I B.

Tech Physics Theory- Reading material for the topic- Composites- FRP & FRM

Composite materials are engineered or naturally occurring materials made from two or more
constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties which remain separate
and distinct within the finished structure. Most composites have strong, stiff fibers in a matrix which is
weaker and less stiff. The objective is usually to make a component which is strong and stiff, often with
a low density.
Composite = matrix + fiber (filler).
Designed to display a combination of the best characteristics of each material i.e. fiberglass acquires
strength from glass and flexibility from the polymer.
Matrix and filler bonded together (adhesive) or mechanically locked together.
Matrix: Material component that surrounds the fiber. Usually a ductile, or tough, material with low
density, Strength usually = 1/10 (or less) than that of fiber. Serves to hold the fiber (filler) in a favorable
orientation.
Examples include: thermoplastic or thermoset. Thermoset most common (epoxy, pheneolic).
Fiber/ reinforcing material/ Filler: Materials that are strong with low densities. Examples include glass,
carbon or particles.

Nature of composites:

Advantages:
High strength to weight ratio (low density, high tensile strength) or high specific strength ratio!
High creep resistance
High tensile strength at elevated temperatures
High toughness
Generally perform better than steel or aluminum in applications where cyclic loads are encountered
leading to potential fatigue failure (i.e. helicopter blades).
Impact loads or vibration – composites can be specially formulated with high toughness and high
damping to reduce these load inputs.
Some composites can have much higher wear resistance than metals.
Corrosion resistance
Dimensional changes due to temp changes can be much less.
Anisotropic – bi-directional properties can be design advantage (i.e. helicopter blades).

Disadvantages:
Material costs are high
Fabrication/ manufacturing difficulties
Repair can be difficult
Wider range of variability (statistical spread)
Operating temperature can be an issue for polymeric matrix (i.e. 500 F). Less an issue for metal matrix
(2,700 F).
Properties non-isotropic makes design difficult! Example – video test in line w/ fibers 10X stronger vs
fibers oriented at an angle.
Inspection and testing typically more complex.
Classification of Composite Materials by Matrix:
1. Metal matrix
2. Ceramic matrix
3. Polymer (Resin) matrix.

Polymer matrix composites or Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)

Fibre-reinforced polymer(FRP), also Fibre-reinforced plastic, is a composite material made of a polymer
matrix reinforced with fibres.
The fibres are usually glass, carbon, or aramid, although other fibres such as paper or wood or asbestos
have been sometimes used.
Matrix can be- Thermoplastics: PE, Nylon, PS, PP, PC, PVC; Thermosets: Epoxy, polyester, phenolics.
Have high strength and stiffness to weight ratio.
Major applications are in aerospace, automotive, sporting goods, marine and construction industries.
Examples: GFRP or fiberglass (polyester or epoxy and glass), CFRP (polyester or epoxy and carbon), KFRP
(polyester or epoxy and Kevlar).

Metal matrix composites (MMC) or Fiber Reinforced Metals (FRM)

Metal matrix: Al, Ti, Mg, Fe, Cu, Ni

Example: Al-SiC (silicon carbide)
Example: Al-Al2O3 (aluminum oxide)
High strength, high stiffness, abrasion resistance, dimensional stability, high temperature and
toughness.
The strength of the composite depends primarily on the amount, arrangement and type of fiber (or
particle) reinforcement in the resin.
Typically, the higher the reinforcement content, the greater the strength.
In some cases, glass fibers are combined with other fibers, such as carbon or aramid (Kevlar29 and
Kevlar49), to create a "hybrid" composite that combines the properties of more than one reinforcing
material.
 Biomaterials
A biomaterial

 is a nonviable (incapable of growing and developing independently) material used in a

medical device, intended to interact with biological systems.
 is used to make devices to replace a part of a function of the body in a safe, reliable,
economic, and physiologically acceptable manner.
 is any substance (other than a drug), natural or synthetic, that treats, augments, or
replaces any tissue, organ, and body function.

The need for biomaterials stems from an inability to treat many diseases, injuries and conditions
with other therapies or procedures :

 replacement of body part that has lost function (total hip, heart)
 correct abnormalities (spinal rod)
 improve function (pacemaker, stent)
 assist in healing (structural, pharmaceutical effects: sutures, drug release)

USES OF BIOMATERIALS)

Organ/Tissue Examples

heart pacemaker, artificial valve, artificial heart

eye contact lens, intraocular lens
ear artificial stapes, cochlea implant
bone bone plate, intramedullary rod, joint prosthesis, bone cement, bone
defect repair
kidney dialysis machine
bladder catheter and stent
muscle sutures, muscle stimulator
circulation artificial blood vessels
skin burn dressings, artificial skin
endocrine encapsulated pancreatic islet cells
MATERIAL ATTRIBUTES (Properties) FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

Property Desirables

Biocompatibility Noncarcinogenic, nonpyrogenic, nontoxic, nonallergenic,

blood compatible, non-inflammatory
Sterilizability Not destroyed by typical sterilizing techniques such as
autoclaving, dry heat, radiation, ethylene oxide
Physical characteristics Strength, elasticity, durability
Manufacturability Machinable, moldable, extrudable

Biocompatibility is the ability of the material to perform with an appropriate host response in specific
application or Acceptance of an artificial implant by the surrounding tissues and by the body as a whole.

Classification of Biomaterials

 Metals
stainless steel, cobalt alloys, titanium alloys
 Ceramics
aluminum oxide, zirconia, calcium phosphates
 Polymers
silicones, poly(ethylene), poly(vinyl chloride), polyurethanes, polylactides
 Natural polymers
collagen, gelatin, elastin, silk, polysaccharides
Polymer Specific Properties Biomedical uses

Polyethylene Low cost, easy Possibility Tubes for various catheters, hip joint, knee
excellent electrical insulation joint prostheses
properties, excellent chemical
resistance, toughness and
flexibility even at low
temperatures

Polypropylene Excellent chemical Yarn for surgery, sutures

resistance, weak permeability
to water vapors good
transparency and surface
reflection.

Tetrafluoroethylene Chemical inertness, Vascular and auditory prostheses, catheters

exceptional weathering and tubes
heat resistance, nonadhesive,
very low coefficient of
friction
 HIGH TEMPERATURE MATERIALS

Introduction
High- temperature materials and mechanisms are critical technologies for pushing
the boundaries of human capabilities. The use of high –temperature materials is dated as far back
as beginning of human civilization. As early as human started working with fire and heat, they have
used materials that can sustain high temperatures. During the Stone Age, human ware not able to
smelt any ore, whereas during the Bronze and iron ages they were able to smelt bronze and iron
the industrial revolution led to an enormous rise in application and requirements for increased
capability and operational safety. As they became capable in controlling the heat that they
produced and the related application, increasingly efforts were made to control the properties of
materials and their performance of the structure that were made. The selection of high-
temperature materials has been winded to such metal alloys as refractory metals, stainless steels,
super alloys, and titanium alloys. Applications of high temperature materials include aircraft jet
engines, nuclear reactors, and industrials gas turbines some electronics applications.

Definition;
 Generally, in materials science the term high temperature is defined as the
temperature that is equal to, or greater than, about two- thirds of the melting point of
the solid. However, there are other definitions too, application – based definitions high
temperature materials need to be resistance to the related causes of damage including
oxidation and corrosion, which are accelerated with the increase in temperature.

 Generally, extrapolating the materials properties and chemical behaviour do not

correlate with the high temperature. Specifically, as the temperature of materials rise,
chemical reactions become pronounced and thermodynamic properties determine the
reactivity rather than kinetics. As the temperature increases, there are various effects
that take place including disorder of the material structure.

Historical Perspective
The use of high-temperature materials is dated as far back as the very ancient historic years
of the start of humans’ civilization. Initially, heat was used for cooking and overcoming cold
weather but with time the applications expanded to processing extremely high-temperature
materials and their use at harsh conditions. The industrial revolution led to enormous rise in
applications and requirements for increased capability and operation safety of both the fabrication
of the materials and their usage. Further, new materials were introduced and improved processes
were developed for their fabrication and treatment to enhance their strength and durability Some
of the applications that emerged include the development of the steam turbine at the end of the
nineteenth century, while filament lamps, combustion engine, and petrochemical industry in the
early twentieth century were followed by the development of the jet engine around the 1940s.
 the Space Shuttle engine in the 1980s. The development of the steel alloys at the end of the
nineteenth century as well as the stainless-steel (Brearley,1913) and the nickel–chrome alloys
(Crawford,1959) in the beginning of the twentieth century had major impact on the application of
high-temperature materials. The carbon–carbon composites (Savage,1993) were developed around
1970. It is interesting to follow the parallel development of materials and the resulting industrial
applications. Specifically, the driver of requirements at the end of the nineteenth century has been
the powering of ships and it led to the development and advancements in steam turbines/engines.

Figure: simulation of the outside of the space satellite as in heats up to over 1500 o C

The development of the gas turbine has benefited greatly from the use of nickel superalloys
(Sims,1987), which were developed around the 1940s. The corrosion resistance of
nickelchrome that was achieved by adding aluminium and titanium. Various manufacturing
processes were introduced to improve the available high-temperature materials and these
include the use of powder metallurgy, casting, and vacuum melting. Besides the capability of
the materials and structures to sustain the high temperatures without irreversible changes
and degradation of the properties, it is also necessary to have effective structural design that
allows for efficient heat dissipation, transfer of the associated high heat fluxes and the ability
to sustain the related thermal conditions.
Historical achievement of high temperature materials
 Need for High-Strength High-Temperature Materials
 Generally, there is a need for materials that are capable of being applicable at higher
temperatures than available and their development can benefit many industries. Since
the material strength degrades with the rise in temperature, the applicability of high
strength materials is limited to the requirements of the developed structure.
 Titanium metal matrix unidirectional composite with SiC reinforcement has strengths
as high as over 1400 MPa, but the application of this material is limited to the range of
about 500°C. On the other hand, for applications in the range of 1500°C, one can use
refractory metals with strength that is less than about 100 MPa or carbon/carbon with
strength above 350 MPa.
 Besides the loss of strength as a function of temperature, one needs to take into
account the ability of the material to sustain accelerated oxidation and other
degradation effects that may be involved with the exposure to high temperatures.

High temperature materials classification

Carbon–Carbon Composites Carbon–Silicon Carbide

Ceramic Matrix Composite

Ceramics Ceramic Composites

Cermet’s Refractory Metals

Metal Matrix Composites Super alloys

  Carbon–Carbon Composites:
 Carbon fiber-reinforced carbon, also known as carbon–carbon composites, is an
effective high-temperature material for structural applications that require thermal
shock resistance, a low coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal protection,
lightweight, and good strength retention up to about 1400°C.
 However, they have low impact resistance and, in the pure form of carbon–carbon
composites, they are susceptible to significant oxidation at temperatures above about
500°C.

 To address the oxidation issue, overcoat sealers are used; however, in applications to
high-speed flight vehicles, such overcoats are not an effective solution due to the fact
that long duration of heat exposure can rapidly erode the coating if it is based on low
viscosity sealants. Applying coating layers that consist of SiC and hafnium carbide was
determined to be effective in preventing oxidation at temperatures as high as 2200°C.
 Carbon–carbon composites are used for making structures of high-speed flight
vehicles, such as the nose leading edge, horizontal control surfaces, and the tail leading
edge. Other applications include aircraft brakes, high-temperature bearings and
clutches, nozzles, exit cones, satellite structures, and heat shields.

Temperature range 2200°C

materials SiC , carbon–polymer, carbon–graphite

applications Brocks, satellite nozzles, exit cones e

 Carbon–Silicon Carbide Ceramic Matrix Composite (temperatures up to

1600°C )
Carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide has a relatively constant strength at temperatures up
to 1600°C and the use of carbon fiber makes this composite material lightweight. It has a relatively
low load-bearing properties resulting from micro-cracking that are produced during its fabrication
and the formation of empty spaces that are microstructural voids that are produced during the
carbon fiber weaving

Temperature range
1600°C
materials carbon fiber,
application disc brake on a car,Cracking,
carbon fiber
  Ceramics (temperatures of more than 2000°C)
 Ceramics are inorganic nonmetallic solids that have mostly crystalline structures but,
as in the case of glass, they may have amorphous structure. Certain ceramic materials,
including silicon borides, carbides, and nitrites, can sustain extreme temperatures of
more than 2000°C.
 Ceramics are used for handling molten metals, and for aerospace applications such as
hypersonic flight, scramjet propulsion, rocket propulsion. For these applications, the
materials are used to produce nozzles of gas burners, nuclear fuel uranium oxide
pellets, coatings of jet engine, turbine blades, ceramic disk brakes, nose cones of
missile, as well as refractory applications in furnaces of materials production. Also,
they were used to produce the protection tiles of the Space Shuttle.

temperature 2000°C

materials Si3N4,, BaTiO3

application aerospace ,Ceramic BN crucible,

 Ceramic Composites (high melting point of about 3200°C)

For thermal protection of structures, increasingly ceramic composites such as zirconium
diorite is being used. This is the result of their very high melting point of about 3200°C, high
oxidation resistance up to 2000°C, and their low ablation rates at high temperatures. The material
consists of carbon fibbers coated with a thin layer of phenolic polymeric resin, While the resin
provides bonding, it also creates a light, durable, and heat-resistant shield.

Temperature High melting point 3200°C

materials Cubic born nitride
application Nose of the space satellite
 Cermets
 These are ceramic–metallic composites that combine the high-temperature resistance
and hardness properties of ceramics with the ability of metals to deform plastically.
The metal, which may be cobalt molybdenum or nickel with less than 20% in volume,
serves as a binder of the ceramic constituent that may be a boride, carbide, or oxide.
 Other metallic constituents may be a nickel-based superalloy with such elements as
columbium, molybdenum, and tantalum in a matrix of high-temperature ceramic
material such as silicon carbide (SiC).
 Cermets are used in high temperature electronics to produce resistors and capacitors,
as well as other components such as seals of fuel cells.

temperature 3000°C

materials cobalt molybdenum

application Machining tools

 Metal Matrix Composites (650°C it sustains oxidation)

 These materials consist of at least two constituents and with at least one made of
metal, while the other ones can be a different metal, ceramic, or other materials. These
materials are also called hybrid composites when the MMC consists of three or more
constituents. Generally, at elevated temperatures the creep and yield strengths of MMC
are relatively higher compared to most metal alloys. Increasingly, MMC are used in
high-performance systems and example includes a structural component of Fighting
Falcon jet aircraft.
 This component is made of monofilament silicon carbide fibbers in a titanium matrix.
An example of an effective MMC is the titanium MMC.

temperature 650oc

material titanium matrix,

applications Fighting Falcon jet aircraft,

Reinforcent,crack
  Titanium–Aluminium alloy:

This MMC is a high strength alloy with good air oxidation resistance for temperatures
up to 650°C, where above 650°C it sustains oxidation and embrittlement. This problem can be
overcome by producing a stable oxide layer during the stage of fabrication. But, this process can
also produce undesirable characteristics such as very low ductility, low fracture toughness and
poor creep properties. To prevent the oxidation, Ti–Al alloy substrates are suspended in vapour of
aluminium to create a uniform coating layer of TiAl3.

Temperature range : (650°C it sustains oxidation)

Titanium–Aluminium alloy

Titanium–Zirconium–Molybdenum alloy:

 Titanium–Zirconium–Molybdenum alloy:

This alloy has high strength and, with a dispersion of TiC and ZrC in the
molybdenum matrix, its high strength at elevated temperatures is well preserved. The carbide
complexes (TiC and ZnC) provide benefit in making this composite highly wieldable. Its low
coefficient of thermal expansion allows designers to integrate this composite material at areas that
are exposed to high temperatures without the need to prevent potential buckling from thermal
stresses.

 Refractory Metals;
 These are metals that have extremely high melting points, have significant resistant to
heat and wear, and they are very stable against creep deformation. The elements that
are included in this category are molybdenum, niobium, rhenium, tantalum, and
tungsten.

 These elements have melting point above 2000°C and they are very hard at room
temperature. Applications of refractory metals include casting melds and wire
filaments and they are widely used in powder metallurgy.
  There are also silicon-based refractory compounds, including SiC, Si3N4 and MoSi
which have excellent oxidation resistance at temperatures as high as 1700°C. One of
the widely used refractory materials is silica. The need for lightweight insulation and
low heat conductivity has been addressed in the Space Shuttle thermal protection.

Temperature 2000°C

materials MoSi, Si3N4

application incandescent light bulb

 Superalloys
 Superalloys, also known as high-performance alloys, are materials with excellent
mechanical strength and creep, good surface stability, and corrosion and oxidation
resistance at high temperatures. The base elements of most superalloys consist of
nickel, cobalt, or nickel-iron.
 This group of superalloys consists of 22 different nickel-based, highly corrosion-
resistant metal alloys.. Besides nickel, the following elements are used: molybdenum,
chromium, cobalt, iron, copper, manganese, titanium, zirconium, aluminum, carbon,
and tungsten. This superalloy is based on nickel–chromium.

Temperature 2200°C

materials nickel-iron, nickel, cobalt

application softer weld materials, cracking

process, space satellite

 Its strength gradually decreases as the temperature reaches about 650°C and it is
relative easy to create complex shapes with this superalloy. To avoid stress cracking in
welded structures, which may result from thermal stresses, softer weld materials are
used.
High-Temperature Processes
 Owing to the challenges that are involved with the processing and fabrication of high-
temperature materials, there are many different methods that have emerged to
address the needs of the specific materials and related properties. The higher the
temperature that is applied in the processes, the greater the acceleration of the related
kinetics and the reaction rate tends to be exponential with the temperature.
 Processing at high temperatures increases the solubility of various oxides when
forming dissolutions, as well as enabling certain reactions and phase transformations
that are essential to some of the produced materials. Rapid cooling is also used in some
of the processes and it prevents molecules in the molten phase from rearranging into
crystallographic structures.
 Thus, amorphous solids can be formed allowing the fabrication of metastable phases.
Some of the processing methods include smelting, powder sintering, and roasting, and
they require sufficient understanding of the related kinematic and thermodynamic
processes, effective process modelling, simulation, and optimization capabilities, as
well as the ability to measure physical properties at high temperature.

 The processing methods include vacuum deposition methods, such as physical vapor
deposition (PVD), where thin films are deposited by condensation of desired film
material in vaporized form onto various part surfaces. This coating method involves
high-temperature vacuum evaporation and condensation, or plasma sputter
bombardment. Another deposition process is the chemical vapor deposition (CVD),
which is a chemical process that is used to produce high-purity, high-performance
solid materials.

 The performance of high-temperature metallurgical systems can be affected by a

number of factors including. liquid and solid chemistries; reaction kinetics; such
physical properties as viscosity and surface tension; transport properties including
electrical and thermal conductivity.

Application
An important tool in processing materials is to subject them to high temperatures and
to use the resulting change in properties, which includes softening or melting, and changes in
chemical and material phase. Thus, it is feasible to perform desired modifications in the
material shape and characteristics. Other applications of high temperatures include heating,
power harvesting, and other energy-related tasks.

Operating Underground and at Great Earth Depths ; ( the crust layer 20–25°C)

 The temperature of Earth rises with the increase in depth and the rate of the
temperature rise in the upper part of the crust layer is approximately 20–25°C per
 kilometer but the rise gradient becomes smaller as the depth increases, reaching as
much as 400–500°C at the boundary with the underlying upper mantle.
 Most applications that involve penetration of Earth’s surface are limited to the upper
part of the crust and they involve energy harvesting, mining, oil and gas extraction, and
other geological requirements.

2 Geothermal Energy (The temperature at the core of Earth is over 5000°C)

 Earth’s underground crust and mantle are an enormous source of resources, including
minerals and energy. One-fifth of the geothermal energy of Earth’s crust has been
produced from the original formation of our plane while the other 80% results from
ongoing radioactive decay of minerals. The temperature at the core of Earth is over
5000°C and, as a result of the heat and the enormous pressure, the material is in a
molten form known as magma.
 The heat from the core of Earth is conducted outward to the upper layers, heating
rocks and water in the vicinity. The geothermal energy that can be reached has
temperatures as high as 350°C. Geothermal energy provides a cost-effective, reliable,
sustainable, and environmentally friendly source of energy for electrical power
generation.

3. Oil and Gas Exploration

 The pressure of natural gas and water causes upward flow of petroleum and natural
gas through Earth’s crust. Oil and gas seep along fault lines and cracks and tend to
accumulate in areas where they are trapped and form reservoirs of these resources.
 Through geological and seismic studies, as well as oil exploration, companies are
continually seeking locations of such reservoirs. Generally, higher temperatures create
more natural gas than oil and, therefore, such gases are located at greater depths. In
search of oil, gas, or other minerals, there are two drilling categorie.

4 Military Electronics (resistors sustain 85°C)

 Electrical and mechanical devices that are used in military and aerospace applications
are required to sustain temperatures that are higher than commercial or industrial
devices. For example, commercial-grade resistors need to sustain 70°C while the
industrial-grade resistors are required to sustain 85°C.
5 Automobile Electronics

 The temperature under the hood of an automobile can be as high as 125°C. The
thermostat plays a critical role in assuring the reliable operation of automobile engines
and their various parts, including the control electronics. The exposure duration and
maximum temperature to which the automobile electronics is subjected depends on
the specific type of vehicle that is used and the location in it.
 Increasingly, efforts are made to push the durability of the automotive electronics to
higher temperatures, but the increase is limited by cost constraints and reliability
requirements.
 The increased efforts to replace mechanical and hydraulic systems with
electromechanical ones as well as the development of hybrid cars are pushing these
technologies toward higher-performance power electronics.

References
1) Bar-Cohen Y., High Temperature Technologies.

2) Crawford C. A., Age-Hardenable Nickel-Chromium Alloys.

3) Draper S. L., D. Krause Materials Science and Engineering.

4) Meetham G.M., and M.H. Van de Voorde, Materials for High Temperature
Engineering Applications.
 SMART MATERIALS
Introduction

Smart materials, similar to living beings, have the ability to perform both sensing and actuating
functions and are capable of adapting to changes in the environment. In other words, smart
materials can change themselves in response to an outside stimulus or respond in a predictable
manner to the stimulus by producing a signal of some sort. The “smart” materials often perform
multiple functions. Their objective of these smart materials and systems are is not only to fill of
programmed functions, but to adapt and respond in an appropriate way to a broad range of
situations. Smart materials are nowadays being used in all spheres of human life and technology.
Intense research is going on to utilize their potential in various engineering applications which
may prove useful for us. This technology gives promise of optimum responses to highly complex
problem areas by, for example, providing early warning of the problems or adapting the response
to cope with unforeseen conditions, thus enhancing the survivability of a system and improving its
life cycle. Smart materials and systems are hugely varied and are applied in a wide range of fields.
It is hard to generalize pertaining to a single field or application. Some of the smart materials (but
not limited to) are dealt in sufficient detail in the following sections.

Piezo-Electric Materials

Applying a mechanical stress to a piezo-electric material generates an electric current. Also, the
piezoelectric materials produce an electric tension when they undergo a mechanical constraint.
When subjected to an electrical current, they can also become deformed mechanically by a small
variation in dimension. The piezoelectric effect describes the relation between a mechanical stress
and an electrical voltage in solids. It is reversible: an applied mechanical stress will generate a
voltage and an applied voltage will change the shape of the solid by a small amount.

PZT- Lead Zirconate Titanate

Lead zirconate titanate (Pb[ZrxTi1−x]O3) – more commonly known as PZT, is the most common
piezoelectric ceramic in use today. When this piezoelectric material is deformed, it gives off a
small electrical discharge. When an electric current is passed through it, it increases in size (up to
a 4% change in volume). They are widely used as sensors in different environments. The
piezoelectric materials are a machineable ceramics and can be precision dimensioned into tubes,
rings, discs, plates, and hemispheres, tailored to exacting customer specifications.

Fig. 1. Schematics of piezoelectric effect; (a) energy generation under tension, (a) piezoelectric material
in equilibrium (c) energy generation under compression

1
Fig. 2. A piezoelectric material develops an internal electric field when compressed (A) or stretched (B).
If electrical contacts are attached to the material, a quantity of electrical charge proportional to the
applied force can be measured.
Typical PZT characteristics include:
 wide range of frequencies in transmit and receive (sub–audible, audible, ultrasonic)
 high output, low drive material
 high frequency, fast response time
 high sensitivity
 good mechanical and acoustic coupling
 good stability in wide temperature range
PZT is also used in the manufacture of ceramic resonators for reference timing in electronic
circuitry. Therefore, piezoelectric sensors are destined to:
 vibration, shock and acceleration measurements
 acoustic measurements
 pressure measurements
 force and load measurements
 torque measurements

Typical PZT applications include the automotive industry, such as power seat controls,
reversing/collision avoidance sensors, anti–knock sensors, intrusion alarms, vibration monitoring,
flow and level sensors, computer hard drives, touchscreen displays, advanced acoustics and optical
switching etc. PZT generators are used for harvesting energy that powers for the tire pressure
monitoring systems. Also, PZT are used, for example, for the deployment of air bags and anti–
lock braking systems (ABS) in vehicles and recently for the safety of expensive electronic gadgets.

The design of PZT thin-film acoustic micro-actuator consists of a silicon substrate, a diaphragm
suspension, a PZT thin film, and a top and a bottom electrode. When a voltage V(t) is applied
across the PZT film, the contraction and extension of the PZT film cause the diaphragm to vibrate
in the out-of-plane direction emitting pressure waves.

2
Fig. 3. The cross sectional view of a PZT thin-film acoustic micro-actuator.

Fig. 4. Schematics showing the sensors using piezoelectric materials for air-bag actuators for
expensive electronic gadgets.

Shape memory alloys

Shape-memory materials (SMMs) are one of the major elements of intelligent/smart systems
because of their unusual properties, such as the shape-memory effect (SME), super-elasticity or
large recoverable stroke (strain), high damping capacity and adaptive properties which are due to
the (reversible) phase transitions in the materials. SMMs may sense thermal, mechanical, magnetic
or electric stimulus and exhibit actuation or some pre-determined response, making it possible to
tune some technical parameters such as shape, position, strain, stiffness, natural frequency,
damping, friction and other static and dynamical characteristics of material systems in response to
the environmental changes. To date, a variety of alloys, ceramics, polymers and gels have been
found to exhibit SME behavior, a very few of them are explained below.

NiTinol (Ni-Ti) Alloys

NiTinol is a nickel+titanium alloy of near equi-atomic composition, which implies that nickel
represents approximately 50% of its chemical composition. This alloy is particularly interesting
because of its significant mechanical properties, and above all, because of its ability to show high
elastic deformation, or super-elasticity, and shape memory effect which are not present in other
conventional metallic alloys. In addition, the alloys have very good corrosion resistance and

3
biocompatibility, which enable them to be widely used in the biomedical field since the Ti-Ni
alloys can be readily fabricated into various forms or sizes, it is technically feasible to make them
an active element in various composites. In particular, Ti-Ni thin Films, Fibres, particles and
porous bulks have been successfully fabricated in recent years.

Shape-memory alloys (SMAs) can deform at a low-temperature and then recover to their prior
shape upon heating above a particular temperature-related to the properties of alloy. SMA changes
from austenite to martensite upon cooling. The martensite phase exists at lower temperatures and
is the relatively soft and easily deformed phase of SMAs. Austenite is a stronger phase of SMAs
that occurs at higher temperatures. When the temperature of the SMA is cooled to below the
transition temperature (Ts), the shape-memory effect can be observed and the alloy is entirely
composed of martensite. Upon re-heating above the transition temperature, the deformed shape
will recover to its initial shape. The deformed martensite transforms into the cubic austenite phase
SMAs show both one-way and two-way shape-memory effect. For one-way shape-memory effect,
upon heating a SMA at deformed martensite phase, the shape changes to its original. However,
when the metal cools again it will remain in the hot shape. With the one-way effect, cooling from
high temperatures does not cause a macroscopic shape change. An external deformation is
necessary to create the low-temperature shape. For two-way shape-memory effect, when a SMA
is cooled at hot austenite phase it will automatically deform without any external deformation.
That is to say, the cool deformed shape and hot original shape can automatically transfer in the
heating–cooling cycle.

Table 1. Properties of NiTinol Shape Memory Alloy in comparison with stainless steel.

Based on super-elastic effect wires, NiTi alloys were used in orthodontic therapy because of their
high flexibility. Super-elastic NiTi wire easily gains these important forces, which are particularly
favourable for large mal-aligned teeth. Another advantage of NiTi orthodontic wires is that it is
possible to provide rapid orthodontic treatments, resulting in less patient discomfort because fewer
adjustments and wire changes are required. Other interesting medical applications of NiTi alloy
have been reported in orthopaedic, and other bone-related operations. NiTinol has been to be more
effective than others materials in connecting broken bones. Staples made of NiTinol have been
used to fix small bone fragments. Because of its super-elastic properties, NiTi alloy is
exceptionally flexible, which enables its use in non-invasive surgery to reach narrow places. When
inserted into the human body, the super-elastic NiTi-based stents are capable of self-expanding.
This property allows us to use these stents in gastroenterology, cardiovascular and radiology fields.

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 Fig. 5. a) & b) The martensite (Low temperature phase)
and austenite (High temperature Phase) phases as a
function of temperature and deformation. c) Picture
depicting the memory concept in a rod.

Smart Self Expanding In-plants and Devices.

Undoubtedly, the most celebrated application of Nitinol in a medical device is its use for self-
expanding stents. Stents are scaffolding tubular structures that prevent vessels from re-closing,
ingrowth of tumors or other obstructive influences. Self-expanding stents are manufactured with a
diameter larger than that of the target vessel, crimped and restrained in a catheter (A thin flexible
tube inserted into the body to keep the passageway open) based delivery system. They are inserted
into the body through small incisions or through natural body openings typically by endoscopic
guidance. At the target site the stent is released from the delivery system and elastically expands
until it hits the vessel wall. The performance of a self-expanding stent is therefore dependent on
the ability of the material to store elastic energy while constrained in the delivery system, making
NiTinol the ideal choice.

Fig. 6. a) Self-expanding Nitinol stents, b) crush recoverability of Nitinol and c) NiTinol inside artery.

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Another dramatic and demonstrable attribute of Nitinol stents is their Crush Recoverability. Most,
if not all, Nitinol stents can be crushed fully flat and still elastically recover their original shape
without clinically relevant loss of diameter.

Fig. 7. NiTinol Dental Braces

Ferromagnetic Shape Memory Alloys (FSMA)

Magnetic field induced strain (MFIS) in FSMAs was first observed in Ni2MnGa for a value of
0.2% strain in fields of 640 kA/m. The variable degree of magnetically induced strain in these
samples is attributed to differences in the NiMnGa crystal structure. The strain output generated
in NiMnGa is comparable to commercially available shape memory alloys (such as NiTi)
commonly used for the design of stents and other biomedical devices. Unlike nitinol, NiMnGa can
be operated with the application of a magnetic field and as such can be actuated from a remote site
(e.g., outside the body). For a stent design, the NiMnGa sample would initially exist in a
compressed formation and not require a catheter to hold it in this position, thus potentially reducing
the size of the delivery system. Once in the body, a magnetic field would be applied to return it to
its fully expanded configuration.

Given the appropriate biocompatibility, FSMA stents could potentially replace all current stent
technology and would benefit the broad range of patients with heart disease. To date, however, no
devices containing NiMnGa have ever been implanted in a human. Medical devices made from
NiMnGa would be completely novel and could allow for the beginning of magnetically activated
trans-catheter devices. While NiMnGa is a promising material, unfortunately, NiMnGa is unlikely
to be resistant to corrosion. Although, its poor resistance to bio-corrosion could be the primary
factor which limits its cardiovascular applications, this may be overcome in the near future with
new coating techniques or by developing new FSMA materials.

Magnetorheological materials (Ferro fluids or magnetic liquids)

A ferrofluid is a stable colloidal suspension of sub-domain magnetic particles in a liquid carrier.

The particles, which have an average size of about 100Å (10 nm), are coated with a stabilizing
dispersing agent (surfactant) which prevents particle agglomeration even when a strong magnetic
field gradient is applied to the ferrofluid. The surfactant must be matched to the carrier type and
must overcome the attractive van der Waals and magnetic forces between the particles.
Magnetorheological materials are a class of material whose rheological properties (elasticity,
plasticity, or viscosity) may be rapidly varied by applying a magnetic field. A typical
magnetorheological fluid consists of 20–40 % by volume of micron/nano sized, magnetizeable,
relatively pure Iron/Fe3O4 (or other ferromagnetic materials like Ni, Co etc.) particles suspended
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in a carrier liquid such as mineral oil, synthetic oil, water, or glycol. A variety of additives are used
to discourage gravitational settling and promote particle suspension, enhance lubricity, change
initial viscosity, and inhibit wear. Under influence of magnetic field the suspended particles
polarize and interact to form a structure aligned with the magnetic field that resists shear
deformation or flow. This change in the material appears as a dramatic increase in apparent
viscosity, or the fluid develops the characteristics of a semisolid state. Strength of the magnetic
field controls the magnitude of this change. Increase of viscosity is immediately reversed upon
removing the magnetic field. Besides the rheological changes in MR fluids under the influence of
a magnetic field, there are often other effects such as thermal, electrical, and acoustic property
changes. Gels, foams, powders, greases, and elastomers blended with appropriate magnetic
powders are other materials that are responsive to magnetic fields.

Fig. 8. Ferrofluid under action of magnetic fluid (Left). Components for preparing ferrofluid (Right).

Ferrofluids are also known as magnetic liquids or liquid magnets. They are dispersions of
nanoscale (~10 nm) particles of super-paramagnetic materials. It is to be noted that a super-
paramagnetic material is either ferrimagnetic or ferromagnetic in its bulk form. Super-
paramagnetic behaviour is seen when the particle size or the grain size (in a polycrystalline
material) is reduced to very small dimensions, the material essentially becoming first single
domain and then superparamagnetic. Thus, in a superparamagnetic material, the magnetic dipole
moment changes its direction very rapidly as a result of thermal energy and hence the particle as a
whole (or an individual grain in a polycrystalline material) does not exhibit a net time averaged
dipole moment. Thus, ferrofluids are dispersions of such materials as super-paramagnetic particles
of iron oxide (Fe3O4), which in its bulk form is a ferrimagnetic material. Typically, the particles
used in a ferrofluid are colloidal in nature, i.e. they exhibit Brownian motion and have a tendency
to remain suspended (without settling down with time). Ferrofluids and devices based on
ferrofluids are commercially successful, and are used in several applications.
Magnetically active phase
The state-of-the-art MR fluids are comprised of a quixotic cocktail of many ingredients. High
purity carbonyl iron (Fe) powder/ Fe3O4 (or other ferromagnetic materials like Ni, Co etc.) appears
to be the main component for most practical MR fluid compositions.
Carrier liquids
The carrier liquid in an MR fluid plays perhaps a more important role which primarily provide a
liquid matrix in which the magnetically active phase particulates are suspended. Silicone oils,
synthetic or semi-synthetic oils, mineral oils, lubricating oils and combinations of these and many
other polar organic liquids and water have all been reported to be used as carrier liquids. When

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selecting a carrier liquid, it is important to consider the boiling temperature, vapour pressure at
elevated temperatures and freezing point. The carrier liquid should also be largely non-reactive
towards the magnetic particles. Similarly, the carrier liquid should be non-reactive toward the
components/materials used in the device.
Additives in MR fluids
Additives can be incorporated into MR fluids to enhance their performance and make the fluids
and devices more durable. Depending on the composition and application of the MR fluid, some
additives can be used to minimise settling of magnetic parricles. Some additives can be used to
maintain a coating on the particles. Such coatings can enhance the re-dispersibility of a MR fluid.
Certain additives in MR fluids can provide enhanced anti-wear and anti-oxidation properties.
Applications of MR fluids
MR fluids are being predominantly used for developing applications in which active vibration
control or transfer of torque or force is needed.
Cooling in loudspeakers for better sound
Development of Dampers
Fine optical grade polishing
Liquid O-rings for making computer chips
Magnetic hyperthermia for better chemotherapy
Targeted drug delivery for cancer treatment
Ferrofluidic Seal Technology
A Ferrofluidic seal takes advantage of the response of a magnetic fluid to an applied magnetic
field. The basic seal components include ferrofluid, a permanent magnet, two pole pieces and a
magnetically permeable shaft. The magnetic circuit, completed by the stationary pole pieces and
the rotating shaft, concentrates magnetic flux in the radial gap under each pole piece. When fluid
is applied to this gap it assumes the shape of a liquid O-ring and produces a perfect seal.

Fig. 9. Dynamic Seal using Ferrfluids - https://seals.ferrotec.com/technology/sealsVideo/

Magnetic Behavior of Ferrofluid
In the absence of a magnetic field, the magnetic moments of the particles are randomly distributed
and the fluid has no net magnetization. When a magnetic field is applied to a ferrofluid, the
magnetic moments of the particles orient along the field lines almost instantly. The magnetization
of the ferrofluid responds immediately to the changes in the applied magnetic field and when the
applied field is removed, the moments randomize quickly. This means that the retention force of a
ferrofluid can be adjusted by changing either the magnetization of the fluid or the magnetic field
in the region.

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 Fig. 10. Ferrofluidic spikes in response to a applied magnetic field

Ferrofluid Properties and Their Application

Ferrofluid is designed as a component of a device and therefore it must meet specific performance
objectives of the device. The selection of ferrofluid depends on many factors such as environments,
operating life, etc. There are many different combinations of saturation magnetization and
viscosity resulting in a ferrofluid suitable for every application. In devices, ferrofluids come in
contact with a wide variety of materials. It is necessary to ensure that ferrofluids are chemically
compatible with these materials. The fluids may be exposed to hostile gases, such as in the
semiconductor and laser industries; to liquid sprays in machine tool and aircraft industries; to
lubricant vapors in the computer industry; and to various adhesives in the speaker industry.
Ferrofluids are also used as drug delivery agents for chemotherapy and also used as an art and as
a curious material.

Magnetostrictive materials

Generally, magnetostriction is the change in dimension of materials under the influence of an

external magnetic field. It was observed that a sample of ferromagnetic material, i.e. iron, changes
its length in the presence of a magnetic field. This change in length is the result of the rotation of
small magnetic domains. This rotation and re-orientation causes internal strains in the material
structure. The strains in the structure lead to the stretching, in the case of positive magnetostriction,
of the material in the direction of the magnetic field. During this stretching process the cross-
section is reduced in a way that the volume is kept nearly constant. Applying a stronger field leads
to stronger and more definite re-orientation of more and more domains in the direction of magnetic
field. When all the magnetic domains have become aligned with the magnetic field the saturation
point has been achieved. Figure below shows the idealized behaviour of length change versus
applied magnetic field.

Terfenol-D is a commercially available alloy with composition Tb0.3Dy0.7Fe1.9. Terfenol-D is a

rare earth iron alloy. The alloy formulation is known as Terfenol-D, where ‘‘Ter’’ is from Terbium,
‘‘Fe’’ is the chemical symbol for iron, ‘‘NOL’’ is derived from Naval Ordnance Laboratory and
‘‘D’’ is for Dysprosium (Ter + Fe + Nol + D). One of the first applications of Terfenol-D was a
high-performance sonar transducer. Terfenol-D is capable of providing a positive magnetostrain
of typically more than 1000–2000 ppm at 50–200 kA/m in bulk materials.

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Fig. 11. Variation of length in a magnetostrictive material when a magnetic field is applied.

Terfenol-D is a rare earth alloy, silver in colour, brittle at room temperature and because the raw
materials are highly reactive and contain impurities, not easy to produce. Terfenol-D material is
very brittle in tension.

SMART TEXTILES
Textiles have acted as a second skin for protection and appearance, whereas smart textiles have
the potential to emulate and augment the sensory system of the skin by sensing external stimuli
such as proximity, touch, pressure, temperature, and chemical/ biological substances. Smart
textiles offer a versatile framework for incorporating sensing, monitoring, and information
processing devices. Smart textiles can sense and react to environmental conditions or stimuli, for
example, from mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, or magnetic sources. “Active” smart
textiles contain both actuators and sensors, such as thermo-regulating garments that maintain the
wearer’s body temperature. Technical and functional textiles may be enlisted in a wealth of
applications ranging from military and security to personalized healthcare, hygiene, and
entertainment. Therefore, the fundamental components within smart textiles are sensors, actuators,
and control units. The sensing elements, data transmission, and processing must be integrated into
the textile while retaining the usual tactile, flexible, and comfort properties of clothing in order for
the smart textile to be practical. Recently, synthetic fibers were developed: Lycra, a segmented
polyurethane-urea, has exceptional elastic properties, and Kevlar, poly-para-phenylene
terephthalamide, has ultra-high strength properties and is used in bulletproof vests. The
fundamental challenge in system-on textile design is that the drapability and manufacturability of
textiles and clothing must remain largely unaffected. Materials suitable for the development of
smart nano-textiles include inherently conducting polymers (ICPs), carbon nanotubes (CNTs),
and a number of other materials in the forms of nanoparticles or nanofibers.

Inherently Conducting Polymers

Inherently conducting polymers (ICPs) conduct electricity and have the ability to sense and
actuate. Actuators based on ICPs can generate much higher stresses with a strain comparable to
natural skeletal muscle, and sensors based on ICPs can change their resistivity or generate an
electrical signal in response to external stimuli. Textiles made from ICPs may be realized by
continuous wet spinning to produce ICP-based textile fibers, which can be manufactured into yarns

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and a range of fabric structures. The conductivity changes in response to external deformation are
exploited in the production of textile-based mechanical sensors such as the flexible strain gauge.
Nylon and Lycra coated with special polymers by an in situ chemical polymerization process has
been applied to biofeedback devices for sports training and rehabilitation.

Fig. 12. Some of the ICP materials

Applications in Sports
Numerous products have been designed to improve the comfort of sport person; for instance, there
are breathable waterproof fabrics such as ‘Gore-Tex’ and moisture-management textiles that wick
moisture away from the skin such as Coolmax. Gore-Tex fabric uses a membrane of expanded
poly (tetra-fluoro-ethylene) (PTFE) that has pores of less than a micron in diameter, allowing water
vapor to penetrate the material, but preventing the passage of liquid. To maintain the wearer’s
comfort, it is important that sweat is allowed to evaporate, maintaining the body’s natural
thermoregulatory function. High-performance moisture-wicking fabrics worn next to the skin
transport perspiration away from the body to the outside of the garment where it can more quickly
evaporate. This is achieved using synthetic microfibers that, allows moisture to pass through it by
a wicking effect that makes them more comfortable to wear.

The adidas running shoe uses sensors, a microprocessor, and a motor to adjust its shock-absorbing
characteristics to the individual runner’s style, pace, body weight, and running surface. Nike has
also released a smart running shoe containing a wireless sensor that connects to an iPod with
various playlists to match the type of workout while also tracking distance, time, pace, and calories
burned. Textiles are engineered to improve performance; for example, nanotech swimsuits for
Olympic swimmers have been developed to reduce drag by using a biometric knitted construction
of nylon/elastane with v-shaped ridges that emulate a shark’s skin.
Healthcare and Fire Fighting
The interest in smart textiles for healthcare arises from the need to monitor patients for extensive
periods because of rehabilitation or chronic illness. The problem with conventional clinical visits
in these cases is that they can only provide a brief window on the physiology of the patient,
wearable devices offer the possibility to monitor physiological signals continuously in a realistic
setting. Electrodes, to detect ECG and EMG signals, are knitted using stainless steel–based yarns,
and a hydrogel membrane is applied to improve contact and match impedance with the skin. One
of the more recent product is the ‘ProeTEX’ (advanced e-textiles for fire fighters and civilian
victims) to perform on body bio-chemical sensing within a textile.

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Military/Security
There is a need for real-time information technology to increase the protection and survivability
of people working in extreme environmental conditions and hazardous situations. The ultimate
vision of the battle suit of the future is a bullet proof jumpsuit, no thicker than ordinary spandex,
which monitors health, eases injuries, transmits data automatically, and enables medics to conduct
remote triage of combat casualties to help them respond more rapidly and safely. Low-ppm
detection limits were demonstrated for toxic gases such as ammonia and nitrogen dioxide as well
as the chemical warfare simulant dimethyl methyl phosphonate (DMMP) using sensors fabricated
into the smart textiles. Fiber-optic sensors with modified cladding materials are suitable for
detecting hazards on the battlefield and may be easily integrated into soldiers’ uniforms.

Fashion/Lifestyle
Eleksen has also developed a fabric keyboard for personal digital assistants (PDAs) that can be
rolled out, easily stored, and transported. Another producer of electronic textiles, Textronics,
develops fabrics that can warm, illuminate, conduct, and sense. Nano-coatings now offer advanced
protection to improve hygiene and cleanliness. To add antibacterial properties, nano-sized silver,
titanium dioxide (TiO2), and zinc oxide (ZnO) are used. Metallic ions and metallic compounds
display a certain degree of sterilizing behavior. It is considered that part of the oxygen in the air or
water is turned into active oxygen by means of catalysis with the metallic ion, thereby dissolving
the organic substance to create this sterilizing effect. By using nano-sized particles, the number of
particles per unit area is increased, and thus, antibacterial effects can be maximized. Antimicrobial
coatings are widely applied to socks in order to prohibit the growth of bacteria, but their uses also
extend from wound dressings to home furnishings, carpets, and clothing.

Another innovation for such purposes is super-hydrophobic self-cleaning surfaces. This

was first inspired by the natural cleanness of plant leaves such as the lotus leaf. Water coming in
contact with a super-hydrophobic surface (contact angle, >150o) forms nearly spherical droplets.
Contaminants, either inorganic or organic, adhere to the water droplets and are removed from the
surface when the water rolls off. Nano-Tex has a range of products using such coatings to resist
spills, repel and release stains, and resist static. These textile enhancements become inherent to the
fabric, improving the performance and durability of everyday apparel and interior furnishings.

CONCLUSION
Thus, smart materials is of interdisciplinary in nature that must involve materials research, sensor
technologies, engineering, wireless networking, and computer applications. Market trends suggest
great opportunities for nanotechnology within the smart materials field especially in the smart
textile market. Given the current pace of development, smart materials and technology will form
essential part of our lifestyle.

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