
 Prismatic – the aggregates are arranged vertically/are prism-like
 Blocky - they form irregular pieces of soil with sharp corners and edges
 columnar - they are arranged vertically but are rounded at the top
ii) Soil texture
- This is the composition of soil with reference to particle size
- The soil particles can be:
Soil particle Diameter
Coarse – gravel, sand 0.2 – 20 mm
Medium – fine sand 0.02 – 0.2 mm
Fine – silt, clay Less than 0.002 – 0.2
- It determines:
 The amount of soil water available in the soil
 The ease with which plants can penetrate it
 How well it retains its fertility through clay-humus content
 Soil classification
iii) Soil acidity/Lime content/pH value
- It runs from 1 – 14. 7 is neutral
- Highly leached soils are acidic because:
 Calcium has been leached from them in solution. They become acidic/sour, due to high
concentration of aluminum and iron .
 Such soils are called pedalfers and they are infertile
- Little leached soils are alkaline because:
 They have a large accumulation of calcium in them
 Such soils are called pedocals and they are fertile
 Calcium helps plants in selecting what to absorb , and magnesium helps plants in making
their own food
 High lime content increases the rate of decay of organic matter
 It improves the capacity of soil to absorb air and water
- Acidity determines the rate at which bacteria decompose organic matter , the least being in
acidic soils and the most in base soils
- It determines the chemical environment in which plants grow /micro-organisms live
iv) Soil colour
- Different soil colours are determined by:
 They type of parent material
 The mineral content of the soil
 The amount of organic matter present
 The drainage of the area
- It can be used to identify the components of the soil:

Soil colour Nature of the soil

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 Black/brown High humus content
Reddish brown/red Presence of ferric/manganese oxide
Well drained and well aerated
Yellow soils(lower horizons) Wet climate
Presence of manganese oxide
May be poorly drained
Grey/brown/(yellow) Same as above
whitish Absence of iron oxides
Absence of organic matter
In arid areas – high in soluble salts
v) Soil porosity
- This refers to the amount of soil spaces in a soil sample
- It is determined by soil structure and texture, e.g.
 Clay soils have many pores, and so have a high water retention capacity
 They are sticky and easily moulded when wet
 Sandy soils have fewer pores and large particles. They are unable to hold water and are
gritty when wet
vi) Soil permeability
- This is the movement of water in the soil, depending on the soil texture
- Fine textures, e.g. clay, are impermeable, and become easily waterlogged /coarse textured
soil, e.g. sand, are highly permeable, hence well drained
vii) Soil temperature
- It depends on soil depth, time of day/night, and the season
- It depends also on the amount of heat energy entering the soil and the heat properties of the
soil, e.g. dark coloured soils absorb more heat than light ones soils with vegetation cover
are cooler than exposed soils
- Soils can thus be described as being hot, warm, cool or cold
viii) Soil water and air
- Water can move or be retained in the soil, depending on its shape, size, continuity of soil
particles and the arrangement of the spaces between the particles
- There are several types of water in the soil:
 Hygroscopic water. This is held as a film around the individual soil particles
o It is firmly held and is unavailable to plants
o It is more common in fine soils than in coarse ones
 Capillary water. These are thick films of water around particles of soil in areas where
moisture is frequently added
o It is held around particles of soil by surface tension
o It is absorbed by soil colloids in great quantities
o When its supply is abundant, it moves downwards by gravity, but when it is scarce, it moves
upwards by capillary action/under the pull of surface tension
 Free/gravitational water
o Where it rains heavily, soil pores are completely filled with water
o It displaces the air usually found in these pores
o It then moves downwards to the zone of ground water by gravity
- In areas where the water table is near the surface, the soil becomes waterlogged/marshy
- A mixture of water and soil nutrients is called a soil solution
- When a soil has many air spaces, it is well aerated. Waterlogged soils are poorly aerated
Soil properties Description

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 Texture Coarse /medium/fine.
Sandy/silty/clayey
Structure Crumb
/platey/prismatic/columnar/blocky/granular
Thickness Thin/shallow soils. Deep soils
Colour Black/red/brown/grey/yellow/white
Air Anaerobic or well aerated/aerobic
Porosity/permeability Porous/non-porous/permeable/impermeable
Temperature Hot/warm/cool/cold
Lime content Acidic/neutral/alkaline
e) Define Soil Profile and Soil Catena:
i) Soil profile: Definition
- This is the vertical arrangement of soil in layers called horizons
- The horizons are arranged from A to D, with many sub-divisions
 Horizon A/Top Soil
o This is the first/uppermost layer
o It lies under the mat of surface vegetation and raw humus
o It extends downwards from 0.3 – 0.6 m
o It may be grayish if leached
 Horizon B/Sub-soil
o This is the zone of illuviation /materials are leached from Horizon A to this horizon
o The soil has small spaces in between, trapping the leached materials
 Horizon C/Regolith
o This is a zone of partly weathered rock with few soil particles
o It contains little humus /very little of leached materials
 Horizon D/Parent Rock/Bedrock
o This is a layer of solid unweathered underlying rock
A Simple Soil Profile

Soil profile
h) Define Soil Catena
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- Soil Catena: this is the arrangement of soil on a mountain slope from top to bottom

How do the following factors influence the development of a soil Catena?

 Relief
o Steep upper slopes are well drained and the soils are thin because of high rate of erosion
o Gentle slopes have thick soils. This is because erosion and weathering are well balanced
o Valley floors may have peat soils due to poorly drained/waterlogged soils . They may have
o alluvial deposits
 Drainage
o Steep slopes are well drained and the soils have low moisture content. /the soils are thin and
dry
o Hill tops have leached soils with laterite cap
o Valley bottoms are damp/waterlogged and may have gley soils due to gleization
 Transport of soil debris
o Deep soils called colluvial soils develop on lower gentle slopes. This is due to downhill
movement of soil debris by wind/water/ice
o Steep slopes are left with thin, stony, immature soils with little organic matter as much of it
has been carried downhill. They are called xeromorphic soils
 Leaching
o Soil solutions percolate at different rates at different levels of the soil catena
o There is high leaching at the top of the slope and a laterite layer develops
o The soluble salts are removed from the upper slopes to the lower slopes
o Humus and clay are transported in suspension in the process of eluviation

f) Classification of Soil by Soil Order:

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 ORDER SUB-ORDER MAJOR SOIL GROUPS
Zonal Soils. Soils of the cold lands:  Tundra soils
Mature with Light coloured podzolized soils of  Podzols
well- cool temperate forested regions i) Brown podzolic soils
developed ii) Grey-brown podzolic soils
profiles as iii) Red-yellow podzolic soils
they have Soils of forested warm temperate Brown earth/Brown forest soils
taken a long regions  Chernozems/dark brown chernozems
time Soils of the warm temperate  Prairie soils
without grassland zone
disturbance Soils of semi-arid and arid temperate  Chestnut soils
to form. regions  Cool desert grey earths
Found in Soils of tropical arid regions  Red desert soils
well drained Soils of the tropical savannah lands  Latosols: tropical red earths
areas. Are
: lateritic soils
usually deep Soils of tropical rain forest  Black/dark grey tropical soils (regur)
Intrazonal Hydromorphic soils of:  Planosols
Soils. marshes/swamps/waterlogged flat  Bog soils
Formed in areas  Meadow soils
areas of  Other varieties of peat soils
poor Halomorphic soils (alkaline soils)  Solanchaks. Salts accumulate on the
drainage/ of: Poorly drained regions surface
where there  Solonetz: high concentration of salts in
is also high horizon B
evaporation/ Calcimorphic soils:  Redzina Soils
limestone Developed from limestone parent  Terra rosa soils
areas material
Azonal (No sub-orders):  Lithosols (rock debris on steep slopes)
soils. Young Deposited by wind/water/ice/ as a  Alluvium
soils/by result of mass wasting  Regosols (including sands)
deposition
g) Soil Degeneration/Deterioration
Definitions
This is the decline of the usefulness of soil /loss of soil fertility
Types of Soil Degeneration
i) Physical Degeneration
- This affects the structure, moisture, texture and quality of the soil
ii) Chemical Degeneration
- There is change in the mineral content and soil pH
iii) Biological Degeneration
- The organic content of the soil as well as the vegetation cover declines
h) Causes of Soil Degeneration
 Soil Erosion
- The top soil is detached and carried away faster than it is being formed
- It is removed by wind /water/moving ice
Causes
- Deforestation

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  Effects of vegetation cover
o Leaf litter cover reduces splash erosion
o Vegetation cover slows down the speed of running water and allows infiltration of water,
recharging the water table /aquifers
o Roots bind soil together, stopping it being carried away by wind or water
o Plant cover breaks the speed of wind at ground level, making it lose its power to lift and
carry away soil
 Effect of Removal of Vegetation Cover
o Soil is deposited in reservoirs, silting them up, reducing their lifespan /expensive to
dredge
o Surface run-off carries chemical pollutants to water bodies, harming aquatic life
o Silt deposits muddy sandy beaches, rendering them unusable for leisure /tourism
o Alluvial is deposited on lower slopes/flood plains of rivers/deltas, making them useful for
agriculture
o Sand that is deposited on river banks can be excavated and used in the building and
construction industry
Other causes of soil degeneration are:
 Burning bushes:
o This removes cover from the soil, exposing it to agents of erosion
o It kills micro-organisms in the soil, reducing the rate at which organic matter rots
o Soil loses humus and thus becomes infertile
 Overgrazing:
o Domestic animals eat all the vegetation and leave the soil bare. This exposes it to agents of
soil erosion
o Hooves of animals trample the ground and loosen the soil, which is easily carried away
 Monocropping/monoculture
o Plants absorb all the nutrients useful for their growth, resulting in the reduction of the same
nutrients in the soil, hence the soil degenerates
 Leaching:
o Soil nutrients dissolve in water and percolate to horizon B, hence the soil degenerates
 Excavation work/Mining/Quarrying:
o The soil is loosened and slips down the slope, especially by water, leaving behind poor soils

 Poor farming methods/Overcultivation

o Like cultivating up and down the slope. Rain water then uses the furrows to carry away the
loosened soil
 Mass wasting:
o Soil moves down the slope by the force of gravity, leaving the upper slopes bare/prone to
soil erosion
 Earth movements
 Change in soil pH
 Construction of roads
 Cultivation of steep slopes
 Building estates in towns e.t.c
Soil Erosion
Definition: this is the removal of top soils by action of moving water, glaciers, wind and mass
movement especially landslides
Types of Erosion
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  Splash Erosion
o Caused by heavy rainstorms. Raindrops hit and loosen unconsolidated soil particles,
splashing/throwing them away
 Rill Erosion
o Surface run-off forms small channels called rills. If rainfall exceeds the rate of infiltration,
they carry away loose top soils
 Gulley Erosion
o Moving water/glaciers deepen and widen existing rills, forming deep channels called
gulleys. A badland surface is created especially on hilly or steep land
 Sheet Erosion
o On flat land, moving water flows in one continuous form called a sheet. Fertile top soil is
removed uniformly in a thin layer, leaving behind coarse soils
 Wind Erosion
o Scanty vegetation cover and prolonged dry seasons leave soil loose and exposed. Strong
prevailing winds remove the loose top soils by deflation carrying it away and depositing
it elsewhere
Conditions Favouring Soil Erosion
 Soil Texture
o Fine soils are moved more easily than coarse soils, as they are light and easily carried away
by wind and water
 Slope of the Land
o Steep slopes accelerate erosion as water moves rapidly down them, but gentle slopes are less
easy to erode as water infiltrates
 Mass Wasting
o Landslides and soil creep loosen soil from slopes and expose it to agents of erosion
 Climate
o Flash floods carry away soils by gully and sheet erosion as it is loose /unconsolidated
o Strong winds are also able to lift and carry away unconsolidated soil in the dry season
 Poor Cultivation Methods
o E.g. shifting cultivation and ploughing up and down the slope. This causes water to easily
carry away soils once they are degenerated /following the furrows
 Overgrazing/Overstocking
o The animals eat away the top cover of vegetation. The soils become exposed and are easily
carried away by wind or water
o Paths formed on the land by moving animals easily channel water. The soil is carried away
by rill and gulley erosion
 Deforestation
o If trees are cut without replacement, the soil is exposed to agents of erosion like wind and
water and is easily carried away
The Impact of Soil Erosion
 Desertification
o Destruction of vegetation cover leaves soil bare. The soil becomes eroded and vegetation
cover is unable to grow back. The land then becomes arid
 Pollution
o Agrochemicals may be carried into water bodies by surface run off. They contaminate the
water and cause the death of aquatic life /eutrophication
 Decline in Agriculture

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 o Fertile but loose top soil is carried away. This leaves behind stony poor soils, lowering
productivity of the soil
 Siltation/Floods
o Unconsolidated top soil is carried away by running water and is deposited in rivers, making
the channel shallow. During the rainy season, the rivers overflow and cause floods in low
lying areas
o Reservoirs accumulate silt, making them shallow and thus lowering their lifespan/are
expensive to dredge
o Pristine sandy beaches are muddied, making them unattractive to tourists
 Lowering of the Water Table
o Deflation/gully erosion exposes water tables, and the water then evaporates away. This
lowers the water table
 Creation of Rich Agricultural Land
o Top soils carried away from the highlands are deposited on the plains/flood plains. This
creates fertile soils suitable for agriculture
i) Management and Conservation of Soil
Soil Management
Definitions: This is controlling the processes and activities that would cause the deterioration of
soils
The measures depend on the condition the soil is in. Some measures are:
 Acidic Soils.
o Addition of agricultural lime to raise the pH levels
 Saline Soils.
o Flushing with good quality irrigation water. The salts are then leached out
 Sodic Soils. These are alkaline soils with too much sodium.
o It is reclaimed by adding gypsum and leaching out with water
 Deterioration of Soil Fertility.
o Application of manure or compost, or the use of chemical fertilizers
 Water-logged Soils.
o Construction of drainage ditches and shallow waterways on the land, directed to rivers
/reservoirs
o Planting trees like eucalyptus which use up a lot of water
o Planting hygrophytic/holophytic reeds
 Flooding.
o Building dams upstream to hold excess water.
o Building dykes/embankments/levees along river banks to contain water in the channels
o Planting trees in water catchment areas
 Soil Texture
o Returning crop residue to the soils to reduce crusting
o Tilling only dry soils during the dry season, allowing a lot of aeration /little disturbance to
micro-organisms
o Mulching
 Soil Erosion
o Controlling using e.g. terracing , construction of gabions, cover crops, diversion channels
e.t.c.
 Poor Water Retention
o Addition of humus e.g. animal manure, as it absorbs and holds a lot of water
Soil Conservation
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These are the measures taken to protect soils from destruction .
The measures overlap with those of management, hence they are management and conservation
measures. They are:
 Maintenance of Soil Fertility, using, crop rotation , mixed farming, proper application of
chemical fertilizers, organic and green manure can be used, use of drainage trenches and
channels, intercropping, mulching, bush fallowing, e.t.c
 Afforestation and Reforestation. Trees are grown where none grew before or replanted where
they have been cut
o Tree roots hold soils together, stopping soil erosion
o Leaves and leaf litter stop the impact of raindrops on the soil, stopping splash erosion
 Control of Bush Fires. This protects soil micro-organisms from destruction. Grass cover
would also be maintained, to cover the soils and protect them from erosion
 Regulating Livestock Numbers. The livestock kept should match the carrying capacity of the
land, to control overgrazing. Paddocking allows grass to regenerate in the empty portions,
while utilizing animal manure
 Practicing Proper Farming Techniques
o Terracing. This is the creation of wide steps on steep slopes to slow down the speed of
running water, allowing it to infiltrate into the ground. The types of terraces are channel,
ridge, bench and stone terraces.
o Contour Ploughing. This is ploughing across the slope following the contours of the land.
The plough furrows trap water, preventing rill erosion. Contour planting is then done
o Strip cropping. Crops are grown along the general slope, at right angles to the prevailing
winds. Strips of grass can be planted alternating with crops, and can be used for grazing.
o Planting Shelter Belts/Wind Breaks. Large fields are divided into smaller plots using
trees/hedges, acting as wind breaks. This reduces wind erosion by slowing down the speed
of winds/running water
o Planting Cover Crops. E.g. sweet potato vines. They slow down splash erosion, slow down
the speed of running water, shades soils from evaporation and add humus to the soil
o Other Methods are:
 Mulching/bush fallowing
 Erecting brushwood barriers/stone walls
 Construction of cut-off drains (fanya juu)
 Construction of dams/weirs
 Construction of artificial waterways

j) Significance of soils (Use KLB Bk 3 pg 186)

 They give physical support for the rooting systems of plants
 They are a habitat for bacteria, which break down organic matter into humus. Bacteria also
help in the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, calcium, potassium, sulphur, e.t.c.
 They contain soil water, in which minerals that are absorbed by plants are dissolved. They
also contain soil air. Nitrogen is absorbed dissolved in soil water
 They provide minerals, e.g. nitrogen, potassium, calcium, iron, phosphorous e.t.c. to plants
o Black earth soils e.g. chernozems are high in humus and deep, suitable for grains
o River alluvium and loess are fertile soil deposits suitable for growing a wide variety of crops
o Red volcanic soils are deep and fertile, suitable for tea and coffee
 Clay soils can be made into bricks and tiles for building, kaolin for crockery, sand for
construction and making cement
 Red ochre is used for decorative purposes
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  Alluvial gold is panned from alluvium deposits in rivers/rare earth minerals from soil are used
in the electronic and medical world
 Soil is eaten directly by animals at salt licks, or a source of minerals
 Plants that grow on soil are a source of timber, wood fuel, food, herbal medicine, e.t.c.
 Minerals e.g. apatite, used in the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers, is extracted from
lateritic soils
 Soil fertility determines the distribution of settlement. E.g. fertile plains/slopes in Kenya are
densely settled as people can practice agriculture

B) ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ON SOIL

1 a) List:
i) Four characteristics of desert soils (2mks)
 Usually light coloured
 Mostly sandy
 They may be saline in some areas
 Top soils have low organic content
ii) Two factors that contribute to soil leaching (2mks)
 Soil structure /presence of sandy or gravely soil.
 Absence of organic matter .
 A high water table /shallow groundwater.
 high rainfall /irrigation.
 Low/high soil temperatures .
b) Explain how each of the following factors influences the formation of soils:
i) Parent rock (2mks)
 It influences the chemical composition of soil formed
 It determines the type of weathering due to their chemical composition
 It determines the fertility of the soil
 It determines the colour of the soil, whether light or dark
 It determines the speed of weathering, e.g. soft rocks weather rapidly
 Parent materials control the texture of the soil, from fine to coarse
 It determines the degree to which water and air can circulate in the soil layers
ii) Living organisms (2mks)
 They cause the decomposition of organic matter, increasing the humus content in the
soil
 They make tunnels within the soil, aerating it /creating spaces for soil water
iii) Topography (2mks)
 Gently sloping, well drained land has maximum soil development. This is because water
percolates slowly, minimizing leaching /there is minimum erosion. This forms mature
soils
 On steeps slopes, run off accelerates erosion rather than infiltration, resulting in poor
/shallow soils
 Flat/slightly depressed areas are marshy, inhibiting circulation of air/inhibits leaching. This
results in the absence of bacteria that form humus, forming peat bogs
 Soils on hilltops are heavily leached, hence poor

c) Draw a well labeled diagram showing the profile of a mature soil (5mks)

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d) Explain four ways in which human beings contribute to soil erosion (8mks)
 Deforestation. If trees are cut without replacement, the soil is exposed to agents of erosion
like wind and water and is easily carried away
 Burning bushes. This removes cover from the soil, exposing it to agents of erosion /It
kills micro-organisms in the soil, reducing the rate at which organic matter rots/Soil loses
humus and thus becomes infertile
 Overgrazing. Domestic animals eat all the vegetation and leave the soil bare. This exposes it
to agents of soil erosion /Hooves of animals trample the ground and loosen the soil,
which is easily carried away
 Monocropping/monoculture. Plants absorb all the nutrients useful for their growth, resulting
in the reduction of the same nutrients in the soil, hence the soil degenerates
 Leaching. Soil nutrients dissolve in water and percolate to horizon B, hence the soil
degenerates
 Excavation work/Mining/Quarrying. The soil is loosened and slips down the slope,
especially by water, leaving behind poor soils
 Poor farming methods/Overcultivation. Like cultivating up and down the slope. Rain water
then uses the furrows to carry away the loosened soil

2 a) Name three components of soil (3mks)

 Inorganic Components /Mineral Particles (45% of soil)
 Soil organic matter, i.e. humus and living organisms (5% of soil)
 Soil water (25% of soil)
 Soil air (25% of soil)
b) Explain how the following factors influence the formation of soil:
i) Climate (4mks)
 Rainfall. It accelerates slaking and chemical weathering where it falls in high amounts,
resulting in deep soils /Drier areas light shallow soils, due to slower weathering/Rain-
wash transports weathered materials and deposits them to form alluvial soils
 Temperature. Soil form faster in areas with high temperatures as it promotes rapid chemical
and physical weathering /Weathering is slower in cold climates so soils form slowly/It

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 determines the type of organisms found in an area, resulting in variation of soil types
according to the type of organisms found
 Wind. They are agents of erosion, removing weathered materials from one area and
depositing them in another , e.g. loess, sand
 Rainfall and Temperature. Organic and mineral matter decompose faster in the presence of
high temperatures and rainfall, increasing the humus content in the soil
ii) Soil water (2mks)
 Minerals dissolve in soil water, making them available to plants. Their leaf litter rots, adding
humus to the soil /dissolves minerals found in the soil, so they leach to horizon B/C
c) Explain two economic uses of soils (4mks)
 Deep soils give physical support for the rooting systems of plants /anchorage
 They are a habitat for bacteria, which break down organic matter into humus/Bacteria also
help in the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, calcium, potassium, sulphur, e.t.c. this encourages
agriculture
 Contains soil water, in which minerals that are absorbed by plants are dissolved. They also
contain soil air/Nitrogen is absorbed dissolved in soil water. Crops thus do well, enhancing
agriculture
 Provides minerals, e.g. nitrogen, potassium, calcium, iron, phosphorous e.t.c. to plants.
Black earth soils e.g. chernozems are high in humus and deep, suitable for grains /River
alluvium and loess are fertile soil deposits suitable for growing a wide variety of crops/Red
volcanic soils are deep and fertile, suitable for tea and coffee
 Clay soils can be made into bricks and tiles for building /kaolin for crockery/sand for
construction and making cement
 Red ochre is used for decorative purposes
 Alluvial gold is panned from alluvium deposits in rivers /rare earth minerals from soil
are used in the electronic and medical world
 Soil is eaten directly by animals at salt licks, as a source of minerals
 Plants that grow on soil are a source of timber wood fuel/food/herbal medicine, e.t.c.
 Minerals e.g. apatite, used in the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers, is extracted from
lateritic soils
 Fertile plains/slopes in Kenya are densely settled as people can practice agriculture
d i) Describe how the following types of erosion occur:
i) Sheet erosion (2mks)
 On flat land, moving water flows in one continuous form called a sheet. Fertile top soil is
removed uniformly in a thin layer, leaving behind coarse soils
ii) Gully erosion (2mks)
 Moving water/glaciers deepen and widen existing rills, forming deep channels called
gulleys. This allows removal of top then subsoil through the gulleys , creating a
badland landscape

3 a) What is soil (2mks)

 this is the surface layer of disintegrated rock particles, mineral particles, water and air that
overlie crustal rocks and on which plants grow
b) The diagram below shows a cross-section of a hill-side and soil profiles that develop at different
parts of the hill-side

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Match the soil profiles with the corresponding parts of the hill-ide where each profile is likely to
develop (3mks)
(As in second diagram above)

4 a) Name two types of soil according to texture (2mks)

Soil Texture
Coarse, e.g. gravel , sand
Medium, e.g. fine sand
Fine, e.g. silt , clay
b) State two ways in which humus improves the quality of soils (2mks)
 P orosity increased in the soil /has more air spaces than typical soils.
 N utrient retention — magnetic charge holds nutrients longer .
 C ompaction reduction — it makes soil spongy and enables it to spring back.
 E rosion reduced-disperses the force of raindrops .
 W ater retention increased — like a sponge holding water .
 Increases microbial activity and organic matter content of soil
 Improves buffering capacity/neutralizes pH in the soil
 Converts and stores excess nutrients in a plant-friendly manner
 Reduces leaching
 Infiltration of water is improved
c) Briefly describe the following methods of soil conservation:
i) Contour ploughing (2mks)
 This is ploughing across the slope following the contours of the land. The plough furrows
trap water, preventing rill erosion . Contour planting is then done
ii) Terracing (2mks)
 This is the creation of wide steps on steep slopes to slow down the speed of running water,
allowing it to infiltrate into the ground . The types of terraces are channel, ridge, bench
and stone terraces
iii) Planting cover crops (2mks)
 Planting a crop that covers the soil as a carpet, to provide shade to soil, preventing loss of
soil water by evaporation
iv) Crop rotation (2mks)
 This is changing the type of crop planted on a piece of land every year, then fallowing for
three years, to avoid using up the same minerals and for the soil to regenerate
v) Mixed farming (2mks)
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  This is growing of crops and keeping of livestock on the same piece of land at the same
time
d) Giving examples, describe the types of plants that grow on the following types of soils:
i) Acidic soils (2mks)
 Plants that can tolerate acidic conditions, like tea, coffee, coniferous trees
ii) Waterlogged soils (2mks)
 Swamp plants/hygrophytes, whose roots/leaves are able to absorb air from the atmosphere,
e.g. papyrus reeds/mangrove trees/rice
iii) Arid soils (2mks)
 Plants that have developed adaptations to store/get water, like long tap roots, small/thorn like
leaves, succulent/waxy leaves and stems, e.t.c. like acacia , euphorbia, cacti, baobab,
e.t.c
iv) Shallow rocky soils (2mks)
 Plants that are able to absorb water from the top layer of the soils, like ferns /grasses
Answer the following questions:

5 a i) Differentiate between zonal and azonal soils (2mks)

ii) Give four examples of zonal soils and where they can be found (4mks)
iii) Give four examples of intrazonal soils (2mks)
b i) What is soil degeneration? (2mks)
ii) Explain five causes of soil degeneration (10mks)
c i) Define leaching (2mks)
ii) Explain how the following leaching processes occur:
 Ferralisation (2mks)
 Eluviation (2mks)
 Illuviation (2mks)
 Podsolization (2mks)
 Calcification (2mks)
 Ribification (2mks)
 Salinization (2mks)
d i) Differentiate soil profile and soil catena (2mks)
ii) Apart from soil structure, name 5 properties/characteristics of soil
iii) Define soil texture (2mks)
iv) State four types of soil texture (2mks)

FIELDWORK
You and your class carried out a field-study in an area badly affected by soil erosion
i) Create a title for your field study (2mks)
ii) State two objectives for the field study you could have formulated (2mks)
iii) List four items of equipment you carried with you (2mks)
iv) State three problems you faced as you carried out the study (3mks)

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