CHAPTER 5.

OCEANS, SEAS AND THEIR COASTS

5.3: SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
a) Distinguish between oceans and seas
b) Describe the nature of ocean water
c) Describe water movement in oceans and seas
d) Explain the types of movement of ocean water
e) Explain the causes and significance of ocean currents, tides and waves
f) Describe the processes of wave action on land
g) Explain factors contributing to wave action on land
h) Describe the features resulting from wave action
i) Explain types of coasts
j) Discus the significance of oceans, coasts and their features
INTRODUCTION
Definitions
a) An ocean
- it is a large and extensive body of saline water occupying a basin between continents
- the oceans of the world are:
i) the Indian Ocean
ii) the Pacific Ocean
iii) the Atlantic Ocean
iv) the Arctic ocean
v) the Southern Ocean. (Though it is the convergence of 3 major oceans, i.e. the Indian, Atlantic
and Pacific, it can be regarded as an ocean in its own right)
Ocean Area in Km2 Continents forming borders
Pacific Ocean 165,000,000 Asia, the Americas, Antarctica, Australia
Atlantic 82,000,000 Africa, Europe, the Americas, Antarctica
Indian 76,000,000 Africa, Asia, Australia, Antarctica
Arctic 14,000,000 Europe, N. America, Asia
b) A sea
- it is a large body of saline water found on the margin of continents
- a large body of salty water separated from the ocean by a strait (a submerged rock sill), e.g. the
Straits of Gibraltar separate the Mediterranean from the Atlantic, and the Straights of Bab al
Mandab separate the Red Sea from the Indian Ocean
- it can also be defined as smaller divisions of oceans, or margins of seas
TYPES OF SEAS AND WHERE FOUND
TYPES EXAMPLES LOCATION
1. Inland a) Caspian - common border between Europe and Asia
seas b) Aral - W. of Caspian Sea, in Kazakhstan
c) Dead - R. Valley faulted hollow. Israel/Jordan
d) Galilee - R. Valley faulted hollow. Israel
e) Salton - California, USA. S.E of Los Angeles
2.Connected a) Mediterranean - Europe – Africa. Straits of Gibraltar to the Atlantic
To oceans b) Red - Africa – Middle East. Straits of Bab-al-Mandab
through c) Adriatic - Yugoslavia – Italy. Straits of the Ionian Sea to the
straits Mediterranean

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 1

 d) Black - Turkey – Ukraine. Straits of Dardanelles/Sea of
Marmora/the Bosporus to the Mediterranean
e) Baltic - Sweden/Poland/Lithuania/Finland. Denmark
Channel & N. Sea to the Atlantic
3. Marginal a) Sea of Okhotsk
seas/parts of b) Sea of Japan
oceans c) Yellow Sea
d) E China sea All on the western side of the Pacific
e) S China sea
f) Timor sea/Banda
sea(Australia)
g) Coral sea(Aust)
h) Tasman Sea
i) Arabian Sea - all on the margins of the Indian Ocean
j) Andaman Sea
k) Beaufort Sea - all on the margins of the Arctic Ocean
l) E. Siberia Sea
m) Laptev Sea
n) Barents Sea - between Norway and Spitsbergen Island
o) North sea
p) Norwegian Sea
q) Irish Sea - All on the margins of the Atlantic ocean
r) Labrador Sea
s) Caribbean Sea

DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES BETWEEN OCEANS AND SEAS

OCEANS SEAS
SIMILARITIES
 Salty/saline waters  Salty/saline waters
 Constant motion due to waves  Constant motion due to waves
 Higher and stronger waves because of  Waves are lighter due to a smaller fetch
bigger fetch as a result of vast sizes
 They have well developed land and sea  They have well developed land and sea
breeze breezes
DIFFERENCES
 They are affected by tides  Tides affect only marginal seas like the
Caribbean.
 Have strong oceans currents  Currents only affect marginal seas.
 Strong winds cause hurricanes  Hurricanes affect only marginal seas. Whirl
winds and water spouts occur in some seas
 Sunlit eastern shores lead to coral  Very few have coral formations
formations
 They surround continents/vast lands  Marginal seas are bounded by continents. Others
are surrounded by land

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Oceans and seas of the world
The Nature of Ocean Water
- it has 5 major aspects. i.e.:
 Salt water
 The temperature of ocean water
 The ocean life
 The ocean topography
 Ocean pollution
i) Salt water
- ocean water occupies 70% of the earth’s surface. All ocean water is salty
- the degree of salinity varies depending on the amount of dissolved minerals in the water
- salt is added in the oceans by:
 Rivers. As they flow over rocks, they dissolve mostly sodium salts, which are deposited in
oceans
 Water vapour and gases given off by undersea volcanoes, mostly chlorine.
 It is believed that ocean waters were salty from the beginning
Other minerals found in solution in ocean water are calcium chloride, magnesium chloride,
potassium compounds

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Percentages of Various Salts in Ocean Waters
Percentages of Various Salts in Ocean Waters
NAME OF SALT %
Sodium chloride 78.0
Magnesium chloride 11.0
Sodium sulphate 5.0
Magnesium sulphate 4.7
Calcium sulphate 3.6
Potassium sulphate 2.5
Calcium bi-carbonate 0.3
Magnesium bromide 0.2
- ocean water contains traces of almost every mineral in solution or suspension
- all waters on earth are salty, but in some, quantities are so low that the water can be drank. It is
then taken to be fresh
- the average ocean water has a salinity of 35 parts to every 1000 parts of water. The Dead Sea has a
salinity of 283 0/000!
- lines drawn on a map joining areas of ocean water with equal salinity are isohalines.
Factors Influencing the Salinity of Water
 Latitude
- Salinity is low at the equator, at 35 0/000. This is due to:
o Heavy rainfall in the region, which dilutes the water
o Low evaporation due to high humidity and a lot of cloud cover
- It rises to 37 0/000 at the tropics due to high temperatures and high evaporation rates
- In temperate regions, salinity is at its lowest, at 34 0/000, due to low evaporation and high inflow
of fresh water from melting ice, high rainfall input from temperate cyclones
 Depth
- Surface water is generally more saline than bottom water
- At the surface, the Atlantic has a salinity of 36 0/000, while the bottom is at 35 0/000
- This is due to evaporation that takes place from the surface, leaving the salt behind
 The position of the inland water/sea
- the Dead Sea has salinity of 238 0/000. The Aral, Red and Mediterranean seas are also highly
saline
- this is because:
o The regions have high temperatures
o The areas experience little rainfall
o Few rivers empty into them
- the Baltic Sea has low salinity because:
o It is in a cool region, hence low evaporation
o Big rivers enter into it, adding fresh water
o Fresh water is also added from melting snow, e.g. during spring/summer
ii) Temperatures of the oceans
- the temperature of the ocean varies both vertically and horizontally, i.e.:
 Between the equator and the poles and between the surface and the bottom
o Surface water temperatures are often higher in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, e.g. Red Sea
at 380C
o generally, water temperatures decrease from the surface to the bottom. At great depths, they
could be 10 C

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 o however, in polar regions, a thin layer of cold water formed by meltwater floats over slightly
warmer seas below
o at 360 m, temperatures decrease in the normal way, as measured by a bathythermograph
Ocean surface temperatures
Latitude N/S Av. temp
Equatorial regions 260 C
200 230 C
400 140 C
600 10 C
Polar regions 00 C
- in the Red and Mediterranean seas, bottom temperatures reach 210 C and 130 C respectively
o this is because the seas are separated from the oceans by a threshold at the entrance
o this is a type of wall that rises from the sea bed to within 350m of the surface at the Straits of
Gibraltar and at Bab-al-Mandab

 winds also affect sea temperatures.

o A prevailing offshore wind moves surface water away, allowing deep waters to rise along the
coast
o This process is known as upwelling.
o The cooler waters lower the temperature of ocean water in the area
iii) Ocean life
- ocean water forms a habitat for organisms
- these are:
 Plankton
 Nekton
 Benthos
a) Plankton
- they are tiny drifting plants and animals called phytoplankton and zooplankton
 Phytoplankton
o They live within 200 m of the surface of ocean water
o This is because they require sunlight for photosynthesis
o They are algae-like diatoms
o They are the source of food for many ocean organisms
 Zooplankton
o They are composed of fish eggs, immature fish, lobster, jellyfish, crabs etc.
o They feed on phytoplankton and tiny pieces of food floating in ocean water
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 o They provide food for bigger ocean life
b) Nekton
o They include all types of swimming fish from tiny herring to whales
o They occupy all levels of the ocean
o They come to the surface water to feed on plankton
c) Benthos
o These live only at the bottom of seas and oceans
o Many live near the margins of continents and islands where sunlight reaches the ocean floor
o They include coral, snails, starfish, clams, sea anemone
o When coral dies, it forms coral reefs
o Others live at the bottom of deep oceans and feed on partially decomposed matter that sinks
to the ocean bottom

iv) Ocean water pollution

- pollution is the introduction of substances into an environment that produce harmful change
Human activities result in pollution:
 Industrialization: Industries have allowed the release of wastes containing concentrates of
copper, lead, molybdenum and mercury to be released into the oceans. These are called
industrial waste

Ocean pollution
 Oil spills from high sea spillage/accidental or deliberate spillage, leaks from oil wells drilled
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  from oceans cause major pollution at sea

Cleaning an oil spill

Rain water results in pollution: Silts and sediments brought in by rivers and surface run off kill
organisms that require clear water, e.g. coral polyps
v) Ocean Topography
- it is composed of various features, i.e.:
 The continental shelf
 The continental slope
 The abyssal plain
 Mid ocean ridges and sea scarps
 The islands
 Deep sea trenches
 Guyots
a) The continental shelf
- this is a part of the continent that extends into the ocean
- it may extend from a few kilometers to 1,200km (Siberia into the Arctic Ocean)
- it may be narrow or absent where mountains are near to or plunge into the ocean
- it has an average depth of 200m below sea level
b) the continental slope
- it is the steeply dipping surface between the outer edge of the continental shelf and the ocean basin
proper
- coastal shores are usually above sea level
- this is because 0 meters is at the point where the continental shelf dips into the continental slope.
So Mombasa is 17m above sea level

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Ocean topography
c) the abyssal /deep sea plain
- this is the flat almost level area of the ocean basin where muds and sediments from the continental
shelf are deposited
- they are found at depths of 3350 – 5550 m in the Pacific ocean, e.g. Albatross Plateau to the west
of S. America
d) Mid ocean ridges and sea scarps. These form:
- In areas of diverging ocean plates, volcanic materials are ejected from the earth’s interior forming
the ridges
- Sea scarps form due to faulting and subsidence of sea floors/uplift along the fault line
- Some oceans floors are traversed by several transverse ridges formed of pillows of lava

Ocean topography
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 e) The islands
- continental islands
- oceanic islands
- coral islands
 Continental islands
o They rise from continental shelves
o They are structured like neighbouring continents
o They are the largest land masses within an ocean basin
o They result from changes in the base level of oceans/land
Examples: Zanzibar, Pemba, Malindi, Lamu, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, the Britain, Newfoundland

Lamu/Manda: Continental islands

 Oceanic islands
o They rise from the deep ocean floor

Tristan da Cunha volcanic island

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 o Some are the tops of volcanoes rising from the deep sea plain, e.g. the Canary and Cape
Verde Islands, Hawaii
o Some are the tops of higher parts of the ocean ridges, e.g. Iceland, Ascension, Azores, Tristan
da Cunha, the Falklands (Malvinas), Sandwich and the Seychelles
 Coral islands
o They may be found on the continental shelf or in deep seas
o They may also form the caps of continental islands, sea mounts or Guyots
o Examples: The Bermudas (Atlantic), Aldabra, and Maldives (Indian Ocean)

Aldabra island: an atoll

f) Deep sea trenches
- These are deep, narrow, steep sided, submarine valleys on the ocean floor

Mariana trench depths

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- they form in zones of subduction, where the ocean floor/crust is sliding beneath a continental plate
- they form the deepest part of the ocean floor
 Examples: The Mariana trench in the Pacific is 11,034m below sea level, forming the deepest
part of our oceans. Others are:
o Kuril, 10,542m, Japan, 10,500m, Aleutian, 7,822m, 10,047m-Kermadec, Tonga, 10,882m,
o Philippine, 10,497m, Peru-Chile, 8,066, all in the Pacific
o In the Indian ocean there are Java, S. Sandwich and Sunda trenches
o In the Atlantic, Puerto Rico Trench, 8,528m
g) Guyots
- these are submerged atolls, forming an underwater mountain with a flat top

Guyot, atoll, volcanic island

 atolls are constantly being built up by coral polyps. They are submerged as coral only lives
under water
 they tend to be found on eastern seaboards of oceans
- a volcano which fails to rise above sea level is called a sea mount
- if it rises above sea level it becomes a volcanic island
 examples:
o Fiji and Hawaii islands
o There are 20,000 or more volcanoes on the ocean floor. From the seabed, some are higher
than Mt Everest
Movement of Water in the Oceans
- ocean water is always on the move, both
 Vertically and,
 Horizontally
- these movements cover thousands of kilometers, and great depth
- only a portion of ocean water is involved in these movements
- the main cause of movement is wind.
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- other causes are density, earthquakes and submarine volcanic eruptions
Vertical Movements Of Water
- Ocean water moves from the surface to the bottom of the ocean, and from the bottom to the
surface
- there are therefore rising waters and sinking waters this is due to:
 the differences in the density of ocean water
 convergence of ocean currents
 winds blowing offshore

Vertical and horizontal movement of ocean water

a) Differences in the density of the water
 warm waters, e.g. at the tropics, have a lower density than colder polar waters
o due to this, at the poles, the cold dense waters tend to sink. This is a vertical movement
downwards
o at the bottom, this water begins to move towards the equator
o at the equator, the cold waters rise or upwell, creating a vertical movement upwards
o at the tropics, the less dense warm water occupies the surface
o the warm water moves horizontally pole ward, pushed by the winds
o as they move they become colder and heavier, and eventually sink at the poles, creating a
vertical movement
o when the salinity of water rises, its density increases, and when salinity falls, its density
decreases
o when water with high salinity meets water with low salinity, the more saline, dense water
sinks below the less saline water, creating vertical movement
b) convergence of ocean currents
 when two ocean currents converge, they both push each other down/sink, since the
differences in their characteristics does not allow them to mix
o at the ocean bottom, they diverge and eventually rise, causing upwelling
o this creates vertical movements in the water
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 o in the southern hemisphere, cold Antarctic waters converge with warmer tropical waters at
around 500S, and in the northern hemisphere around 400N
o when this occurs, a distinct layer of separation called a cold wall forms. This is most
noticeable where the warm Gulf Stream meets the cold Labrador current, and where the
warm Kuro Shio meets the cold Okhotsk current/Oya Shio
o upwelling brings up important minerals from the ocean bed, which are fed on by plankton.
Plankton are fish food. Such regions are important fishing grounds
c) off-shore Trade Winds and Westerlies push surface water away from sea shores
 this allows cold water flowing at the ocean bottom from the poles to upwell against the
continental shelf, causing vertical movement
 it gives rise to the Cold Canaries, the Cold Banguela, the Cold Peruvian and the Cold
Californian currents
 areas where cold waters upwell are also important fishing grounds, because they also bring
important minerals to the surface

Upwelling
Horizontal movements of water
This is movement of water across oceans in the form of:
 ocean currents
 tides
 Waves
i) Ocean currents
- a current is a mass of water, covering considerable depths, which is moving in a particular
direction
- the following factors influence the formation of ocean currents
a) winds
- when wind blows over the surface of water, it experiences frictional drag
- as the wind increases in velocity, it causes water to ripple
- the wind then presses on the windward side of these ripples, causing the water to start moving
with the wind, creating a current
The speed of the movement of the water depends on:
 the speed of the wind
 the length of the time the wind blows in a particular direction
 the distance of the open sea over which the wind blows, i.e. the fetch
- prevailing wind, e.g. the N.E and the S.E. Trade Winds, the Westerlies and the Polar Easterlies
blow almost consistently in the same direction
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- their movements cause drift currents, e.g. the North Atlantic Drift, caused by the Westerlies
b) Earth’s rotation
- this influences the direction of winds, which in turn influence the direction of the current
- this phenomenon is known the Coriolis effect
- it causes bodies in motion to be deflected from their initial paths, to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere

c) Shape of the landmasses

 a landmass towards which an ocean current flows causes it to be deflected to follow the coastal
outline
 a current may also be split into two by a landmass e.g. the S. Equatorial current is split into
 two by the island of Madagascar
 when an ocean current flows through a constriction between landmasses, its velocity increases
on leaving the constricted area
o such a current is known as a stream current
o e.g. the Gulf Stream is constricted between Florida and Cuba
o when it leaves the constriction, it flows at the speed of 6km/hour, involving masses of water
600m deep. It is one of the world’s strongest currents
d) differences in temperature and density of ocean water
o warm waters are less dense and tend to flow pole wards
o the cold, denser polar waters sink because they are heavy and dense. They move equator
wards
o at the equator they meet and rise, displacing the warm waters which continue to flow pole
wards
o This results in the formation of circulatory systems known as gyres, one in each major ocean
basin
o between latitudes 200 and 400, the circulation is clockwise in the N hemisphere and anti-
clockwise in the S. hemisphere
o In the Indian Ocean, the triangular Indian sub-continent and the seasonal change in the
direction of the monsoon winds cause a double gyre. It moves clockwise during the first half
of the year, and anticlockwise in the second half
- ocean currents are said to be warm if the surrounding water is cooler than the current
- it is cold if the surrounding water is warmer than the current
- warm currents flow from the tropics towards the poles, and cold currents from the poles
towards the tropics

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 - generally, warm currents flow along eastern seaboards, and cold currents along western
seaboards

Characteristics and Distribution of Major Ocean Currents

CURRENT TYPE OCEAN DESCRIPTION
1 Gulf Stream warm Atlantic N, hemisphere. Clockwise. Gulf of Mexico to Cape
Hattares
2 N. Atlantic warm Atlantic Continuation of Gulf Stream to W. Europe and the
Drift Arctic
Clockwise, equator ward. Through Davies Strait into
3 Labrador cold Atlantic the east coast of Canada. Meets the Gulf Stream at
the Grand Banks
4 Canaries cold Atlantic Clockwise. W. coast of Spain to W. coast of N.
Africa
5 Banguela cold Atlantic Anticlockwise. Equator ward. W. coast of S. Africa.
Upwelling
6 Kuro Shio warm Pacific Clockwise. Pole wards. Through the east coast of
Vietnam to W. coast of Japan to Alaska
7 Californian cold Pacific N. hemisphere. Clockwise. W. coast of USA
8 Alaskan/N. warm Pacific N. hemisphere. Counter and clockwise. Along
Pacific Alaskan coast
9 Kamchatka/Okh N. hemisphere. Counterclockwise. Bering Strait, S.
otsk/Oya Shio cold Pacific along Russia, Japan
10 E. Australian warm Pacific S. hemisphere. Counterclockwise. Papua New
Guinea to E. coast of Australia.
11 Aghulas/Moza warm Indian S. hemisphere. Counterclockwise. Along the coast of
mbique Mozambique, pole ward
12 S. W. Monsoon warm Indian At equator. January, SW to NE, pushed by the SW
13 N.E Monsoon Monsoons. July, NE to SW, pushed by the NE
Monsoons
14 Somali Cold/ Indian S. to N, hemisphere. Counterclockwise. July,.
warm Upwelling due to SW Monsoons
15 Peruvian/Humb cold Pacific S. hemisphere. Counterclockwise. S. American
oldt coast. upwelling
Characteristics of Ocean Currents
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- generally, currents flowing from the equator are warm
 this is because the water is heated by the overhead sun.
 these currents are thus called warm currents
- generally, currents flowing from the polar region are cold.
 This is because they come from cold areas
 They are thus called cold currents
- Ocean currents tend to move in different directions in the different hemispheres
 Ocean currents in the northern hemisphere tend to move clockwise, and those in the southern
hemisphere in the counter-clockwise direction
 This is due to the rotation of the earth on its axis that causes the deflection of winds and ocean
currents
- Different warmths of currents tend to be on different sides of continents
 Warm ocean currents tend to be on eastern sides of continents
 Cold ocean currents tend be on western sides of continents
- Currents diverge/converge differently depending on which side of the continent they are on
 Convergence tends to be on eastern coasts
 Divergence tends to be on western coasts
- Upwelling tends to occur along western coasts at low latitudes
 Off-shore prevailing winds push warm surface waters away from the shores
 Colder waters flowing at the bottom of the oceans rise/upwell to replace the warm waters,
creating cold currents
 These currents are the Cold Banguela, Canaries, Peruvian/Humboldt, Californian

World ocean currents

- Some currents are less developed than others

 Currents in the N. Indian Ocean are less developed

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  This is because they reverse their flow
o From July to September, the S.W Monsoon Drift is created as the S.W Monsoons blow
o From January to March, a reversal occurs, when the N.E Monsoons begin to blow, creating
the N.E. Monsoon Drift.
- The N.E and S.E Equatorial currents are caused by the Trade Winds
 These currents are pushed by the wind to flow westwards, due to Coriolis effect
 This is balanced by waters moving eastwards in between the two currents, called the Equatorial
Counter-Current
- Each major current has one gyre
 This is a cell created by circulatory movement of ocean currents
 They occur:
o Between latitude 20 0 and 400 in the N hemisphere, where the currents circulate in a
clockwise manner

o Between latitude 200 and 400 in the S. hemisphere, where the currents circulate in a clockwise
manner
o In the N. part of the Indian the Ocean, the gyres are anticlockwise first part of the year, and
clockwise in the second part of the year
- A current is said to be:
 warm if the ocean surrounding it is cooler
 it is cold if the ocean around it is warmer

ii) Tides
Definition: This is the periodic rise and fall of the level of the sea and other large water bodies due
to the gravitational pull of the moon and to a lesser degree, the sun
Causes of tides
- water bodies on the surface of the earth are held to it by the force of gravity of the earth

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Ocean tides
- however, the moon and to some extent the sun exert gravitational pull on the earth as well as on
the water bodies
- this results in the bulging of the waters of the oceans that are directly below the sun and the moon
at any one time
- the causes of tides are:
 The influence of the moon and the sun
o The moon exerts a strong gravitational pull on the earth
o As it does so, the water nearest to the moon bulges out towards it
o This results in high tide in all the areas under the influence of the moon at that time (H1)

- during this time, the earth is also being pulled towards the moon
- this causes the waters on the opposite side (H2) to rise/bulge, as some water flows from the side of
the earth (L1) and (L2)
- this water occupies the space created by the pull of the moon
- high tide thus occurs at H1 and H2, and low tide at L1 and L2
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- the sun, though very far away, also exerts gravitational pull on the earth, with a force about 0.46th
of the moon, also influencing the tides
- as the moon reaches position L1, the situation changes, as:
o High tide develops at position L1 and L2,
o Low tide develops at position H1 and H2
 Rotation of the earth
- in one lunar day, any water surface on the earth therefore comes under the influence of two high
tides and two low tides
o The moon rotates on its axis once in every 27.3 earth days (an earth day is 24 hours)
o It also revolves round the earth from west to east in 27.3 earth days, hence it always presents
the same face to the earth
o This is the same direction in which the earth rotates
o A complete lunar orbit is known as a lunar month
- the earth’s rotation is slower than the revolution of the moon by 52 minutes
o A point on the earth’s surface takes 24 hours to return to its original position
o The moon will be ahead of this point by 52 minutes since it is also revolving
o This point then takes an additional 52 minutes to catch up with the moon
o A lunar day is thus 24 hours and 52 minutes
- if the point experienced high tide at 2pm, the following day it will experience high tide at 2.52pm,
the next day at 3.44pm, etc.
- thus rotation causes the rising and falling of tides
- the occurrence of tides is easily observed where land slopes gently to the sea, with a wide beach
- At high tide, the level of water rises and covers most of the beach
- At low tide, the whole of the beach and some part of the Wave-cut platform is exposed
o The difference in height between the high and low tide is called the tidal range
o over open sea the range is small, maybe 0.5m
o in shallow marginal seas, it may reach 9m, and even higher in estuaries and bays
o in enclosed seas, it is very minimal.
- Over much of the Atlantic Ocean, two high and two low tides occur each lunar day
o They attain the same magnitude
o They are known as semi-diurnal tides

- over the Pacific and Indian oceans, the amplitude varies.

o The high tide may be constant
o The low tide may vary, or vice versa
o Such tides are known as mixed tides
- in some parts of the seas, e.g. in the Gulf of Mexico, the Philippine Island area, coast of China
and off the Alaska coast, only one high and one low tide are experienced in a lunar day
o These are known as diurnal tides

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 o The cause of this phenomenon is not known
Types of tides
- the moon orbits round the earth
o This orbit is elliptical, so there are periods when the moon is nearer the earth, and others
when it is further away from the earth
- the earth orbits round the sun, hence the gravitational pull of the sun is also felt
- a combination of these factors causes the following four tides to occur:
a) Spring tides
- twice a month, the sun, moon and the earth are all in a straight line
- at new moon:
o The moon may be lying between the sun and the earth
o The moon and the sun are pulling in the same plane, causing the occurrence of the highest
and the lowest tides, or spring tide
- this situation also occurs at full moon, when the earth is between the sun and the moon
o This situation is known as syzygy

b) Perigean Tides
- this occurs when the moon in its elliptical orbit is at its nearest point to the earth
- this position is known as perigee
- in this position high tides are 20% higher than normal
- the tidal range is also very high
- If a spring tide coincides with a perigean tide, (i.e. when the moon in its elliptical orbit is nearest
to the earth), then a very large tidal range occurs

c) Apogean Tides
- this occurs when the moon in its elliptical orbit is at its farthest point from the earth
- this position is known as apogee
- at this point the influence of the moon is at its weakest, so high tides and tidal range are lower than
normal

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 20

d) Neap tides
- these occur when the moon, the sun and the earth form a right angle, with the earth at the apex of
the triangle
- this position is known as quadrature

- it is reached twice in a lunar month, i.e. at half moon, a week after spring tide
- the moon and the sun are pulling the water to themselves, weakening the force of each body
- the high tide will thus be lower than normal and the low tide slightly higher than normal
- the resultant tidal range is very small

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 21

iii) Action of Waves
Definitions
- a wave is an oscillation of water particles caused by friction of wind upon the surface of the water
- the crest is the top of the wave
- the trough is the bottom of the wave
- the length of the wave is the horizontal distance between two crests of successive waves
- the height of a wave is the vertical distance between the crest and the trough
- the fetch is the distance of open water over which a wind blows. Strong winds over a long fetch
create powerful waves

How waves are formed

- air lies over the sea in layers
o the bottom layer is in contact with the surface of the water
o this creates frictional drag that is transferred to successive layers of air above
o this causes the layers of air to move at different speeds
- the top layer has least frictional drag
o it tumbles forward and develops a circular motion
o this causes downward pressure in the water surface, (DP), at its front, and an upward
pressure at its rear (UP)
o the water surface takes on the form of a wave

- the wind now presses at the back of a developing wave

o this causes the water to rise steeply
o the back of the wave tumbles forward, but it moves back later and slows the forward
movement of the front of the wave

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 22

 o the wave now grows bigger
-this goes on until the wave is fully formed

Movement of a wave
- in a fully formed wave, it is the wave form, not the water, that moves
- the diagram below shows the four component movements of a water particle in a wave
o the water particle at A moves to A1, to A2, to A3, to A4 and back to A

Breaking of waves
- as a wave nears the shore, the depth of the water decreases
- the circular motion below the surface is discontinued as water starts to touch the ocean floor
- the height of the wave increased, but the length reduces
- the front of the wave has too little water. It steepens and becomes hollow
- the crest plunges forward, causing the wave to break
- the water of the breaking wave moves forward to the beach. This movement is known as the
swash or send
FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 23
- the momentum in the wave pushes the water to its furthest limits, then the water moves back
towards the sea due to gravity. This movement is called backwash
- some of the backwash may be pushed back towards the beach by the next breaking wave. The rest
flows at the bottom, back to the sea in an undercurrent known as undertow

breaking wave
- the size of the wave is determined by:
o its height
o its length
o its fetch distance wave has travelled from origin
o its energy, determined by height, length and fetch
o its steepness – ratio of height to length and fetch
o period – time it takes for a wave to form and move
o velocity – speed of forward movement of individual crests
Types of waves
- there are two types of waves:
 constructive waves
 destructive waves
i) constructive waves

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 24

 the wave has:
o a strong swash. It brings materials from the sea and deposits them on the shore, building it.
o The wave break at a rate of 10 or less per minute, allowing the swash to run its course up the
beach
o a weak backwash due to a gently sloping beach. It takes only some of the materials brought
by the swash back to the sea, and is allowed to run its course
o it forms on gently sloping coasts
o it is responsible for the building of features such as beaches, sandbars, etc
ii) Destructive wave
 the wave has:
o A weak swash. The waves break at the rate of over 15 per minute, and it runs into the
backwash of the previous wave. It is unable to reach the full width of the beach
o a strong backwash. It removes materials that have been deposited on the beach, hence more
material is removed than is being deposited, destroying it.

Destructive wave
o They are more effective steeply sloping coasts, but this is influenced by tides and direction,
strength and fetch of the winds
o They are responsible for the destruction/the modification of existing coastal features, mainly
through wave erosion
Wave action and resultant features
- wave action involves:
 Erosion
 Transportation
 Deposition
a) Waves as agents of erosion
- erosion by wave occurs through:
FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 25
  Hydraulic action
 Corrasion/abrasion
 Solution
 Attrition
i) hydraulic action
this process takes place by:
 Compressed air action
- cracks and crevasses pre-exist on a cliff or rock face bordering the sea
- a wave crashes against the rock face, compressing the air in the cracks
- due to the increased pressure, the cracks widen.
- as the wave retreats, the pressure is suddenly released, causing the air to expand explosively,
further widening the fractures
- this is repeated many times over, causing the rock to finally fracture, resulting in erosion by
compressed air action

 Direct wave action

- a steep cliff pre-exists in an area experiencing strong breaking waves
- this causes large amounts of water to hit rock surfaces directly
- this pounding of the rock surfaces causes rock to weaken and then break off due to hydraulic
action
- the great force of breaking waves can be heard as a roaring sound over 10 km inland, suggesting
great power
ii) corrasion/abrasion
- a breaking wave carries pebbles, rock fragments, e.t.c in suspension
- these materials are hurled at the foot of a cliff or cliff face
- this causes:
 undercutting at the foot of the cliff forming caves
 materials to break off from the face of the cliff due to corrasion, forming cliffs
 some pebbles are dragged back by the backwash, scratching the ocean floor, causing abrasion
 the eroded materials are carried away by the water
iii) Corrosion/Solution
- sea water has both corrosive and dissolving effects

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 26

  the rock of a cliff face may be made of soluble materials like limestone/gypsum/ dolomite
 carbonic acid in sea water reacts with the rocks, forming soluble materials, hence corrosion
 these materials are carried away by water in solution
- other minerals e.g. salts may dissolve directly by solution in sea water
 they are then carried away in solution form
 the removal of these minerals leaves hollows and cavities in rocks
iv) Attrition
- a wave may be carrying rock fragments, pebbles, boulders e.t.c
- these materials are dragged up and down the shore by swash and backwash
- they hit against each other and against the cliffs
- this causes them to break up and become smaller in size due to attrition
NB. Attrition is not considered a form of erosion because it does not contribute to the wearing away
of the coast in any way
Features resulting from wave-erosion
- these are:
- cliffs - wave cut platform
- caves - blow holes
- geos - arches
- stacks - stumps
- bays and headlands
i) cliffs
- a steep rock face facing the sea pre-exists in an area experiencing stormy waves
- the breaking waves at high tide cut a notch at the base of the cliff by hydraulic action
- the rocks above the notch are weakened by weathering and denudation
- undercutting continues, extending the notch into a cave
- this causes the rocks above the cave to form a huge overhang
- undercutting continues. This causes the overhang to overcome inertia and collapse, resulting on
the formation of a high straight rock face, called a cliff

An overhang forms a cliff forms

2) Wave – cut platforms
- a steep rock face facing the sea pre-exists in an area experiencing stormy waves
- the breaking waves at high tide cut a notch at the base of the cliff by hydraulic action
- the rocks above the notch are weakened by weathering and removal of weathered materials by
denudation

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 27

- undercutting continues, extending the notch into a cave
- this causes the rocks above the cave to form a huge overhang
- undercutting continues. This causes the overhang to overcome inertia and collapse, resulting on
the formation of a high straight rock face, called a cliff
- the floor of the cave now becomes exposed when the overhang collapses
- the materials of the collapsed overhang break up into small particles due to attrition and corrasion,
forming the beach
- weathering and water erosion continue to cause the cliff face to retreat, leaving behind a flat,
extensive rocky plane, often covered by sand and washed by waves at high tide and exposed at low
tide, called a wave – cut platform (diagrams above)
3) Caves
- a steep/vertical/near vertical cliff/headland pre – exists in an area experiencing stormy waves
- the breaking waves at high tide cut a notch at the base of the headland by hydraulic action,
corrasion and solution
- as undercutting continues, the notch is continually enlarged until it forms a cylindrical tunnel
which extends into the cliff face, whose diameter decreases from the entrance, called a cave

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 28

 Sea cave
- example: Shimoni Caves, Kenyan south coast, famous as the place where slaves were chained
before being put into ships during the slave trade era
4) Blowhole/gloup
- a line of crustal weakness pre – exists in a cliff, extending from the front into the rock then upward
to the surface above the cliff. Powerful waves exploit the line by hydraulic action, creating a notch

Blowhole
- Continued erosion causes the notch to extend into the cliff, and causes it to widen forming a cave

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 29

- hydraulic action and solution continue to exploit the line of crustal weakness, following it into the
cliff then up to the top, forming a curved tunnel that opens up to the surface
- during high tide, as waves break against the cliff face, some of the water forces its way through
the tunnel and erupts from the top of it, forming a blowhole
5) Geo
- a blowhole pre – exists in an area experiencing wave erosion
- the waves continually erode the mouth of the cave that leads to the blowhole, making it bigger and
the roof thinner
- the roof of the cave between the blowhole and the sea may then collapse due to the weight of the
overlying rocks
- This forms a long narrow V-shaped inlet into the land called a geo

A geo
6) Arches, stacks and stumps
- a headland pre-exists in an area experiencing wave erosion, and it is attacked by waves from all
sides through hydraulic action and solution
- this causes notches to form at the bottom of a headland
- the notches soon turn into caves due to continued wave action

caves form
- if caves have formed on both sides of the headland opposite each other, the erosion may soon
cause them to inter-connect
- this forms a natural tunnel through the headland. The rock bridge above the tunnel is called an
arch
- continued erosion may widen the arch
- the top may become too thin to support the weight of the rock, causing it to collapse
- the pillar of rock that is left standing on the seaward side is called a stack
- wave action continues to undercut the stack at the base

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 30

- this causes the top of the stack to collapse, leaving only the base
- the base, called a stump, is only exposed during low tide, but is covered during high tide

an arch forms The arch collapses forming a stack

Arch, stack and stump

7) Bays and Headlands
- alternating layers of hard and soft rocks, laid parallel to each other, pre – exist along a coastline
- they are perpendicular and discordant to the coast line
- the coastline is subjected to wave erosion through hydraulic action, abrasion and solution
- the layers of soft rock are eroded faster than the hard rock, both by wave action and by weathering
and denudation, causing them to retreat inland
- this results in a curved inlet with gently sloping shoreline, called a bay
- the bands of harder rock are more resistant to erosion. They are left behind as protrusions of hard
rock into the sea, called a headland

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 31

Bay and headland landscape
Waves as Agents of Transportation
- waves are agents of transportation, and can move large quantities of material over long distances
along a coast
- materials transported include silt, mud, clay and sand particles, pebbles, shingle and even big
pieces of rock
- these materials enter the sea from:
 materials brought by rivers, glaciers and by wind from inland
 materials that are a result of mass wasting on coastal features
 materials that are a result of weathering and denudation along the coast
 material that are a result of volcanic eruptions on land bordering the sea or in the sea
Factors Influencing Coastal Transportation
a) Waves
- Strong winds produce powerful waves, but light winds produce weak waves
- Strong waves are capable of carrying large varieties and quantities of materials up and down a
coast, over vast distances by longshore drift
- weak waves can only move little quantities of material over short distances
FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 32
b) Tides
- a tide extends the area on a beach that comes under the influence of waves
- high tides cause waves to break further inland, and materials that were previously out of the reach
of breaking waves are then transported along the beach
c) Ocean Currents
- ocean currents cover long distances as they move within the seas
- they are responsible for moving materials, e.g. coconut seeds, from one part of the ocean to
another
d) Gradient of the Shore
- on very steep coasts, materials merely bounce of the cliffs and back onto the water making little
movement
- on gently sloping shores, especially if the waves break at an oblique angle, then materials are
transported over long distances along the coast by longshore drift
e) Orientation of the Coastline
- if the coastline is aligned at an oblique angle to breaking waves, then longshore drift can occur
along the beach
- if the coastline is aligned transverse to the breaking waves, then materials are only moved
vertically up and down the beach, making little movement
e) Nature of the Load
- if very heavy boulders break off the cliffs, they fall straight into the water and stay put, as they
are too heavy to move
- lighter materials like sand are carried in suspension and can be carried over long distances along
the coast
- the dissolved load of a wave remains in solution and can be moved all over the ocean by currents
and other water movement
Longshore Drift
Definition
- the process by which waves move materials along a beach
- ocean waves may be breaking on a gently sloping beach at an oblique angle
- the swash of the wave pushes the materials up the shore at an angle
- the backwash drags the materials back down the shore at a 900 angle by the force of gravity

- the next wave pushes the materials up the shore at an oblique angle again, and the backwash down
at a right angle
- this goes on so long as there is a beach, causing the materials to move along the beach in a zigzag
manner, resulting in longshore drift
Waves as Agents of Deposition
FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 33
- materials that are being moved up and down the beach by longshore drift end up getting deposited
along the beach/shore
- waves sort their materials as they deposit, with the coarsest materials like rocks deposited furthest
up the beach, then pebbles and the finest sands and muds nearest to the water line
- the heavier materials are pushed furthest by spring perigean tides which are powerful and high,
while a weak backwash brings back the lighter materials towards the sea
Factors Influencing Coastal Deposition
a) the Type of Waves
- waves that cause deposition have a strong swash and a weak backwash
- this allows materials to be carried up far up the shore, then the water stops briefly, resulting in
dropping of materials the wave was carrying
- a weak backwash is unable to pull materials pushed up the shore by the swash back to the sea
- this goes on for a long time, resulting in continuous deposition of materials on the beach
- such waves are known as constructive waves
b) Gradient of the Shore
- if a shore has a gentle gradient, the momentum of the wave is reduced as the water moves up the
shore
- this causes the waves to start depositing materials
- where the shore is steeply sloping or there are cliffs, materials are carried forward by a weak
swash, but are dragged back to the water by a strong backwash, hence little deposition
- there is little or no deposition on steep cliffs as materials thrown against the cliff by waves just
bounce back with the water
c) Configuration of the Coastline
- where there are bays along the coastline, longshore drift stops and deposition takes place in the
water
- it also occurs at the mouths of some rivers
- deposition takes place if waves break onto a gently sloping or shallow shore at an oblique angle
d) Depth of the Water
- deposition mostly takes place where the water is shallow
- this is because the cyclic motion of water molecules is halted as the water comes into contact with
the shore
- this slows down the movement of the water, causing deposition to occur
Features of Wave Deposition
Features that result from wave deposition are:
- Beaches - Beach cusps
- Beach ridges - Beach berms
- Beach rock shells - Spits
- Bars: i) bay bars, ii) offshore bars
- Tombolos - Cuspate foreland
- Mudflats and salt marshes - Dune belts
1) Beaches
- due to cliff retreat, a gently sloping wave-cut platform forms in an area experiencing gentle
Waves/constructive waves
- the waves could be carrying a load of sand, shingle, pebbles or boulders
- a strong swash carries the wave with the materials far up the platform, causing it to slow down and
deposit some of its load
- a weak backwash moves straight down the shore, leaving the deposited materials behind

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 34

- this goes on for a long time, creating a gently sloping land with a mass of accumulated materials
along the coast, called a beach

Watamu beach
- if the beach forms at the head of a cove or bay, it is called a bay beach
- in Kenya there are white sandy beaches such as Diani, Shelly, Nyali, Bamburi, Shanzu, Silver
Sands, Watamu and Malindi beaches
2) Beach Cusps
- a gently sloping beach pre – exists in an area experiencing strong swash and backwash from
waves that break at right angles to the beach
- the swash creates eddies that occur like many pairs of hands pushing sand backward and upward
to the beach
- the eddy scoops out the sand forming depressions on the beach, pushing coarser materials to either
side of the depression, enlarging it
- the pointed edge of the depressions sticks out facing the sea, separating the depressions, hence
forming beach cusps (they form a bay and headland pattern, with the headland forming the cusps

Beach cusps

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 35

 Beach cusps
3) Beach Ridges
- strong and constructive waves may be approaching a gently sloping shore during a storm
- they carry and deposit sand and coarse materials above the normal high tide level
- over the year, the materials compact and vegetation may begin to grow on them
- the vegetation traps more wind transported sand, causing the area of deposition to rise higher
This results in the formation of a low ridge that is a mixture of coarse sand, pebbles and boulders,
called a beach ridge

4) Beach Berms

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 36

- a beach with a steep profile and fairly coarse sand pre-exists along a coast experiencing low
energy waves, and a big tidal range
- the materials are pushed up the beach by the strong swash, and deposited to create a flat platform
near the high tide level
- the backwash creates a steep front of the platform, facing the sea
- this goes on for a long, time, resulting in the formation of a bench with its steep front facing the
sea called a beach berm
5) Beach Rock Shells
- waves tend to sort materials as they are deposited on gently sloping beaches
Coarse materials like coarse sand, shells and pebbles are deposited at the furthest reach of waves at
high tide, called beach rock or beach shells
- over time, these materials get cemented together by calcium carbonate existing in ocean water
- they form conglomerate type projections often found above the normal high tide level that protect
the upper beaches from wave attack, called beach rock shells

Beach shells Beach rock shells

6) Spits
- a long beach interrupted by e.g. a bay pre - exists in an area experiencing longshore drift
- when the materials being transported along the beach reach the entrance of the bay, they are
deposited into the water

Long-shore drift and the formation of a spit

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 37
- this goes on for a long time, until the materials bulge out of the water due to accumulation of the
deposits
- longshore drift then progresses along the exposed bulge, and more sand is deposited in the sea
adjacent
- minor waves swing around the edge of the deposits, causing some of the deposited materials to
form a sharp hook, called the hook of the spit
- the process of deposition and exposure of deposits within the area along which longshore drift is
occurring creates a long depositional landform made up of beach materials with a sharply hooked
end, called a spit
- if a spit is made mainly of sand, it is called a sand spit

A spit
FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 38
7) Bars
i) Bay bar
- a long beach interrupted by e.g. a bay pre - exists in an area experiencing longshore drift
- when the materials being transported along the beach reach the entrance of the bay, they are
deposited into the water
- this goes on until the materials bulge out of the water due to accumulation of the deposits, creating
a spit
- longshore drift continues to transport materials along the spit, extending it across the bay
- eventually, the spit comes into contact with the further end of the bay,
- this created a long extension of sand created by longshore drift enclosing the bay, forming a bay
bar
- the bar may be submerged during high tide, but exposed at low tide
- the enclosed piece of calm water behind the bar that was formerly the bay becomes a lagoon

ii) Offshore Bar/Barrier Beach

Offshore bar
8) A Tombolo
- an island pre – exists near a shore experiencing longshore drift
- due to the deflection of waves round the island as they approach the beach, a spit begins to grow
outward from the island where the waves meet towards the beach, and from the beach towards the
island
- this goes on until the two converge and form a causeway of sand, gravel e.t.c to join the island to
the mainland, called a tombolo
- the city of Dakar, Senegal, is built on a Tombolo
FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 39
To

Tombolo formation

Tombolo
9) Cuspate Foreland
- a beach experiencing longshore drift pre-exists on a shoreline experiencing seasonal changes of
wind direction
- during one season, materials from longshore drift may be deposited on one end of a gentle
headland, creating a spit
- during the next season, winds change direction, and materials from longshore drift are deposited
in the water on the opposite side of the headland forming also a spit
- this goes on until the two spits meet and merge,

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 40

- the water enclosed by the two spits forms a lagoon
- the lagoon eventually fills up with sand and other deposits, creating a V-shaped extension of land
into the sea called a cuspate foreland

Cuspate foreland
10) Mudflats and Salt Marshes
- a bay or an estuary pre-exists on a gently sloping shore on a coast experiencing wave deposition
- silt or river alluvium may then be deposited by tides in such bays and estuaries
- after a long time of continuous deposition, a platform made up of mud or silt is formed in the bay
or estuary, called a mud flat
- soon, the mudflats get colonized by halophytic vegetation, which creating salt marshes

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 41

Mud flats and salt marshes
11) Dune Belts

- gently sloping coastlands pre – exist near an extensive sandy beach where the prevailing wind is
strong and onshore

Coastal dunes

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 42

- the winds move large quantities of sand inland, and deposits them above the high tide level
- this creates an extensive accumulation of sand, often covered by vegetation which traps more sand
and stabilizes the sand, called a sand dune
- barchans, transverse dunes and dome like nebkas are common here
- the dune belts often migrate inland, forming dune belts
- (many beach hotels along the Kenyan coast are built on dune belts)

Types Of Coasts
- this is determined by a variety of factors, i.e.:
a) Waves and tidal currents
- they are the main agents of erosion, transportation and deposition
- where erosion is taking place, features of coastal erosion will be found, and where there is
deposition, there will be an accumulation of materials transported from other shores
- coasts with a large tidal range have more surface for the waves to operate
- narrow sea inlets may develop a strong flow of water, i.e. a tidal current, deeply eroding the inlet
as well as the sea bed
b) Nature of the coastal rocks
- less resistant rocks offer little resistance to erosion, often forming inlets e.g. bays
- highly resistant coastal rocks form highland coasts, characterized by steep cliffs that are also
resistant to erosion
c) The slope of the coast
- the steeper the coast, the greater the effect of wave action.
- where the coast slopes gently into the sea, wave deposition is more dominant
- where the coastal land slopes steeply into the sea, wave erosion is more dominant
d) Orientation of the coastline
- this is the orientation of the coastline in relation to the prevailing wind
- where the coast lies across the path of the prevailing wind, waves break transversely as well. This
causes wave erosion to be intensive

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 43

- where waves break obliquely or almost parallel to the coastline due to the direction of the
prevailing wind, transportation and eventually deposition are more pronounced
e) Climate
- coral coasts develop in warm tropical waters
- fiord coastlines develop in areas that once experienced very cold conditions. Moving ice cut deep
valleys in highland coasts and when the snow melted, these valleys were drowned by rising seas to
form fiords
- climate influences weathering of rocks. If these rocks come under wave action, they are more
easily eroded
f) Changes in sea level
- if sea levels rise e.g. due to the melting of polar ice caps, features along the highland coasts are
drowned to form fiords, rias, and straits
- the submergence of lowland coasts may result in such features as estuaries and a broader
continental shelf
- a fall in sea level exposes coastal features such as coral
g) Human activities
- these activities interfere with or create features which did not exist before
- this includes the building of canals e.g. Panama and Suez canals, creation of artificial harbours,
land reclamation which turns part of the sea into dry land, building of dykes, embankments, e.t.c
The features formed due to the factors above include:
i) submerged coasts
ii) emerged coasts
ii) coral coasts
Submerged coasts
Submergence or drowning of a coast can be influenced by the following factors:
i) a positive change in base level
- this may be due to actual rise in sea level due to change in climate
- at the end of the ice age, large amounts of meltwater were released into the sea, causing sea levels
to rise
- this is known as eustatic change
ii) subsidence of coastal regions
- local faulting may cause coastal land and part of the ocean floor to sink
- this may also be caused by the rising of the ocean bed due to isostatic adjustment
This results in;
o submerged highland/upland coasts
o submerged lowland coasts
 submerged highland coasts
o land may slope steeply into the sea
o this may result in formation of features that are formed by other than wave action
o the features may form due to drowning or submergence of coasts to form new features, e.g.
 Ria coasts
- A river in a highland coast in its old stage may enter the sea through a delta
- A change in base level causes the rising of the sea level
- This results in the drowning of the mouth and the flood plain of the river
- The interfluves project into the ria as headlands
- It forms an inlet that is deep on the seaward side that becomes shallower and narrower further
inland called a ria

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 44

Mombasa Island A ria on R. Solva, England
o Rias and ridges lying between them are arranged transversely to the coastlines, creating a
transverse or discordant coastline
o Examples Kilindini, Port Tudor, Mtwapa, Takaungu and Kilifi in Kenya, along Guinea
Bissau, SW Ireland, NW Spain, coast of Devon in SW England
o Some isolated hills on such a coast may become surrounded by water to form islands, e.g.
Mombasa Island, and Bisango Islands off Seirra Leone
 Fiord Coasts
- During the ice age, ice in the form of glaciers occupied river valleys in a highland coast
- As glaciers move down the valley, they rode them by plucking and abrasion, deepening and
widening them
- When the ice melted, sea levels rose and drowned the deep (up to 1000m deep), trough
shaped/U-shaped valleys, forming fiord coasts
o The inlets are generally narrow and long
FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 45
 o They are shallower at the mouth due to the terminal moraine that forms a threshold. It was
deposited by the glacier at its snout during the ice age

o A part of the terminal moraine which protrudes above the sea forming an island is called a
skerry
o Examples are found along the coasts of Norway(e.g. Sogne Fiord, 114km long and about 5km
wide), British Columbia, Scotland and SW Ireland, S. Chile and S. Island of New Zealand

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 46

 Longitudinal coasts
- a coast may be made up of valleys which are more or less parallel to the coastline
- sea levels may rise or the coast may then subside, maybe due to a rise in sea level or isostatic
adjustment
- the valleys then become submerged by the sea, forming narrow sea inlets called sounds, which
are parallel to the general coastline

o the hills nearest the sea may form islands or a long narrow peninsula
o this type of coast is also known as a Dalmatian coast. This is because they are well developed
along the coast of Dalmatia on the NE coast of the Adriatic Sea
 Submerged lowland coasts
- A coast may be characterized by gentle slopes
- submergence then occurs due to drop in base level of the land or due to rise in sea levels
- sea water then invades the land, covering extensive areas.
FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 47
- River mouths and a large section of the flood plain are drowned to form estuaries, which are
wider and shallower than rias. At low tide, mud flats are exposed upstream
- It also results in the formation of a wider continental shelf, thus forming a submerged lowland
coast
o Along glaciated lowland coasts, fjards form along the glaciated valleys
o They are deeper than rias but have lower shores and broader profiles than fiords, so they form
excellent harbours
o Fjards have numerous islands
o Examples: on the rivers Senegal, Gambia and Mella Coree
o Also the ports of Banjul on the Gambia and Benty in Cote d’Ivore are built on such estuaries
Emerged coasts
A coast may emerge from the sea, exposing land that was once under the sea permanently. This is
influenced by the following factors:
a) Negative changes in the base level of the sea
- this may be due to an actual change in sea level, caused by reduction in sea level due to
incomplete hydrological cycle.
- water may be held in form of glaciers and ice sheets, e.g. Quaternary Period, sea levels were
lowered by 90m
- oceans basins may also broaden due to sea floor spreading, hence more space to be occupied by
water
- ocean floor may also sink due to the weight of eroded materials being deposited by wind/water/ice
b) Uplift of the coastal lands
o faulting may cause coastal regions to be displaced upwards
o tectonic movements may also cause up warping of coastal lands e.g. during folding
o it can also be caused by tectonic recovery upward i.e. isostatic adjustment
o this results in emergence of formerly submerged land
This has resulted in:
o Emerged highland coasts
o Emerged lowland coasts
 Emerged highland coasts
o Raised beaches
o Raised caves
o Raised cliffs
o Raised wave cut platforms
o Raised beaches
o Regional uplift of land or a drop in the base level of the sea causes the pre-existing beach to
FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 48
 be higher than the new high tide

o A new beach forms at the point of the land between the high and low tides
o E.g. the raised beach, wave cut platform and cliffs along Mama Ngina drive in Mombasa. The
Hotel Oceanic is on this beach. Also on the coast of Ghana, Senya Beraku
Label the features shown
 Raised cliffs
o Cliffs originally formed by wave action are now found high above the high tide level.
o They may have notches and caves at the bottom, and arches
o Found along Mama Ngina Drive, and near Shelly Beach where the old cliff line is half a km
inland from the present shore
 Raised wave cut platform
o This extensive piece of land is usually under the sea
o It forms as a cliff retreats due to erosion
o It may be found on emerged beaches above the new line of cliffs as waves begin to act on the
newly emerged land

Oceanic hotel Mombasa and Mama Ngina Drive

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 49

Raised highland coast
 Emerged lowland coasts
They are characterized by:
o Gentle coastal plains
o Fall lines/knick points
 Coastal plains
o The continent may edge the sea in gently sloping land that extends into the continental shelf
o After emergence, the part under the sea becomes exposed, increasing the extent of the land
gently sloping into the sea called a coastal plain
o Some of the features that had formed on such a coast like spit bars, sand spits, coral reefs
become raised, accounting for the presence of coral limestone in continental interiors
o Lagoons may also become raised, to appear as salty lakes
 Fall line
o Rivers flowing into an ocean may have done so through a delta or estuary
o The coastal land then experienced general uplifting, exposing part of the continental shelf
o The rivers now fall into the newly emerged coastal plain via a waterfall or a rapid, creating a
fall line. The points of the waterfalls are called knickpoints
o Example: along the S coast of Kenya between Likoni and Ukunda and N coast between Nyali
and Mtwapa
Coral coasts
o They are mainly composed of coral rocks. Coral is a limestone rock, hence it is called
coralline limestone
o It is formed of the exoskeletons of tiny marine organisms called coral polyps. These

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 50

 creatures are able to extract lime from sea water and use it to construct their shells for their
protection
o They then use the same lime to attach themselves to rocks and to one another
o Polyps live in colonies. When they die, their shells form a ridge-like rock that occurs parallel to
the shore
o For coral polyps to grow, they require the following conditions:
 Temperatures of about 25-290C, but can even thrive at 200C. These conditions can be found
on the eastern seaboards of continents around the tropics. Areas washed by warm ocean
currents have coral even at 300N/S
 The polyps must be submerged, though they can tolerate brief exposure during low tide
 The water must be shallow, up to about 10m, but some species can thrive up to depths of 60m
 The water must be clear, to allow free penetration of sunshine that is essential for the growth
of coral
 The water must be salty/saline. Coral is absent at the mouths of rivers because the fresh water
dilutes the salt and silt makes the waters cloudy
 Types of coral reefs
There are three types of coral reefs
o Fringing reefs
o Barrier reefs
o Coral atolls
 Fringing reefs
o These are coral reefs attached to the shore

o Coral polyps start building on the wave cut platform, near the shore
o Building is faster on the sea ward side as there is more food for the polyps. The water is also
clearer
o The reef becomes steeper on the seaward side due to this
o On the landward side a shallow lagoon develops as corrosion reduces the coral
o This is a fringing reef

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 51

 Fringing reef
 Barrier reef
o These are reefs found far away from the coast
o Coral polyps start building on the continental shelf, far away from the coast
o Building extends seawards until it reaches the edge of the continental shelf
o A deep lagoon develops between the coast and the reef
o This creates a feature known as a barrier reef

 Coral atolls
o Fringing reefs may have formed around an island
o The island later began to sink, but the coral grew upwards, keeping up with the speed of the
o sinking island
o Soon the island was under water, leaving behind a circular shaped coral reef enclosing a
circular and fairly deep lagoon called a coral atoll

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 52

Coral atoll on Belize – The Blue Hole
 Origin of barrier reefs and atolls
Three theories have been put forward as to the origin of reefs and coral atolls
 Darwin’s theory (subsidence)
o A barrier reef
 a fringing reef pre-existed around a volcanic island

 the island began to subside, but the coral continued to grow upwards, keeping up with rising
sea levels
 coral also grew more vigourously on the seaward side, since there is more food and the water
is clearer
 the lagoon between the reef and the coast grew deeper due to the subsidence of the island
 this went on for a long time
 eventually, the reef extends a great distance away from the land, with a deep lagoon in
between, forming a barrier reef

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 53

Maupiti has a barrier reef
o a coral atoll
 continued subsidence of the land caused the island to be finally submerged
 the barrier reef became a ring of coral with a lagoon in between, called a coral atoll

 Daly’s theory
o Daly focused his attention on atolls only

 A small island with fringing reef pre - existed in tropical waters

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 54
  During the ice age, a drop in sea level due to water turning into ice, and the subsequent drop in
ocean temperatures stopped the growth of coral
 Waves then planed the exposed coral reefs, flattening them to the same level as the sea
 After the ice age, great amounts of meltwater were dumped into the sea from melting ice sheets
raising sea level
temperatures also rose, causing corals to start growing again
 Polyps continued to grow upwards to keep up with rising sea levels
 since corals grow better on the side facing the sea, a circular barrier reef forms, with a deep
lagoon in the middle, called an atoll

 Murray’s theory
o A barrier reef
 Murray suggested that the formation of a barrier reef began with the existence of a fringing
reef
 Breaking waves caused it to disintegrate on the seaward side
 The deposited debris formed a base for the growth of other polyps on the seaward side
 This is because coral grows faster on the seaward side due to the cleaner water and more food
 The coral on the landward side is deprived of food and so dies
 The coral deposits are dissolved by the saline water, deepening the lagoon
 This goes on for a long time with the lagoon becoming wider and deeper and the reef extending
farther and farther away from the land, forming a barrier reef
 A coral atoll
 Submarine hills or plateaux made up of volcanic materials or pelagic debris pre – exist in
shallow tropical waters
 If the floor is reduced to less than 60m, by wave erosion, it triggers the growth of coral polyps
 Fringing reefs form around the top of the hill, but the top part remains submerged
 It disintegrates and extends to form a barrier reef
 polyps find it difficult to thrive there due to less food and cloudy waters
 this results in the formation of coral atolls
Significance of Oceans, Seas and their Coasts to Human Activity
Oceans are or great significance to human activity
1) Influence on Climate

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 55

- oceans contribute the largest amount of water vapour to the atmosphere. This later forms rain that
are necessary for agriculture to be carried out
- lands near the sea experience a modification of their temperatures.
o During the day/summer, the sea is cooler than the land. Winds blowing onshore are thus cool
and bring a cooling influence to the adjacent land
o During winter/at night, the land cools faster than the sea. Winds blowing onshore are thus
warm and bring a cooling effect to adjacent land
o This leads to the creation of a maritime type of climate on lands near the shore
2) Water Transport
- water transport is the cheapest means of transport especially for bulky goods
- huge ships are thus able to travel from one country to the other delivering goods like petroleum,
machinery, minerals and agricultural products
- ocean going vessels are also able to travel deep inland over rias, fiords and estuaries, easing
transport for the communities in those areas
3) Tourism
- tourists are attracted to sea shores and adjacent oceans for a variety of reasons
o They are involved in a variety of sporting activities e.g. water skiing, sport fishing, snorkeling,
swimming and cruising
o Many countries have also created marine parks that attract tourist so that they can see the
variety of sea life found there
- tourism earns the country foreign exchange which is used to develop other sectors of the economy
4) Fishing
- some areas of the ocean, like the N.E and the N.W. Atlantic waters form some of the richest
fishing grounds in the
world. Such areas are rich in plankton, which is fish food, so abundance of fish is found there.
Fishermen harvest these oceans for fish and other marine life.
- when they sell their catch they are able to earn an income which they use to improve their
standards of living. The fish are also a source of food for large populations all over the world
5) Minerals
- sea water can be used for the production of salt. The water is put in evaporation pans and put in
the sun. the water evaporates leaving behind salt that is used for domestic and industrial purposes
- ancient shallow ocean lagoons contributed to the formation of crude oil and petroleum gas. This
oil/gas is in many places extracted and exported, earning a country foreign exchange. The oil can
also be refined producing useful products like jet fuel and petroleum which are used to run
aircraft/motor vehicles. Other products are used in industry e.g. greases and waxes
o Huge deposits of petroleum gas have been found on the Kenyan coast near Lamu
6) Source of Fresh Water
- ocean water can be distilled to provide fresh water. This water can be used for domestic and
industrial purposes
o This is done by Middle Eastern countries, which have few surface water resources. However,
the process is very expensive
7) Source of Power
- the rising and falling tides and high waves can be harnessed for the generation of tidal electricity.
The power produced can be used for domestic and industrial purposes
8) Education and Research
- for centuries man has explored our oceans to understand them better, and they have formed the
basis of many research and education based studies. This has led to careers such as oceanographic
studies and marine biology.

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 56

- The studies have also created awareness on the need to conserve our oceans as they are very
important to human life
Coasts and coastal features are also of great significance in a variety of ways
Positive
1) Port Development
- some features that are a result of the submergence of coasts like some fjords, rias, lagoons and
estuaries are deep and well sheltered, hence forming suitable sites for ports. This has led to the
development of ports like Mombasa (ria of R. Mwachi) and Dar es Salaam, Ports Matadi, (estuary
of R. Congo) and Banjul (estuary of R. Gambia), and Ports Narvik and Berger (fiords in Norway).
Ports are useful for the import and export of goods
2) Fishing
- fiords in countries like Norway and Canada are deep and sheltered. They form suitable sites for
the breeding of fish. These fish later populate the fishing grounds off the coasts of the countries,
where fish are caught in abundance and sold. This earns the fishermen income that they use to
improve their living standards.
- The fish are also exported, earning the countries foreign exchange that can be used to develop
other sectors of the economy
3) Tourism
- many coasts have features like warm sandy beaches, coral reefs, caves, cliff and fiords. These
features are attractive to tourists who visit the sites either to enjoy the beaches or to undertake
sightseeing tours. Tourism brings a country foreign exchange that can be used to develop other
sectors of the economy
4) Source of Minerals and Building Materials
- in some areas, raised coral reefs are made up of limestone. It can be quarried and used as a raw
material in the production of cement, which is used in the building and construction industry
- the limestone can also be quarried and the stones used for building houses
5) Habitat for some Marine Life
- mudflats that form at the mouths of some estuaries form a suitable habitat for the growth of
mangrove swamps. Mangroves can be harvested for poles that are used in the building and
construction industry/are exported to the Middle East, earning the country foreign exchange/Tannin
for tanning leather can be extracted from mangrove
- some coral reefs with live coral have been turned to Marine parks. These attract tourists, earning
the country foreign exchange
6) Land for Settlement
- many coastal plains are a result of emergence. This land is gently sloping and thus suitable for
settlement and the easy building of roads/railways.
Negative
1) infertile soils
- some emerged coastal lands are covered with rocks, sand or gravel. This makes them unsuitable
for agriculture as the soils may be shallow or infertile
2) Transport Barriers
- some coasts have extensive sandbars, spits, coral reefs or deposited sand. This makes it difficult
for ships to approach some harbours, causing them to need to be guided into the ports, hence
becoming a hindrance to transport
3) Oil Spills
- in stormy weather ships may crash against barriers along the coastline such as sandbars, spits,
coral reefs or deposited sand, causing loss of life/property/oil spills that pollute coastal waters/death
of aquatic animals

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 57

4) Sea Storms
Sea storms like hurricanes have rapidly moving winds. If they make landfall, the winds blow
against buildings, destroying them/huge storm surges hit against coastal homes/cities, destroying
property/drowning people

FORM 3 KCSE GEOGRAPHY. BY SUSAN W KAMAU PAGE 58