STEEL

Steel products used in construction can be classified as follows:

1. Structural steel – produced by continuous casting and hot rolling for large structural
shapes, plates, and sheet steel.

2. Cold-formed steel – produced by cold-forming of sheet steel into desired shapes.

3. Fastening products – used for structural connections, including bolts, nuts and
washers.

4. Reinforcing steel – for use in concrete reinforcement.

Steel Production
The overall process of steel production consists of the following three
phases:

1. reducing iron ore to pig iron

2. refining pig iron (and scrap steel from recycling) to steel

3. forming the steel into products

Structural Steel
Structural steel is used in hot-rolled structural shapes, plates, and bars.
Structural steel is used for various types of structural members, such as
columns, beams, bracings, frames, trusses, bridge girders, and other
structural applications.
• Sectional Shapes
Figure illustrates structural cross-sectional shapes commonly used in structural
applications.

Wide Flange Channel

Cold-Formed Steel
Cold-formed steel is used for structural framing of floors, walls and roofs as well as interior
partitions and exterior curtain wall applications. The thickness of cold formed steel
framing members ranges from 18 mils (0.0179 inches, 0.455 mm) to 118 mils (0.1180 inches,
3.000 mm). Cold-formed steel was formerly known as “light gauge” steel;

Cold-formed steel used for steel framing members is predominately manufactured from
scrap steel using either electric arc or basic oxygen furnaces to cast slabs. The slabs are
passed through a machine with a series of rollers that reduce the slab into thin sheets of
the desired thicknesses, strengths and other physical properties. The sheets are sent
thought a hot-dipped galvanizing process and then rolled into coils that weigh
approximately 13 tons.
• Cold-Formed Steel Shapes
A wide variety of shapes can be
produced by cold-forming and
manufacturers have developed a wide
range of products to meet specific
applications. Figure 3.11 shows the
common shapes of typical cold-formed
steel framing members. Figure 3.12
shows common shapes for profiled
sheets and trays used for roofing and
wall cladding and for load bearing
deck panels.
• Fastening Products - used for structural connections
Fastening products include:

• Conventional bolts
• Twist-off-type tension control bolt assemblies
• Nuts
• Washers
• Compressible-washer-type direct tension indicators
• Anchor rods
• Threaded rods
• Forged steel structural hardware
Reinforcing Steel
Since concrete has negligible tensile strength, structural concrete members
subjected to tensile and flexural stresses must be reinforced. Either
conventional or prestressed reinforcing can be used, depending on the
design situation. In conventional reinforcing, the stresses fluctuate with loads
on the structure. This does not place any special requirements on the steel. On
the other hand, in prestressed reinforcement, the steel is under continuous
tension. Any stress relaxation will reduce the effectiveness of the
reinforcement. Hence, special steels are required.
• Conventional Reinforcing
Reinforcing steel (rebar) is manufactured in three forms: plain bars, deformed bars,
and wire fabrics.

• Plain bars are round, without surface deformations. Plain bars provide only limited
bond with the concrete, and therefore are not typically used in sections
subjected to tension or bending.

• Deformed bars have protrusions (deformations) at the surface, thus, they ensure a
good bond between the bar and the concrete. The deformed surface of the bar
prevents slipping, allowing the concrete and steel to work as one unit.

• Wire fabrics are flat sheets in which wires pass each other at right angles, and one
set of elements is parallel to the fabric axis. Plain wire fabrics develop the
anchorage in concrete at the welded intersections, while deformed wire fabrics
develop anchorage through deformations and at the welded intersections.
Deformed bars are used in concrete beams, slabs, columns, walls, footings,
pavements, and other concrete structures, as well as in masonry construction.

Welded wire fabrics are used in some concrete slabs and pavements, mostly to
resist temperature and shrinkage stresses. Welded wire fabrics can be more
economical to place, and thus allow for closer spacing of bars than is practical
with individual bars.
Plain Bar
Deformed Bar
Wire Fabric
To permit ready identification of the different bar types in the field, marking symbols are
rolled into the bars as they are being produced. As shown on Figure, there are four marking
symbols:
1. Letter code for manufacturer

2. Numerical code for bar size, this code may be in either millimeters or “standard
bar numbers,”

3. Letter code for type of steel (bars marked with both S and W have steel that
meets all the requirements for each type of steel)
a. S for billet steel–A615
b. I Rail steel–A616
c. A Axial steel–A617
d. W Low alloy steel–A706
4. Grade of steel designated by either grade lines or numerical code

a. Grade 40 or 300 – no designation

b. Grade 60 or 420 – one grade line between the main ribs or the number 4
c. Grade 75 or 520 – two grade lines between the main ribs or the number 5
ASTM reinforcing bar identification codes.
Mechanical Testing of Steel

• Tension Test

The tension test (ASTM E8) on steel is performed to determine the yield strength,
yield point, ultimate (tensile) strength, elongation, and reduction of area. Typically,
the test is performed at temperatures between 10°C and 35°C (50°F to 95°F).

• Bend Test

Steel is bent to a desired shape, especially in the case of reinforcing steel. The
ductility to accommodate bending is checked by performing the semi-guided
bend test (ASTM E290).