Open pit slope design

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

Report on open pit mine slope design

Student name Id number

1. Abnet Getachew……………………………………………………………. ETS 0066/07

2. Azmeraw Zewdie…………………………………………………………... ETS0199/07

3. Chernet Workineh…………………………………………………………...ETS0321/07

4. Getawey Mengistu…………………………………………………………. ETS 0533/07

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 Open pit slope design

Contents
1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................4
1.1. General Pit Slope Design Objectives.................................................................................................4
1.2.Open-pit mining methodology..........................................................................................................5
1.2.1. Extraction...................................................................................................................................6
1.2.2. Waste.........................................................................................................................................6
1.2.3. Pollutants...................................................................................................................................7
1.2.4. Un topping.................................................................................................................................7
1.2.5. Rehabilitation............................................................................................................................7
2. TECHNIQUES OF OPEN PIT.......................................................................................................................8
2.1. BLASTING IN OPEN PIT SURFACE EXCAVATION................................................................................8
2.2. INPUTS FOR OPEN PIT DESIGN GELOGICAL FIELD DATABASE...........................................................9
2.2.1. Primarily/principal data’s...........................................................................................................9
2.2.2. Secondary data........................................................................................................................10
3. Slope analysis........................................................................................................................................10
3.1. Terminology in bench blasting........................................................................................................12
3.2. Required input for slope stability...................................................................................................13
3.3.Types of Field data required for open pit slope design....................................................................13
4. Rational Pit Slope Design Process..........................................................................................................15
4.1.Pit slope design chart......................................................................................................................16
4.2. Factors Affecting Slope Stability.....................................................................................................17
4.2.1. Slope Geometry.......................................................................................................................17
4.2.2. Geological Structure................................................................................................................17
4.2.3. Lithology..................................................................................................................................18
4.2.4. Ground Water..........................................................................................................................18
4.2.5. Mining Method and Equipment...............................................................................................18
4.2.6. Dynamic Forces........................................................................................................................18
4.2.7. Cohesion (c).............................................................................................................................18
4.2.8. Angle of Internal Friction (φ)...................................................................................................19
4.3. The dynamic feature with mining...............................................................................................19
4.4.Excavation engineering under specific geologic conditions.........................................................19
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4.5. Mining economic benefits..........................................................................................................19

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5. Slope in terms of multi-step and multi-type Volume.........................................................................19

5.1.Evaluation criteria for slope safety with the characteristics of multiplicity and complexity........20
5.2.Slope project associated with maximum economic and social benefit........................................20
5.3.Surface (open pit mining) vs Underground mining..........................................................................20
6.CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................................................21
7.RECOMMENDATION...............................................................................................................................21

figure
Figure 1 bench layout..................................................................................................................................5
Figure 2 drill hole pattern............................................................................................................................8
Figure 3 open pit layout.............................................................................................................................12
Figure 4 pit slope design chart..................................................................................................................16
Figure 5 pit design.....................................................................................................................................17

Table

Table 1 Drill hole parameters......................................................................................................................9

Table 2 rock code......................................................................................................................................12
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REPORT ON OPEN PIT SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

1. INTRODUCTION

The open–pit mining technique came into being when human beings began to use rock as the
original tool about 450,000 years ago. The modern concept about open-pit mining was firstly
proposed when the low-grade porphyry opencast copper mine in Utah Bingham Canyon was
operated in 1903. After that, the open-pit mining technique entered an era of mechanized and
largescale mining activity. Since the 1950s, the open-pit mining projects have been frequently
reported by virtue of its increasing production and intensification in association with
improvement of labor productivity. Because of such characteristics as large-scale, high-
effectiveness and high productivity, the open-pit mining technology is commonly used in the
solid mineral exploitation, including building materials 80% solid mineral was exploited with the
open-pit mining technique. Therefore, with the continuous increasing mining activity, the depth
of many mines was deeper and deeper, such as Canada's Carol lake iron mine and Mont-Wright
iron mine, whose mining depth was up to 400 m. In addition, the mining depth of Valley copper
mine will reach 630 m, and the depth of the American's Empire iron mine is up to 455 m; the
South Africa's Palabora copper mine will be up to 836 m, and the Chile's Chuquicamata copper
mine is 1000 m. In china, the mining depth is close to 700 m in ShuiChang iron mine. Obviously,
the deep open-pit mining technique is main developmental trend in the near future. Therefore,
the stability analysis and control technologies for open-pit mine slopes become critically
important in strip mining engineering.

1.1. General Pit Slope Design Objectives

What are the general pit slope design rules? One definition of the ultimate aim of a pit slope
design is to:
“achieve an optimum design – a compromise between a slope which is steep enough to be
economically acceptable and one which is flat enough to be safe” (Hoek and Bray, 1981).”
Of course, this is a fine definition and one with which it is very hard to argue on any matter of
principle. However, what is the practical reality to statements such as:
“Steep enough to be economically acceptable” or “flat enough to be safe”.
The other general definition of the optimum pit slope design is the following, which anyone
who has ever worked extensively in open pits has probably encountered:
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“The best design is the one which falls down the day that the last truck leaves the pit”.

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1.2. Open-pit mining methodology

Figure 1 bench layout

Is a surface mining technique of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from
an open pit or borrow.
This form of mining differs from extractive methods that require tunneling into the earth, such
as long wall mining. Open-pit mines are used when deposits of commercially useful ore or rocks
are found near the surface. It is applied to ore or rocks found at the surface because
the overburden is relatively thin or the material of interest is structurally unsuitable for tunneling
(as would be the case for sand, cinder, and gravel). In contrast, minerals that have been found
underground but are difficult to retrieve due to hard rock, can be reached using a form of
underground mining. To create an open-pit mine, the miners must determine the information of
the ore that is underground. This is done through drilling of probe holes in the ground, then
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plotting each hole location on a map. The information gained through the holes with provide an
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idea of the vertical extent of the ore's body. This vertical information is then used to pit tentative

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locations of the benches that will occur in the mine. It is important to consider the grade and
economic value of the ore in the potential pit. Open-pit mines that produce building
materials and dimension stone are commonly referred to as "quarries." Open-pit mines are
typically enlarged until either the mineral resource is exhausted, or an increasing ratio of
overburden to ore makes further mining uneconomic. When this occurs, the exhausted mines are
sometimes converted to landfills for disposal of solid wastes. However, some form of water
control is usually required to keep the mine pit from becoming a lake, if the mine is situated in a
climate of considerable precipitation or if any layers of the pit forming the mine border
productive aquifers. Open-pit mining is to be considered one of the most dangerous sectors in
the industrial world. It causes significant effects to miner’s health, as well as damage to the
ecological land. Open-pit mining causes changes to vegetation, soil, and bedrock, which
ultimately contributes to changes in surface hydrology, groundwater levels, and flow
paths. Additionally, open-pit produces harmful pollutants depending on the type of mineral
being mined, and the type of mining process being used.

1.2.1. Extraction
Open-cast mines are dug on benches, which describe vertical levels of the hole. The interval of
the benches depends on the deposit being mined, the mineral being mined, and the size of the
machinery that is being used. Generally, large mine benches are 12 to 15 meters thick. In
contrast, many quarries do not use benches, as they are usually shallow. Mining can be
conducted on more than one bench at a time, and access to different benches is done with a
system of ramps. The width of each bench is determined by the size of the equipment being
used, generally 20-40 meters wide. Downward ramps are created to allow mining on a new
level to begin. This new level will become progressively wider to form the new pit bottom. Most
walls of the pit are generally mined on an angle less than vertical. Waste rock is stripped when
the pit becomes deeper, therefore this angle is a safety precaution to prevent and minimize
damage and danger from rock falls. However, this depends on how weathered and eroded the
rocks are, and the type of rocks involved. It also depends on the amount of structural
weaknesses occur within the rocks, such as a faults, shears, joints or foliations. The walls are
stepped. The inclined section of the wall is known as the batter, and the flat part of the step is
known as the bench or berm. The steps in the walls help prevent rock falls continuing down the
entire face of the wall. In some instances additional ground support is required and rock bolts,
cable bolts and shotcrete are used. De-watering bores may be used to relieve water pressure by
drilling horizontally into the wall, which is often enough to cause failures in the wall by itself. A
haul road is usually situated at the side of the pit, forming a ramp up which trucks can drive,
carrying ore and waste rock.

1.2.2. Waste
Open-pit mines create a significant amount of waste. Almost one million tons of ore and waste
rock can move from the largest mines per day, and a couple thousand tons moved from small
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mines per day. There is generally four main operations in a mine that contribute to this
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load: drilling, blasting, loading and hauling. Waste rock is hauled to a waste dump. Waste

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dumps can be piled at the surface of the active pit, or in previously mined pits. Leftover waste
from processing the ore is called tailings, and is generally in the form of a slurry. This is pumped
to a tailings dam or settling pond, where the water is reused or evaporated. Tailings dams can
be toxic due to the presence of extracted sulfide minerals, some forms of toxic minerals in
the gangue, and often cyanide which is used to treat gold ore via the cyanide leach process. If
proper environmental protections are not in place, this toxicity can harm the surrounding
environment.

1.2.3. Pollutants
Open-pit mining involves the process of disrupting the ground, which leads to the creation of
air pollutants. The main source of air pollutants comes from the transportation of minerals, but
there are various other factors including drilling, blasting and the loading and unloading of
overburden. These types of pollutants cause significant damage to public health and safety in
addition to damaging the air quality. The inhalation of these pollutants can cause issues to the
lungs and ultimately increase mortality. Furthermore, the pollutants affect flora and fauna in
the areas surrounding open-pit mines. Open-pit gold mining is one of the highest potential
mining threats on the environment as it affects the air and water chemistry. The exposed dust
may be toxic or radioactive, making it a health concern for the workers and the surrounding
communities.

1.2.4. Un topping
A form of open-cast quarrying may be carried out as 'un topping'. This is done where a previous
underground mine is becoming uneconomic or worked-out, but still leaves valuable rock in
place, often as a result of pillar and stall working. Un topping removes the overburden from
above this, opens up the mine from above, and then allows the previously 'trapped' minerals to
be won.Un topping was a feature of Welsh slate workings in the 1930s and 2000s, where
Martyn Williams-Ellis, manager at Leeched found that earlier Victorian workings could be kept
profitable with the newly mechanized techniques for bulk excavation to extract their pillars,
and more recently across a number of worked-out mines

1.2.5. Rehabilitation
After mining finishes, the mine area may undergo land rehabilitation. Waste dumps are
contoured to flatten them out, to further stabilize them. If the ore contains sulfides it is usually
covered with a layer of clay to prevent access of rain and oxygen from the air, which can oxidize
the sulfides to produce sulfuric acid, a phenomenon known as acid mine drainage. This is then
generally covered with soil, and vegetation is planted to help consolidate the material.
Eventually this layer will erode, but it is generally hoped that the rate of leaching or acid will be
slowed by the cover such that the environment can handle the load of acid and associated
heavy metals. There are no long-term studies on the success of these covers due to the
relatively short time in which large scale open pit mining has existed. It may take hundreds to
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thousands of years for some waste dumps to become "acid neutral" and stop leaching to the
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environment. The dumps are usually fenced off to prevent livestock denuding them of

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vegetation. The open pit is then surrounded with a fence, to prevent access, and it generally
eventually fills up with ground water. In arid areas it may not fill due to deep groundwater
levels. Instead of returning the land to its former natural state, it may also be reused,
converting it into recreational parks or even residential/mixed communities.

2. TECHNIQUES OF OPEN PIT

Drilling and blasting are the favored combination for breaking out the material. i.e., dislodging it
from the quarry face and fragmenting it. Different methods such as ripping and stripping are used
in situations where environmental concerns are high. Blast holes are drilled using drilling
machines according to the desired length, diameter, spacing, and geometric features. After blast
holes are drilled, they will be charged with explosive and the charges are fired. The amount of
explosive to be used will depend on the specific explosive consumption, rock strength and depth
of hole.
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Figure 2 drill hole pattern

2.1. BLASTING IN OPEN PIT SURFACE EXCAVATION

Blasting is the process of breaking of bulk rock masses into loose forms, using explosive
compounds. Here, the primary role is played by the explosives. Any blast optimization
programme calls for a clear understanding of the effects of principal blast parameters and their
careful application. The best use of explosives is made when a blast produces a clean break,
giving good fragmentation, while avoiding excessive fly-rock. The success of achieving these
goals depends significantly on good blast design. If the blast holes are drilled as a staggered
pattern on an equilateral triangular grid, the optimum distribution of the explosive’s energy is
achieved.
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Example the following data in the table are taken from three consecutive days drilling and
blasting activities and recorded, density of explosive=0.85 gm /cc, density of basalt is 2.8t/m 3,

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amount of explosive added per drill hole is 15 kg. Then we can calculate amount of rock broken
per day and powder factor as shown below.
No. of Hole Burden(m) Spacing Bench Charge Sub Stemming Hole height ×
holes diameter (m) height length drill (m) depth *No. of
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) holes
20 0.089 2 2 6 3.5 0.5 3 6.5 120
19 0.089 2 2 6 3 0 3 6 114
20 0.089 2 2 6 4 1 3 7 120
Total=59 Total =354

Table 1 Drill hole parameters

To required area, (A) =burden (m)×*space (m)×*no. of holes; and volume(V) = A× hole depth

A1¿=2m ×m*2m×20=¿*40=80m2 and V¿ A 1× bench height (m)=80m2× *6m=480m3

A2¿=2m ×m*2m ×1m*19¿=76m2 and V2=A2× *bench height (m) =76m2 × *6m =456m3

A3¿=2m ×m*2m×*20¿=80m2 and V3=A3× *bench height (m) =80m2 × *6m =480m3

AT =A1 +A2+A3=236m2 and VT =V1 + V2 + V3 =1416m3

W 15 kg
Powder Factor Pf = =w/v=15kg/48m3 = 0.3125kg/m3
V 48 m 3

2.2. INPUTS FOR OPEN PIT DESIGN GELOGICAL FIELD DATABASE

An organized collection of data. In GEMS, the data in a site, a project, or a data group is stored
in a database. The basic field exploration database divided into two;

2.2.1. Primarily/principal data’s

A. Header/collar of drill holes, which recorded or contains;
 Hole id
 3D_vectore coordinates (X, Y&Z) and
 Down hole depth/length

B. Survey/dimensional fluctuating of drill holes

The survey exploration data package will contain subvertical measurement of drill holes;
 azimuth of holes
 dip/the down defilation of drill holes
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 Total depth/length
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2.2.2. Secondary data

 . Assay/ geochemical analysis recorded result
The assaying data processing will record the following external exploration data;
a. core or sampling sequence length (from measurement)
b. sampling measurement end (To)
c. the interval measured and recorded lab results (Grade) in varies unit’s g/ton, ppm, % etc.
 . Lithological/geology of target area
The lithological exploration data recording will contain the geology of targeted area from core
drill sampling;
a. from
b. to
c. geology/lithological code
Ground Water
It causes the following:
a) alters the cohesion and frictional parameters and
b) Reduce the normal effective stress

3. Slope analysis
Slopes in open pit mines must be considered as geotechnical structures. Therefore, their design
and implementation must be conducted with all consideration including technical, economic,
environmental and safety issues. But these structures are above all natural geological and
geomechanical features and the geological structures as well as the petrographical nature of the
rock material control the deformation and failure mechanisms. It is therefore important to
implement a well-defined methodology which should be conducted according to the following
phases:
1) Rock mass characterization derived from the acquisition and analysis of geological and
geomechanical data;
2) Determination of the potential mechanisms of deformation and failure, and their numerical
modelling;
3) Slope design and definition of reinforcement and monitoring methods. This paper presents
various available techniques and tools to achieve these successive phases and illustrate their
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implementation and also limitations through case studies of slope design in open pit mines.
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Various open pit and ore body configurations

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Over -flat lying seam/bed example copper.

burden
ore

over burden
recoverable by shovel

ore - Dipping seam /bed possibly recover by dragline

Over burden
Ore - Thick bedded deposits, little
advancing benches little over burden, flat terrain.
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Figure 3 open pit layout

3.1. Terminology in bench blasting

Free face: This is an exposed rock surface towards which the explosive charge can break out. It
resembles a wall. Face height (H): This is the vertical distance in meters between the top and
floor of the bench and should be at least twice the burden (2B).
Blasthole diameter (D): Generally, the cost of drilling and blasting decreases as hole diameter
increases. The relation between blasthole diameter and face height is approximately:
D = 0.001 to 0.02 H
Burden (B): This is the distance in meters from a blasthole to the nearest free face and has the
following approximate relation:
Rock type Burden(B)
Hard rock 25D to 40D OR
25D to 30D
Medium 30D to 35D
rock
Soft rock 35D to 40D
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Table 2 rock code

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Spacing (S): This is the distance in meters between adjacent blastholes and is measured
perpendicular to the burden. Usually the relation between drilled burden and spacing is:
S = 1 to 1.8B
Hole angle (a): If the strata conditions permit, inclined blastholes allow better distribution of the
explosives Inclined blastholes are very effective in eliminating ‘toe’ (which is a hump of solid
rock between the free face and the bench floor), and back break. a varies between 0 0 and 300
from the vertical plane.
Sub drill (sub grade drilling or over drilling) (U): This is the extra depth drilled below the
grade level to assure that the full face of the rock can be broken to the desired excavation level.
Usually U= 8 to 12D; alternatively, it equals to B/3.
Charge length (L): This is the explosive column in a blasthole and should be at least 20D in
order to utilize fully the explosion-generated strain in the rock.
Stemming (T): This is the inert material filled between the explosive charge and the collar of the
blasthole to confine the explosion gases. The stemming material could be water, drill cutting,
sand, mud or crushed rock. The best is the dry angular crushed rock (<30mm) as it tends to form
a compaction arch, which locks into the blast hole wall, increasing its resistance to ejection
A stemming length shorter than 20D usually causes fly rock, cut-offs and overbreak problems. It
is also suggested that the stemming length should not be less than the effective burden B.
Powder factor or specific charge: powder factor is a ratio of weight of explosive charge per
unit weight of rock kg/t
Specific charge: is a ratio of weight of explosive charge per unit volume of rock kg/m3

3.2. Required input for slope stability

Slope angle, slope geometry and material properties
Material properties
Young modulus
Poisson ratio
Density
Failure criterion
Cohesion
UCS

Friction angle
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3.3. Types of Field data required for open pit slope design
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Outcrop mapping and logging this includes data on;

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General geotechnical logging

Mapping for structural analyses
Surface geophysical techniques
Overburden soils logging data includes
Classification
Strength and relative density
Core drilling and logging data includes data on:
Planning and scoping
Drill hole location and collar surveying
Core barrels
Downhole surveying
Core orientation
Core handling and documentation
Core sampling, storage and preservation
Core logging
Downhole geophysical techniques

Groundwater data collection approach to groundwater data collection

Tests conducted during RC drilling
Like most fields of engineering the design methodology centers around heuristics or “rules of
thumb” (The Institution of Engineers Australia, 1990). Because pit slope design is based largely
on geology, the concept of pit slope design as a heuristic is even more applicable. It is
worthwhile pursuing this a little further because it provides a great insight into the nature of the
process. A heuristic may be defined as:
“A method of solving matters not relying wholly on algorithms but which depends on
inductive reasoning from past experience of similar problems”. (Macquarie Dictionary, 1995).
An algorithm is a procedure for solving a particular problem in a finite number of steps.
Algorithms are used for some elements of the design process, however there cannot ever be an
algorithm for pit slope design.
The other key words in the definition of a heuristic are “inductive reasoning”. Inductive
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reasoning is:
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“The process of discovering explanations for a set of particular facts, by estimating the
weight of observational evidence in favor of a proposition which asserts something about the
entire class of facts”. (Macquarie Dictionary, 1995).
The Pit Slope Design is not generally a wholly deductive process where conclusions are based on
completely known facts. Pit slope design is based on quantitative observations from a very small
percentage sampling; there are always uncertainties and gaps in knowledge. Hence in this
environment judgement is the key:
“It is the only skill which can appropriately manage a heuristic environment”. (The Institution
of Engineers Australia, 1990).
In the practice of applying geotechnical engineering to mine slope design it should be
recognized that in most cases there are not exact answers, merely a range of options.

4. Rational Pit Slope Design Process

A key point shown on the chart and which cannot be emphasized enough because it forms one
of the basic tenets of this paper is the essential role of feedback loops. This chart implicitly
recognizes a current fundamental problem with pit slope design, namely the difficulty with
achieving the required design accuracy. Interaction, feedback loops and redesign continue
throughout the mine life primarily because it is so difficult to get the answer right in the early
part of the design process and secondly because often economic parameters are constantly
changing. Although this chart appears to indicate a logical design process leading to the answer,
there is implicit in the chart the understanding that continual re-evaluation and feedback is
required, because the initial answer is an answer not necessarily the answer.
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4.1. Pit slope design chart

Figure 4 pit slope design chart

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Figure 5 pit design

4.2. Factors Affecting Slope Stability

4.2.1. Slope Geometry
The basic geometrical slope design parameters are height, overall slope angle and area of
failure surface. With increase in height the slope stability decreases. The overall angle increases
the possible extent of the development of the any failure to the rear of the crests increases and
it should be considered so that the ground deformation at the mine peripheral area can be
avoided.

4.2.2. Geological Structure

The main geological structure which affect the stability of the slopes in the open pit mines are:
1. Amount and direction of dip
2. Intra-formational shear zones
3. Joints and discontinuities
a) reduce shear strength
b) change permeability
c) act as sub surface drain and plains of failure
4. Faults
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a) weathering and alternation along the faults

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b) act as ground water conduits

c) provides a probable plane of failure

4.2.3. Lithology
The rock materials forming a pit slope determines the rock mass strength modified by
discontinuities, faulting, folding, old workings and weathering. Low rock mass strength is
characterized by circular; raveling and rock fall instability like the formation of slope in massive
sandstone restrict stability

4.2.4. Ground Water

It causes the following:
a) alters the cohesion and frictional parameters and
b) reduce the normal effective stress

4.2.5. Mining Method and Equipment

Generally Required input for slope stability
Slope angle, slope geometry and material properties
Material properties
Young modulus
Poisson ratio
Density
Failure criterion:
M-C H-B
Cohesion UCS
Friction angle m&s

4.2.6. Dynamic Forces

Due to effect of blasting and vibration, shear stresses are momentarily increased and as result
dynamic acceleration of material and thus increases the stability problem in the slope face. It
causes the ground motion and fracturing of rocks.

4.2.7. Cohesion (c)

It is the characteristic property of a rock or soil that measures how well it resists being
deformed or broken by forces such as gravity.
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4.2.8. Angle of Internal Friction (φ)

Angle of internal friction is the angle (φ), measured between the normal force (N) and resultant
force (R), that is attained when failure just occurs in response to a shearing stress (S). Its
tangent(S/N) is the coefficient of sliding friction. It is a measure of the ability of a unit of rock or
soil to withstand a shear stress.

Engineering characteristics of open-pit slope

Ground surface associated with gradients is called slope or steep slope. The mining boundary
formed by artificial excavation in open-pit mine is called ‘side slope’. The embankment slope
formed in the railway and highway construction is called ‘road slope’. The slope formed in
excavation road cutting is called ‘cutting slope’, and the slope formed by excavating during
water conservancy construction is called ‘hydropower slope’. The open-pit slope engineering, a
kind of geotechnical engineering, not only contains all of the engineering geological problems
that are involved in geotechnical engineering, but also has its own characteristics compared with
the hydropower slope and road side-slope.

4.3. The dynamic feature with mining

The open-pit slope is the important structure in open-pit mining. Because the mining process is
conducted throughout the entire period of production services, the slope depth changes with
continuous excavation (mining) process dynamically. In order to realize such a circumstance as
early-producing and low-investment, the open-pit mining must reduce the early stripping as low
as possible, so the initial slope is called as a ‘temporary slope’. Therefore, the steep slope is
gradually formed in the middle and later period of the mining engineering.

4.4. Excavation engineering under specific geologic conditions

The purpose of mine production is to exploit useful minerals or mineral resources from
underground. The mineral resources are not only a product of geologic process and geologic
transition, but also buried in the geologic-specific surrounding and geologic structure. Dam site
of the hydropower project is selected from several engineering geological conditions by
feasibility analysis and comprehensive comparison. Compared with the hydropower engineering,
the location of mining engineering has no choice to be selected, thus it must be mined under
certain geological specific conditions.

4.5. Mining economic benefits

The aim of slope excavation is to mine minerals in terms of the maximum mining benefits; thus,
it is rather different from the hydropower project which pays more attention to the stability and
security of engineering operation. In order to reduce the overburden amount at the early stage,
staged-excavation and steep-walled mining are implemented. At the same time, in order to
explore the barrier pillar, it has to excavate slope angle, an adverse effect on the stability of
slope.
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5. Slope in terms of multi-step and multi-type Volume

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Slope of open-pit mine is much simple compared with underground mine engineering to some
extent, but when compared with hydropower slope project, the open-pit slope is of a combination
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of structures in terms of multi-step and multi-type. In order to meet the need of production for
open-pit mining, the transport platform, work platform, trenches and the pit-line access to open-
pit must be employed. At the same time, the proper drainage tunnel and chambers in the slope
must be excavated, which makes the structure of open-pit mine slope more complex.

5.1. Evaluation criteria for slope safety with the characteristics of multiplicity
and complexity
The safety and stability of mining slopes vary with mining process and specific requirements. In
general, the stability of slope only needs to meet the safety of mining, which ensures the stability
in mining production period. Therefore, compared with the permanent work of hydroelectric
project, mining slope is a kind of temporary project. When the deposit reserves, occurrence
conditions, rock mass structure and mining scale are different, the period of service and stability
demand of mine slope are also different. Usually, the service life of mine is shorter from tens of
years to several decades, and the service life of sub-structure in mining slope is also different due
to its different service object and application. Therefore, the safety evaluation criterion of mining
slope is of multiplicity and complexity. If there are no structures and pipelines in influencing
area of mine slope, the ultimate strength criterion is commonly used for safety evaluation; if
there are structures and pipelines in influencing area of mine slope, the rock deformation must be
strictly controlled; otherwise, the slope excavation will lead to damage of structures and
pipelines by strata movement.

5.2. Slope project associated with maximum economic and social benefit
It is not necessary for mining slope to keep long-term stability, but it must keep safety
production during the mining service period. Thus, the principle that obtains the largest mining
economic benefit and social benefit by using the smallest investment and maintenance cost is
often employed. Then, the balance point between the mining safety and economic benefit by
optimizing design and mining process should be focused on. Therefore, it is not an optimal
design scheme for a slope that is still stable after mining is completed. It may be better while a
slope fails within a short period of time after mining ending, which is the largest difference
between mining slope and another permanent slope. Obviously, this is also the maximum
difficulty in the study and design of mine slope.

5.3. Surface (open pit mining) vs Underground mining

Surface mining method; Extraction of mineral or energy resource by operations exclusively
involving personal working on the surface without provision of manned underground operation.
On the basis of method of extraction surface mining can be classified in to two; mechanical
extraction, or aqueous. Surface mining applies to extraction of mineral recourse from water and
sediment of rivers, lakes, seas and oceans; from solutions circulating through broken rocks and
soil; and from rock and soil excavated from earth. Mechanical method of extraction employs
mechanical processes to recover minerals in dry environment. It is appropriate to classify
mechanical extraction method as deferred reclamation and concurrent reclamation.
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underground mining method; Mineral exploitation in which extraction operations are carried out
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beneath the earth’s surface is termed as underground mining. Underground methods are

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employed when the depth of the deposit, the stripping ratio of overburden to ore (or coal or
stone), or both become excessive for surface exploitation. Reflecting the importance of ground
support, underground mining methods are categorized in three classes on the basis of the extent
of support utilized. They are unsupported, supported, and caving, with individual methods
differentiated by the type of wall and roof supports used, the configuration of production
openings, and the direction in which mining operations progress.

6.Conclution
Large scale operating experience with open pits has shown that major changes in overall slope
angles are the norm, ± 3° to 16°. These changes are outside the expected orders of accuracy for
mine developments and indicate that many of these mines have carried significant economic risk.
The majority of these mines had engineering studies and supporting design documents with
quoted factors of safety and or probabilities of failure which were in general accord with the
general design rules. Mines are designed on the basis of variables that are subject to large
uncertainty. In the absence of large exposures and actual operating experience with similar
geology or similar rocks then there must be uncertainty and hence risk. Recent development and
use of tools such as the acoustic and optical tele viewer are allowing the accuracy problems with
conventional oriented core to be overcome. However, the problems with accurate geotechnical
models still remain and are in part a function of the low percentage sampling and the gaps and
uncertainties associated with adequately investigating large scale mines. The fundamental
problems with investigations for pit slope design are; the designs are based on quantitative
observations from a very small percentage sampling, there are always gaps in knowledge and
always uncertainties. This is compounded by lack of sufficient large-scale exposures,
particularly during early pit development stages, and investigation tools that are subject to large
and unknown error. The major gap in the pit slope design process at both feasibility and
operating stages of mine development is how the data is manipulated and processed to allow
development of geotechnical models, whether geological structure or rock mass strength based,
which accurately define the ground conditions. Effective engineering analytical tools are
generally available to analyses most conditions but without accurate models the engineering
solutions will not match reality. The actual operating experience highlights this.

7.Recommendation
Overall it is considered that the trend for serious safety issues with pit wall stability may be
increasing. Some contributing factors include:
1. Lack of sufficient experienced personnel at all levels from management down.
2. As the number of mines increase and the scale and depth of mining continue to grow there is
a wider range of geotechnical factors and conditions to be understood and managed, some of
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these are probably outside the individual experience of many professionals.

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3. Failure to appreciate when the overall geological setting carries risk.

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4. The drive to maximize economic return from resources leading to design and production
pressures. 5. It is not practically feasible to completely remove the risk of all rockfall in open
pits. Hence it is essential that the operating environment is effectively managed. This includes
adequate education of the workforce to ensure awareness, together with good procedures and
controls.
6. Failure to appreciate the potential for rockfall issues at all scales.
7. Recognition that those most at risk are people on foot, in light vehicles and in ancillary
equipment. Hence the particular need to be aware of access controls and positioning of sumps,
etc.
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