RIASSUNTO CIVILIZATION

Riassunto "British Civilization" - J.
Oakland
Cultura Inglese I
Università degli Studi di Teramo (UNITE)
22 pag.
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What do we mean by the term civilization?
Two possible definitions:

• Process of economic, social, cultural, with particular reference to the action carried out by the
nations of the Western world in regard to developing nations.
or
• A human society that has highly developed material and spiritual resources and a complex cultural,
political, and legal organization.
Great Britain
Britain’s constitutional title today is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland or UK. The
nation comprises large and smaller islands off the north-western European mainland, which at various points
are touched by the North Sea, the English Channel, the Irish Sea or the Atlantic Ocean. The biggest island,
Great Britain, is divided into England, Scotland and Wales, and Northern Ireland shares the second-largest
island with the Republic of Ireland (independent from 1921), with which it has a land border.
England
England covers two-third s of the island of Great Britain. It is often sub-divided into three parts:
• The South: a line drawn from the river Severn in the West, to the Wash, a bay on the East coast. The
landscape is most varied. There are hundreds of miles of sea coast which vary from flat, sandy or
stony beaches to high rocky cliffs. Inland, the landscape is gentle and green. The farmland is like a
vast park with trees.
• The Midlands: England northwards from the Severn-Wash line to another line drawn from the
estuary of the river Mersey in the West to the Humber estuary in the east. The Midlands have large
industrial areas which are very distinct from the rural areas. The Black Country of the West
Midlands is one. It is the area where the Industrial Revolution began in Britain.
• The North: England northwards from the Mersey- Humber line as far as the Scottish border. The
landscape is different from other regions; there is more high ground which looks bare from a
distance. It is in fact covered by short grass or low-growing heather.
Wales
Wales is a highland country, with plateau, hills and mountains which are often interspersed with deep river
valleys. This highland contains the Cambrian Mountains and descends eastwards into England. The highest
mountains are in the National Park area of Snowdonia in the north-west, where the dominant peak is that of
Snowdon. Lowland zones are restricted to the narrow coastal belts and lower parts of the river valleys in
south Wales, where two- thirds of the Welsh population live. The chief urban concentrations of people and
industry are around the bigger southern cities, such as the Cardiff, Swansea and Newport. In the past, the
highland nature of Wales impeded conquest, agriculture and the settlement of people.
Scotland
Scotland was once an independent kingdom. In 1603 the king of Scotland inherited the English throne. He
ruled as James I of England and James VI of Scotland. In 1707 the Scottish was united with the English
parliament, and Scotland lost its politcal independence.
A referendum was held in 1979 to find how much the Scots wanted to rule their country. That gave the
people the chance to vote against some particular action the Government was planning.
There are three large geographical areas in Scotland:
• There are three large geographical areas in Scotland:

• The Highlands
• The Lowlands
• The Islands.
• Five millions people live in Scotland, three quarters of them live in the central lowlands. Edinburgh
is the capital. The regions of Scotlands are administrated from Edimburgh. Glasgow is the chief
industrial and commercial city.
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland shares the island with the Republic of Ireland. It has a rocky northern coastline, a south-
central fertile plain and mountainous areas in the west, north-east and south-east. Most of the large towns,
like the capital Belfast, are situated in valleys which lead from the lough (lake in Ireland). Belfast lies at the
mouth of the river Lagan and has the biggest population concentration. However, Northern Ireland generally
has a sparse and scattered population and its largely rural country.
Climate
In the South it is warmer than in the other areas. The driest areas are in the east and south-east. In the
Midlands, it is cooler and wetter than in the south. In the north, it becomes colder the further north-east you
go, and wetter in the west. There is almost always snow in winter. The weather is a national institution, a
topic of daily conversation and for some a conditioning factor in the national character.
Agriculture, fisheries and forestry
Britain's long agricultural history includes a series of farming revolutions from Neolithic times. There are
about 300,000 active farms mostly specialized in dairy products and cattle (beef and sheep). Intense farming
especially concerns poultry and eggs. Main agricultural products are: apples, berries and flowers. They use
about 75 per cent of the total land area, although there is preoccupation that farmland is being increasingly
used for building and recreational purposes. Although its exports are important, Britain imports some 70 per
cent of its food requirements, largely because of seasonal demand. Britain is one of Europe leading fishing
nations and operates in the North Sea, the Irish Sea and the Atlantic. The fishing industry is important to the
national economy and is centred on ports around the coasts. Fishing is also widespread; the fundamental
catches are haddock, cod, whiting, mackerel, plaice and sole. There is also fish-farming industry especially
about salmon and trout. Woodlands represent 12 per cent of the total UK land area. The activities of
production contribute only 15 per cent to the national consumption of wood and associated timber products,
which means that the country is heavily dependent upon wood imports. Primary energy sources are oil, gas,
nuclear power, hydroelectric power and coal. The most important secondary sources generated from these is
electricity.
Transport
One company (Network Rail) now owns the railway lines and infrastructure while the trains and stations are
leased to and managed by private regional companies. The Channel Tunnel, run by a French/British private
company, the Eurotunnel, opened for commercial use in 1994 under the English Channel with two terminals,
Folkstone and Coquelles. It was meant to improve passenger and freight rail travel between Britain and
mainland Europe and has taken business from sea/ferry services. There are over 300 ports in Britain, but
most are small concerns. The bigger ports, like Clyde, Dover, Southampton, Cardiff and other provide most
of the trade and passenger travel requests. There are about 142 airports of varying size. Heathrow and
Gatwick Airports outside London are the largest and busiest in terms of aircraft movements. In
communication systems in Britain the main supplies are private telecommunications companies such as
British Telecom and the publicly owned Royal Mail, which includes the Post Office.
The Population’s Origins
About 2000 years BC the pre-Celtic peoples (later called the Iberians) lived in England where they had
already reached the Bronze and Iron Age. During about the seventh century BC, the Celts arrived from

Northen Europe and subdued the Iberians. After a second wave of Celts, called Britons, came in the fourth
century and settled in the South West and West. Twice in 55 and 54 BC Julius Caesar invaded Britain, but
only his second expedition was successful. In 43 BC the country was entirely conquered under Emperor
Claudius. All the territory was subdued except Scotland therefore to defend Roman Britain a wall was
erected by Emperor Hadrian. New invaders took the place of the Romans whose civilization was wiped out
in 409 AD, the Angles and Saxons. In the 9 th century the Danes invaded England, but King Alfred of Wessex
defeated them. He was a great king. He was succeeded first by Edward the Confessor then by king Harold.
1066 William Duke of Normandy defeated Harold of Essex during the battle of Hastings and became the
new king. After his victory he was named William the Conqueror. The social organizations and constitutional
principles of the British state, such as parliamentary democracy, government, the law, economic systems, a
welfare state and religious faiths, have developed slowly. The developed British Empire was an extension of
earlier English monarchs' internal military expansionism within the islands and in mainland Europe. The
colonialism was aided by increasing military might into the twentieth century. Internally, successive
agricultural revolutions in Britain added appreciably to the country's wealth, exports, prestige and
international trade. It became an industrial and largest urban country from the late eighteenth century
because of a series of industrial revolutions and inventions. Throughout its history, Britain has been
responsible for major and influential scientific, medical and technological advances. Political union within
Britain, despite continuing tensions, had also gradually encouraged the idea of a British identity
(Britishness), in which all the component countries of the UK could share. The British state has seen many
other political reforms over time that has encouraged the nature Britishness, national identities within the
union and the future constitutional and political structure of the United Kingdom, which are still being
addressed in contemporary Britain. Since the Second World War, Britain has had to adjust with difficulty to
the results of a withdrawal from empire, which was inevitable in the face of rising nationalism and self-
determination in the colonies; a relative decline in economic power; internal social change; a geopolitical
world order of superpowers; with the USA becoming the dominant force, the emergence of Far Eastern
powers such as China and India; and a changing Europe following the destruction did by two world wars. In
recent centuries, Britain has rarely seen itself as an integral part of mainland Europe. It has protected behind
the sea barrier of the English Channel and its outlook has been westwards and worldwide. Britain has been
involved, not without public protest, in recent overseas military action in Bosnia, Kosovo, two Iraq wars,
Afghanistan and a coalition partner in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Britain has attracted
terrorist threats itself, culminating in suicide bombing against the London public transport system by British-
born Islamists on 7 July 2005 and further failed attempts on 21 July. Today Britain cannot anymore isolate
itself as it did at periods in its earlier history from the global issues.
Immigration: tensions and problems
The British Isles have attracted settlers, invaders and immigrants throughout their history. The contemporary
British are consequently composed of people from worldwide origins and are divided into what eventually
became the English, Scots, Welsh and ( Northern) Irish. These historical developments have created a
contemporary society with multinational, multicultural and multi-ethnic characteristics. However, since
assimilation and integration process are not always successful, controversial questions continue to be asked
about the meaning of Britishness, the nature of identities and loyalties in the population and the validity of
government immigration and asylum policies. With the world recession and the Second World War, refugees
first from Nazi-occupied Europe and later from Soviet bloc countries in addition to economic immigrants
entered Britain in spite of entry controls. After the war, refugees such as Poles, Latvians and Ukrainians
among other nationalities chose to stay in Britain. Later in the twentieth century, other political refugees
arrived, such as Hungarians, Czechs, Libyans, East African Asians, Iranians and other Eastern Europeans.
Italian, French , German, Irish, Turkish, Cypriot, Chinese, Spanish and Commonwealth economic
immigrants increasingly entered the country. These groups ( and their descendants) today form sizeable
ethnic minorities and are located throughout Britain. Such newcomers have often suffered from
discrimination at various times, some more than others. From the late 1940s, increasing numbers of people
from the non-white New Commonwealth nations of India, Pakistan and the West Indies came to Britain,
often at the invitation of government agencies, to fill the manual and lower-paid jobs of an expanding
economy. Concentrated settlement has grown in recent years and raised concern about the isolation of some

ethnic groups from the majority white population and its institutions in northern towns such as Burnley,
Blackburn and Oldham. Non-white communities have increased and work in a broad range of occupations.
Some, particulary Indian Asians and the Chinese, have been successful in economic and professional terms.
Others have experienced problems with low-paid jobs, educational, disadvantage, unemployment, isolation
and discrimination (including tensions between other non-white ethnic groups). Immigration and race remain
problematic. They are complex matters, are exploited for political purposes by both the right and the left, and
can be overdramatized. However ghettoization is a problem in some areas; cases of racial tension, violence
and harassment happen; and there are accusations that the police and the courts ignore or underplay race
crimes. Some critics are concerned that race, discrimination and immigrantion problems are not being openly
debated in what they feel is the present climate of 'political correctness' and 'inclusiveness' policies.
Politics and government
Early monarchs or political leaders in the four nations had considerable power, but generally accepted advice
and feudal limitations on their authority. However, later English kings, such as King John, ignored these
restraints and powerful French-Norman barons opposed John's dictatorial rule by forcing him to sign Magna
Carta in 1215. This document protected the aristocracy rather than the ordinary citizen. It was later regarded
as a cornerstone of British liberties: it restricted the influence of the aristocracy and stipulated that citizens
should not be imprisoned without trial. In 1275 under king Edward I there was a first example of English
Parliament divided in the Lords/Bishops and the Commons. But although Parliament obtained limited power
against the monarch, there was a return to royal dominance in Tudor England (1485-1603). The nobility had
been weakened by wars and internal conflicts (like the Wars of the Roses between Yorkists and
Lancastrians). Monarchs controlled Parliament. Following the Tudors, James VI of Scotland became James I
of England in 1603, formed a Stuart dynasty and considered himself to be king of Great Britain. Charles I
was forced to sign the Petition of Rights in 1628, by the Parliament that showed more restistance to royal
rule by using its weapon of financial control. Charles's rejection of parliamentary ideals and beliefs in his
right to rule without opposition provoked anger against the Crown and a Civil War broke out in 1642. The
mainly Protestant Parliamentarians under Oliver Cromwell won against the Royalists. Charles was beheaded
in 1649; the monarchy was abolished Britain was ruled as a Protectorate by Cromwell and his son Richard.
But after Cromwell, the Protectorate became unpopular and the monarchy was restored with king Charles II.
The growing power of the English Parliament against the monarch in the seventeenth century saw the
development of more organized political parties. Two groups (Whigs and Tories) became dominant: the
Whigs were mainly Cromwellian Protestants and gentry, who didn’t accept the Catholic James II as
successor to Charles II and wanted religious freedom for all Protestants; the Tories generally supported
royalists beliefs, and helped Charles II to secure James’s right to succeed him. But James's attempt to rule
without the Parliament and his ignoring of its laws caused a further reduction in royal influence and forced
the Tories to joint the Whigs in inviting the Dutch Protestant William of Orange to intervene: he arrived in
England in 1688. James fled and William succedeed to the throne as Britain's first constitutional monarch.
Since no force was involved, this event is called the Bloodless or Glorious Revolution. Royal powers were
further restricted under the Declaration of Rights (1689), which strenghtened Parliament. Parliamentary
influence grew in the early eighteen century because the Hanoverian George I hadn’t interest in Britain
politics. He distrusted the Tories with their Catholic sympathies and appointed Whigs like Robert Walpole to
his Privy Council. Wapole became Chief Minister in 1721. Although parliamentary control grew in the late
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, there was still no widespread democracy in Britain. With
increasing population and developing industrially and economically pressures for political reform became
irresistible. A reform of the parliamentary system and extented voting rights to a small number of the
growing middle class in the First Reform Act of 1832. After all males aged over twenty-one and limited
categories of women over thirty-one received the vote in 1918. Eventually in 1928 all males and females
aged twenty-one possessed the vote and the age limit was further reduced to eighteen in 1918.
The Uk is a constitutional monarchy. Its monarch - either king or a queen - is the head of the state, he/she has
very little power. Queen Elizabeth II reigns but she does not rule. Parliament and the existing government
have the power. The UK does not have a written constitution or printed set of rules for governing the country.
The Constitution has been formed in three ways:

• by all the laws and decrees that they have been made for centuries;
• by the way these laws have been interpreted in the Law Courts in the past and now re-interpreted
from time to time;
• by the way things have been done for centuries although some of these practices have never been
formally written down.
Britain is a democracy: men and women over 18 have a vote. Voting is not obligatory. They have the right to
elect a representative to Parliament. The representative is the M.P. (Members of Parliament) the Prime
Minister. At the opening of parliament the Queen reads a speech written by the prime minister from the
throne in the House of Lords. Parliamentary elections must be held if the government loses its majority
support in the house of commons if the Prime Minister decides to hold an election or if the Parliament is
coming to the end of a five year period. The are 650 MP to the House of Commons.
All peers (Lords) peereses who have inherited their titles have the right to take their seat in the House of
Lords. But not everyone does so. Distinguished men and women who have been made peers for their life-
time. Their titles cannot be inherited. Certain clergy of the Church of England. Some judges called the Law
Lords. It does not have the same power as the House of Commons. Many people want to abolish it because
the members have not been elected by the people. The House of Lords can:
• Pass Bills sent to it from the House of Commons.
• Amend Bills and send back to the Commons for approval.
• Delay Bills for a limited time.
• Start its own Bills, but it must send them to the House of Lords for approval.
The Privy Council
It deals (si tratta) of the group of advisers of the monarch composed by more than 300 members: legislators,
judges, distinguished scholars. It was created in the Middle Ages, but it has lost most of the judicial and
political functions since the 17° century and now replaced by the Cabinet.
The Party System

The British democratic system depends on political parties: Conservative and Labour. When one party wins
more seats than the other in an election, it forms the Government. The other party is called: the Opposition.
In 1981 there was a split in the Labour Party and the Social Democratic Party was formed. The U.K. is
divided into 650 areas called constituencies. Each constituency returns one member of Parliament. Before an
election a candidate is chosen the local support for a party, it may decide not to have a candidate. But the two
parties always fight the election in every constituency. Elections in Britain are decided on a simple majority,
the candidate with the most votes is elected.
The Civil Service
In Britain the Civil Service is non-political, it has a tradition of serving and giving advice to whatever
government is in power. Civil Servants are “servants of the Crown” of the Queen. Since World War II there
has been a big increase in the number of civil servants because governments now provide many more
services for the citizen: the National Health Service, for example.
The Local Government
Central government affects the citizen in many ways: it provides him with hospital treatment and with a
pension in old age. But it also provides the organization of: schools, dustbin, police, fire service. The people
elect Councillors for both County and District Councils. The Councils elect their Chairman to preside over
meetings. Borough Councils call the chairman “Mayor”. Small towns and villages elect Parish Councils or
Community Councils. They have very little power but give local people a chance to express their opinions
about local affairs in public.

Devolution
A transfer (decentralization) of political parties from Westminster to gain independence first started in
Ireland. Political and cultural nationalism also in Wales and Scotland. Regional Development Agencies. The
authority of the Mayor.
International relations
Britain’s historical positions as a colonial, economic and political power on the world stage was in relative
decline by the early decades of the twentieth century. Some large colonies, such as Canada and Australia, had
already achieved self-governing status and the growth of nationalism among African and Asian nations
persuaded Britains to decolonialize from 1945. The effect of global economic competition, two world wars
and internal economic and social problems forced Britain to recognize its reduced international status.
Britain’s position in the world today is that of a medium-sized country which faces increasing commercial
competition from emerging global powers and ranks economically in sixth place behind the USA, Japan,
Germany, France and China. Its major interests are about maintaining stable commercial, economic and
political status. Britain is a large exporter of goods and services, has substantial overseas or outside
investments and imports much of its food and basic manufacturing requirements. Britain’s foreign policy
emphasizes the importance of diplomatic actions, but it also took some unilateral actions, e.g. Falklands War
in 1982. Britain’s major defence alliance is with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO; 26
members). The justification for NATO’s creation was that it provided its members with greater security than
any could achieve individually and was a deterrent against aggression by the now-defunct Warsaw Pact
countries.
The Commonwealth
The British empire turned into the British Commonwealth in 1931 when most former English colonies
declared their independence. It is made of 54 independent member states. A British cultural heritage is still
evident in the majority of these countries like education and legal systems. The monarch has un important
unifying and symbolic function which has often kept the Commonwealth together in times of crisis and
conflict. There is a Commonwealth Secretariat in London which coordinates policy for the Commonwealth,
in addition to many Commonwealth societies, institutes, associations ecc.. Nowadays, many think that its
future existenc is in doubt due to Britons’ preference to the EU.
The European Union
The ideal of a united Europe with strong economic and political institutions became increasing attractive to
European statesmen after the Second World War. There was a desire to create a peaceful and prosperous
Europe after the destruction of two World War and centuries of antagonism and distrust between the
European powers. In 1975 the positive result of a Referendum authorized by a Labour government let Great
Britain become part of the EC (European Community) after being already a member state of the EEC
(European Economic Community). With the Maastricht Treaty it became the EU (The European Union with
European currency, European Bank and defence. It currently consists of 27 member states with a potential
future growth. The main institutions are the European Council, the Council of Ministers, The European
Commission, the European Parliament and the European Courts of Justice. There are Pro/anti-European
political parties. On one hand, Eurosceptic critics debate/argue that Britian’s sovereignty and independence
are threatened by EU developments and want the repatriation of national rights from the EU back to Britain.
Europhile supporters, on the other hand, want economic and political integration, arguing that EU allows
governments to rationalize industrial and agricultural policies and allows European countries to operate
effectively in a globalized world. British perception of the EU according to some surveys:
• In 2005, 57 per cent of respondents were against the euro and 55 per cent would not change their
minds if the government strongly want support;
• In 2003, only 30 per cent of British respondents felt that EU membership was a good thing;
• In 2004, 32 per cent of respondents felt that the EU needed Britain more than Britain needed the EU;
but 32 per cent also felt that Britain and the EU needed each other equally;

• In 2009, 55 per cent of Britons wanted to leave the EU; 84 per cent wanted a referendum before
transferring new powers to the EU and 55 per cent wanted Britain to leave the EU but to maintain
close trading links.
Europeanism seems to be more easily and naturally accepted by people, particularly the young; large
numbers of Britons live and work in European countries; people take their holidays in Europe; there is
considerable interchange at many levels between Europeans and the British; and increasing numbers of
Britons regar themselves as Europeans.
The Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is constitutionally a part of the United Kingdom. However, its history is inseparable from
that of the Republic of Ireland. Since the 12th century Ireland has been subdued by the Britons and since then
there have been continuous rebellions by the native Irish against English colonial, political and military
rules. The situation got worse when Ireland refused in the 16 th century to accept a Protestant government.
Through the suppression of rebellions by Oliver Cromwell and William of Orange was assured Protestant
dominance in Northern Ireland. Ireland was then mainly an agricultural country, dependent upon its farming
produce. But crops (e.g. potato) failures were frequent, and famine in the middle of the nineteenth century
caused death and emigration, with the result that the population was reduced by an half by 1901. The people
who stayed demanded more autonomy. ‘Home rule’ for Ireland was finally granted in 1921/22 when Ireland
was divided in two parts. Conflics came again in Northern Ireland in 1968-69 between Catholics and
Protestants. On one side was founded the IRA (Irish Republican Army), committed to unification of Ireland
and remove the British political and military presence from Northern Ireland. But Protestant are loyal to the
British Crown and insist that they remain part of the United Kingdom.
The legal system

The legal system is a very old British institution. Its role is to interpret and apply the law; serve citizens;
control unlawful activities against them and the state; protect civil liberties; and support legitimate
government. However, it was often criticised through the centuries as being unfairly in favour of the rich and
powerful against the poor and disadvantaged. The legal system has changed over the centuries in response to
changing social structures and philosophies. Nowadays jurisprudence is based on two fundamental
principles: (1) the administration of law in national courts; (2) judges’ independence from the monarch and
politics, the latter was totally achieved in 1701. Initially courts worked only in London, lately (by the end of
the 12 th century) judges began travelling throughout the country to deal with canon, criminal and commercial
law. However, local civil courts were established starting from 1846. The two period of major reform to
correct the situation were 1873-5, when there was a complete court revision, and 1970-1, when further
changes produced the present court system of England and Wales. Similar developments also made in
Scotland and Ireland. The British legal system is separated in three elements: England and Wales, Scotland,
Northern Ireland. While the Northern Ireland is very similar to the English and Welsh, Scottish system is the
most independent. Devolution (decentralization of political power) has reinforced the necessity to make
distinctions in the territory. The death penalty was abolished in 1965.
British law
The three main sources of England/Welsh law are the common law, statue law and European Union law. The
oldest is the Common Law that dates back to the Norman Conquest. Common Law verdicts create
precedents which become law and subsequently are applied to new cases. Statute Law was traditionally
made by the monarch who has been replaced by the Westminster Parliament now. Statutes multiplied in the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries because rules were needed for a changing, more complex and larger
society. European Law has been part of the British Law since 1973 when the U.K. entered into the European
Economic Community. The Scottish Law derives from Roman and English law. It is organised according to
the common law of Scotland and to judges’ decisions. Northern Irish Law has a similar common law
tradition to England and Wales.
Court structures in England and Wales

There are two courts in the British system: civil and criminal. The criminal courts are organised in two
levels, a lower one led by magistrates’ courts and a higher one called the Crown court. Magistrates’ court
provide counties and districts with JPs (justices of the peace) and district judges. Magistrates are not
professional but selected among citizens. For their nomination they do not get any salary. It is a very
prestigious task. They are generally three in a court for each case together with a clerk. Magistrates’ power is
limited. District judges are instead professional officials paid by the state. The Crown courts, popularly know
as the Old Bailey, only deals with the most serious indictable crimes. The appeal structure is supposed to be
a safeguard against mistakes and miscarriage of justice, but the number of such cases has increased, resulting
in a great deal of publicity and concern. Civil law proceedings in England and Wales are brought either in the
county or in the High Court. Less expensive and complex actions are dealt with in the county court rather
than the High Court, and most civil disputes do not reach court at all. England and Wales are divided into
some 250 districts with a county court for each district. The High Court of Justice has its main centre in
London, with throughout England and Wales. The jury is the main element in criminal trials in the Crown
court for indictable offences. The jury consists of 12 jurors chosen from electoral registers. The jury is based
on the principle that citizens can be punished or acquitted by other citizens. They listen to the evidence at the
trial and give their verdict on the facts, after having been isolated in a room for their deliberation. If a jury
cannot reach a decision, it will be discharged and a new one sworn in. A recent reform may help those people
who wish to start personal injury civil actions but who cannot afford the cost. Clients can enter into
conditional agreements with lawyers, in which payment of legal fees on a percentage basis is only made if
the client wins (‘no win-no fee).
The legal profession
The legal profession in England and Wales is divided into two principal types of lawyer: barristers and
solicitors. There are 100,000 solicitors, who practice mainly in private firms, but also in local and central
government, legal centres and industry. Although the solicitors’ profession is a middle-class one it is
increasingly attracting members from relatively wide and gender spectrums of society. Solicitors deal with
general legal work, although many now specialize in one area of the law. Their firms (or partnership) offer
services such as conveyancing (the buying and selling of property); probate (wills and succession after
death); family matters; criminal and civil litigation; commercial cases; and taxes and financial affairs. There
are 10,000 barristers that have two functions: to give specialized advice on legal matters and to act as
advocates in the courts. Historically, the general public could not approach a barrister directly, but must have
been introduced by a solicitor. This regulation has now been relaxed for some clients. Barristers are self-
employed individuals who practice from chambers, together with other barristers.
The legal services
People usually avoid the difficulty and cost of legal actions if possible and regard the law and lawyers as a
last resort in resolving their problems. Yet recently more Britons have been using the courts in order to gain
satisfaction for what they consider to be their ‘rights’ and ‘compensation culture’ has grown, aided by
specialist lawyers. The police at national and local level are the most admired professional group after doctor
and nurses. Lawyers are the least admired. People demand zero tolerance for all crime, insisting that the
police should be allowed to do their job rather than engage in wasteful from-filling; put more police on the
streets to patrol neighbourhoods and reassure people; and give strong punishment to convicted criminals.
The economy
Before the affirmation of Britain as the most important industrial world power, thanks to the Industrial
Revolution (1780-1830), the Country was basically rural. Industrial and manufacturing developments over
the centuries were located mainly in the largest tows. Financial and commercial institutions such as banks,
insurance houses and trading companies were gradually founded in the City of London and throughout the
country to finance and service the expanding and increasingly diversified economy. The growth of the
colonies contributed to national wealth on worldwide trading connections. The transformation of the Country
into an industrial one became particularly evident in the growth of slums and industrial suburbs. However
British worldwide dominance diminished in the 20 th century especially at the end of World War II and
countries such as Germany and the USA rapidly developed.

The modern economy: policies, structure and performance
The world status decline is due to by the economic problems created by two world wars; international
recession; global competition; structural changes in the economy; alternating government policies; and a
series of ‘boom-and-bust’ cycles that nowadays characterize its economy. Traditionally the two main
political parties (Conservative and Labour) have opposite approaches to economic matters. The former
supports and favours the free market, while the latter believes in the centralization of the economy managed
by the state. In between 1979- 1997, the two parties reached a compromise accepting a combination of
privatization and state management in order to foster a cooperation between the public and the private
sectors. Those who encourage privatization believe in an improvement of efficiency and in the reduction of
government money. Every citizen can contribute to the British economic growth buying shares sold by the
Stock Exchange. Most companies are private and small or medium-sized. They are crucial to the economy
and generate 50 per cent of new jobs. Some 10 per cent of the economy is controlled by foreign corporations:
Britain has been seen as an attractive low-cost country for foreign investment in many areas such as
electronic and high-technology equipment, hotels, finances and cars… The shareholders are the real
oweners of those companies in which they invest their money. To get good results, companies must be run
successfully. National and foreign companies are sometimes involved in takeover and mergers. A takeover
occur when a large company takes over (or buys) a smaller firm. Mergers are amalgamations between
companies of equal status. A Competition Commission has been made to monitor the situation from forming
a monopoly or creating unfair trading conditions. It exams and reports to the Director General of Fair
Trading who may rule against the proposed takeover or merger. Cheaper prices, poor productivity and often
uncompetitive manpower have been the reasons of the decline of many British manufacturing industries.
Traditional trades like textiles, steel, shipbuilding, iron were greatly reduced. Governments, helped by
European Union grants, tried to revitalize depressed areas with financial aid and the creation of new
business. But they were not enough. Britain slowly came out of recession between 1993-94. Britain is the
sixth largest economic world power. The Devalution, a reduction of the pound’s exchange value had pros
and cons: it helped exports, but discouraged people to buy foreign products. Although Britain has not joined
the European common currency (euro), the pound had performed successfully outside the Eurozone.
Social class, the workforce and employment
Class in Britain has been defined by one or more factors, such as material wealth; the ownership of land and
property; control of the means of production; education; job or professional status; accent and dialect; birth;
or sometimes by lifestyle. Over time a British class system evolved which divided the population into upper,
middle and working class. However, Class division remains a controversial and perculiar aspect of English
society. According to the critics, this system is based on high levels of inequality. Another level is the
underclass which identifies those who never worked, or the long-term unemployed. The British population
today largely consists of a middle class (60 per cent). Unlike the past, the majority of British population
works in the services sectors nowadays. Only a minority is still employed in industry and agriculture.
Consequently there is a decrease in manufacturing. Although, a considerable part of the workforce consists
of women, about 52%, they have difficulty achieving the senior rank. Yet half of them still suffer from
unequal job conditions, despite many campaigns fought to achieve equality. NONOSTANTE during the 60s
there have been many female protests, created acts and the Equal Opportunities Act monitors the legislation
about this matter, there are still several female occupational problems. Job creation is important to the
political parties: though many jobs were created during the 2000s, unemployment still remains particulary
high in Northeast England and Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. The number of traditional
apprenticeships has been greatly reduced and technical or vocational education suffers from a lack of
investment and facilities. Young people and the apprenticeship system. The aim is to make the workforce
more mobile and flexible in order to create more job availability.
Financial institution
London, has always been a centre of British and world finance. Today it provides financial and investment
services for commercial interests in Britain and overseas. Many City institutions were founded in the 17 th
and 18 th centuries: the London Stock Exchange, the Bank of England, insurance firm Lloyd’s. The bank of

England, the UK’s central bank, although it has been an independent institution since 1997, its governor and
directors are appointed by the government. The London Stock Exchange is a market for the buying and
selling of quoted stocks and shares in British public companies and a few overseas. The Stock Exchange was
revolutionized in 1986 by new developments, know populary as the ‘Big Bang’. The changes deregulated the
financial market and enabled greater freedom of operation and new members were allowed.
The trade unions

The trade unions were constitutionally recognized in 1871. Previous similar organizations called “social
clubs” were formed to deal with workers’ problems like sickness and unemployment. Today there are about
167 trade unions and professional associations which represent not only skilled and unskilled workers in
industry but also white-collar workers in a range of businesses, companies and local and central government.
Members of the unions generally pay an annual subscription to their unions. There are different approaches
to the trade unions by the two major political parties especially about strike action. The latter is still
considered as an important political means to fight possible abuses. While according to critics, strike can
seriously damage a business activity and delay the work.
Social services
Today social services are taken as given by most Britons, but the state accepted overall responsibility for
providing basic social help for all its citizens only in the 1940s.: social services deal with all main possible
people’s problems such as health, unemployment, retirement, disability, household etc… Health care may
represent the most developed and complex governmental achievement in this field, named: National Health
Service. Historically, hints of social help for citizens in troubles may be traced back to the Middle Ages,
where only churches provided a basic support for the poorer. Under queen Elizabeth I’s reign, the Poor Law
was established to help the needy. The Poor Law was the start of state social legislation in Britain, but it was
limited in its effects and discourage people from relying on it. During the Industrial Revolution period,
human conditions became harsher because of the work in factories. The exploitation of the workforce created
many health problems also connected to the poor hygienic conditions of the slums where most workers were
bound to live. Public health became an inevitable concern and poor conditions resulted in infectious
epidemics in the nineteenth century, such as diphtheria, typhoid, tuberculosis, smallpox and measles. The old
Poor Law was replaced by the Poor Law Amendment Act in 1834: reduce taxes and guarantee some social
relief to the disadvantaged; it created a system of workhouses for the needy, but these places were very
disagreeable and he accepted only as a last resort. More consciousness of social problems at the first decades
of the 19° century got the situation better. Reform programmes were introduced to re-organize health,
pensions and the employment system. The new model of welfare underlined the importance to establish a
national insurance scheme in order to protect workers at the end of their activity with some benefits.
Household and demographic structures
Current statistics concerning household, there was an increasing number of people that decide to live alone.
First marriages are generally celebrated in a church while most remarriages are civil. There is a high
percentage of divorce and a single mother is not considered a taboo anymore. Cohabiting couples (of the
same gender too) now compensate the decline of marriage and are the picture of the most modern lifestyle.
Household constitutes a fundamental topic of any government policy. In the past grants and loans were more
easily released to families in need. Nowadays any fund is instead applied more restrictively to prevent fraud.
The organization of state pensions and the distribution of welfare benefits always represent an uneasy task
for any government. The Conservative and the Labour show two opposite orientations towards this matter:
the former emphasize the importance of personal responsibilty in the search of social needs to reduce public
cost. The latter believe in the introduction of other riforms to help families, reduce unemployment and
poverty.
The National Health Service (NHS)

A Labour government created the National Health Service in 1947 to guarantee free health treatment.
Hospital and most medical treatment under the NHS is free for British and EU citizens. The NHS provides a
range of medical and dental services for the whole country based on hospitals, doctors, dentists, nurses,
midwives, ambulance services, blood transfusion and other health facilities. However, prescription have to
be paid for, as is the case with some dental work, dental checks and eye tests. Children under sixteen, people
on social security benefits and old age pensioners receive free prescriptions. However, many dentists have
left the NHS for private practice. There are two health care levels: primary and secondary care. Primary Care
controls two-thirds of NHS budgets at local level; is the first contact for patient; includes health professionals
(such as doctors) and hospitals. Secondary Care is emergency and specialist care follows a referral from a
doctor or primary care.
The personal social services: public and private sector
State public social services work to support people such as the elderly, the disabled, the mentally ill, families
and children having problems. These services have been often and heavily criticized as unable to cover all
needs. Private organizations and also voluntary agencies give an important contribution to the welfare
system. They receive tax concessions on their income but receive no financial (or very little) support from
the state. There are many operating at national and local levels and varying considerably in size: some are
small and collect limited amounts of money, others are very large such as Oxfam, Save the Children Fund,
the Salvation Army.
Housing
Social housing is a public service which aims at providing a house to low income people. Nowadays the 18%
gets this benefit. The Conservative party wanted to assign the task to the private sector, this decision reduced
(according to critics) cheap rented lodgings. Particularly in London and other big cities there is still a big
number of homeless people. The Labour government fixed a programme to fight the problem which reduced
the number of ‘rough sleepers’ of one-third. According to recent polls, Britons show to trust in public
services. They expect public services to be readily available for this reason they think better pay and
conditions should be ensured to public sector workers. The 64% of the population agree that a significant
improvement can derive by taxation.
Education
British education operate on three levels: schools, higher education and further/adult education. Schools are
divided into state (maintained from public funds) and independent (privately financed) sectors (the latter
mainly in England). But there is no common educational organization for the whole country and England/
Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland have somewhat different school systems. According to Ofsted (the
Office for Standards in Education) British education has a poor international reputation. It reported that 7
million adults in 2000 in Britain were illiterate, although some think tank reports suggest this proportion
could now be higher. A unified system of education was established only in 1870. However only in 1944
primary and secondary state schools became free and obligatory. Beside state schools, there were church
schools and schools privately financed by rich people or monarchs. The latter provided correct education for
the future managerial class, while the working class received only a very basic instruction in reading, writing
and arithmetic. The majority of children received no adequate education. Although in 1918 state schools
provided a free education to children until the age of 14, that was still insufficient. Secondary school
education remained a prerogative of the independent sector. In the early 20th century state education was
extended and some grants given to the best students whose parents couldn’t afford school fees. Children
were able to enter secondary schools a non-fee-paying basis. After the Education Act of 1944, schooling was
divided in primary from 5 to 11 years, secondary school from 11 to 15. The eleven-plus is the exam which
gives the access to the secondary school (the grammar school). Students who failed the exam went to the
technical school. In the 1950s the eleven plus was criticized by the Labour party as the perpetuation of the
class system. In 1964 the Labour government was committed to abolish the eleven-plus. It would be replaced
by non-selective ‘comprehensive schools’ to which all children would automatically transfer after primary
school. While the abolition of the grammar schools has been approved almost everywhere in the UK, there

are still 164. Britons think that schooling should be more selective and based on continuous tests and
assessment.
The state school sector
State school is free and compulsory for pupils from 5 to 17, to 18 in 2015. Schools are mainly mixed,
although some are single-sex. The academic organization of schools has been traditionally left largely to
headteachers and staff. Now they have greater financial responsibility for school budgets, management and
academic organization, the appointment of teachers and students admissions.
The public school sector
Public schools are not state schools, but independent schools which have a long history. They depend on the
fees paid by the parents of present pupils but also on money from property and investments which have
inherited in the past. So-called public schools such as Eton, Harrow and Winchester, are the most famous of
the independent schools. Not all independent schools can truthfully call themselves Public Schools — they
have to be selected by a conference of heads of well-established Public Schools. Public schools are criticised
for being too elitist and perpetuate the class system. However most people make financial sacrifices also
through insurance scheme to send their children to a public school as they believe that would advantage their
future.
School organization and examinations

The school year is divided into three terms (autumn, spring and summer) of approximately 13 weeks each.
All types of secondary schools have 5 year courses for pupils from 11 up to the school leaving age.
Promotion to a higher class every year does not depend upon examination results — it is almost automatic.
At the end of the five-year course the GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary School) and GCE (A level)
exams can be taken. Children in Britain still leave school with no formal leaving examination certificate.
Comprehensive and grammar schools have sixth form departments providing one, two or three-year courses;
secondary modern schools do not usually have a sixth form. In various schools have combined their sixth
forms to make a new and separate Sixth Form College. It offers a wider choice of courses than the individual
schools could do. At the sixth form stage, studies are highly specialized. At “A” level only three or four
subjects are taken. Examples of groups of subjects taken at “A” Level: English/French/German; Maths/
Physics/Chemistry; Geography/History/Economics. Some reforms introduced by the Conservative Party
remained under Labour, an example is the creation of a National Curriculum, it is tied to a system of
examinations at the secondary level. Most teacher are trained at the university and other colleges. There is a
serious shortage of teachers in Britain in many subjects, especially in mathematics, technology, physics and
foreign languages. The teaching profession has become very stressful and subject to greater pressures, such
as physical assaults upon teachers by pupils, increased bureaucracy, pupil indiscipline and a lack/gap of
support for teachers from local authorities and the government. As the system is not centralized, teachers are
not civil servants, they move freely between state and non-state schools. The individual teacher has wide
responsibility inside the classroom for what is taught and how it is taught. The Local Education Authority
has full local responsibility for school within the state system.
Higher education
In 1960 there were already 22 British universities. Now there are 116. These are divided in four types: 1) the
old established universities such as Oxford, Cambridge… composed of their many colleges; 2) The 19°
century universities “redbrick” such as London, Manchester; 3) the universities established after World War
II such as Essex, Lancaster, the new university of Ulster; 4) the new universities created in 1992:
polytechnics. In certain areas of the country existing Colleges of Technology and other further education
colleges were combined to form polytechnics. There are now many of them offering courses in the full range
of subjects, from engineering to art. The council of National Academic Awards supervises polytechnics
examinations and makes sure that a high standards is maintained in all polytechnics.
The media

The term ‘media’ may include any communication system by which people are informed, educated and
entertained. The media have evolved from simple methods of production, distribution and communication to
their present sophisticated technologies.
The print media
The print media (newspapers and magazines) began to develop in the eighteen century. Initially, a wide
circulation was hinded by transportation and distribution problems, illiteracy and government licensing or
censorship restrictions. But over the last 200 years an expanded educational system, the abolition of
government control, new print inventions have eliminated these difficulties and created a free, outspoken and
often controversial print media. There are national daily papers (published in the morning), national evening
papers, local morning and evening papers. National papers are mostly printed in London and distributed in
all parts of Britain on the same day, including Sundays. Many are delivered diect to the home by local
newsagents. In Britain people are encouraged to read a newspaper regularly because, for a small extra
charge, it is delivered daily to their door. National papers are either “quality” or “popular”. Popular papers
are called “tabloids” because they are published in a small page format. Some names: The Sun, Daily Mirror,
Daily Express, Daily Mail, Daily Star. Tabloids are characterized by a minimum amount of political news
and a maximum about sports. Many pictures, not so much text. Quality papers are The Times, founded in
1785, suspended publication in November 1978 because the workforce would not accept the management’s
plans for modernization. Now being published again. The Daily Telegraph, bought by the majority of
middle-class readers; Conservative in outlook. The Guardian, liberal and humanitarian in outlook; politically
non-committed. Financial Times reporting not restricted to money matters; covers the arts and politics: well
informed. All the quality papers depend a great deal on advertisements to finance them. They all bring
information and comment about politics and business throughout the world. The specialize in reviewing new
books, the London theatre, new films and music. All Sunday papers also provide reading material about
fashion, clothes, cooking, the house and home, monitoring and holidays. The quality papers also include a
magazine called “a colour supplement”. National papers are more popular with British readers than
provincial papers are, yet many people still prefer a paper published in their own region. Every town and
country district has at least one newspaper of its own, devoted to local news. There are some 8,500 different
periodicals and magazines in Britain, which are of a weekly, monthly or quarterly nature. There is a
periodical for all tastes and interests.
The press in Britain is keen to guard its freedom to print whatever it wants to. However, it is restricted in 5
ways: by the laws of libel: newspaper or periodical can be used in the law courts for damages (money) if it
publishes a harmful untruth about someone; by the Official Secret Act, a law which restricts the reporting of
some military and government matters; By legal restrictions on reporting certain court proceedings or
commenting on a trial in progress in case the publicity would be unfair to the persons on trial; by the Press
Council; the Press Council is an official organization which was first set up in 1953. Its aim is to maintain
high standards in the press. It hears complaints from the public about the behaviour of journalists and the
stories newspapers sometimes print. The Council is intended to safeguard the privacy of the individual as
well as the freedom of the press.
Television
Television seems to be the first choice among the various media in Britain. People with a television set have
to pay an annual government licence. The BBC has to manage with the licence money plus profits from the
sale of records, publications and programmes it sells abroad. There is no advertising on the BBC. ITV
(independent television) gets its money from advertisers who pay to show films advertising their goods
between programmes and during breaks in programmes: “commercial breaks”.
BBC
People all over the world listen to the BBC World Service radio programmes of news, comment and talks.
The habit started during World War II when the BBC gained a reputation for telling the truth. Apart from the
information it provides the World Service helps many people to improve their English.
Broadcasting and politics

The time given to political parties for their broadcasts is strictly controlled throughout the year as well as at
election times. In 1978 an experiment began: twice a week, “Question Time” is broadcast from the House of
Commons. Questions are put to the Prime Minister and to other ministers by Members of Parliament and the
answers, too, are heard on television.
Religion
British religious history since the earliest conversions from paganism (possibly around AD 300) has been
predominantly Christian. The origins of Christianity date back the Roman occupation of England. Between
AD 596-7 the Anglo-Saxon Kings encouraged the spread of Christianity as a support of their power, then the
connection between state and church started. Southern English Christianity was based on the beliefs and
practises of the Church of Rome. Although the faith of Ireland, Wales, Scotland and northern England was
also founded on Roman doctrines, it had a more Gaelic identification. Christianity became a central and
influential force in society. In 1534 Henry broke away from Rome and declared himself head of the church in
England. The immediate reason for this breach was the Pope’s refusal to accept Henry’s divorce from his
queen, Katherine of Aragon, who had not produced a male heir to the throne. But Henry also wanted to stop
the church’s power and wealth. After Henry VIII has been titled by the Pope Fidei Defensor against Martin
Luther in 1521. Conflicts between Catholics and Protestants began, which often involved violent
persecution. Henry VIII’s daughter, the Catholic Mary Tudor, tried to restore the Catholic faith during his
reign, but did not succeed. Her half-sister, the Protestant Elizabeth I, established the Protestant status of the
Church of England by the terms of her Church Settlement. However, the creation of the Protestant Church of
England did not put end of religious arguments. Many Protestants felt that the church had not distanced itself
sufficiently from Rome, and some left to form their own religious organization. Initially called Dissenters
because they disagreed with the majority view, they were later know as Nonconformists and today are
members of the Free Churches. Tension between adherents of various forms of Protestantism also brought
the Civil War between Parliamentarians and Royalists, which led to the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell. The
Puritan regime of Oliver Cromwell brought the discrimination of minority religions. In 1688 the Glorious
Revolution, William III sympathized with the Catholic cause. By the end of the 19th century also non-
Christian Churches (Jewish community, Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs) scattered throughout England. Today there
is no link between any religion and political parties, the only exception is that the monarch is also the head of
the Church of England.
Church of England
The monarch is the head of the Church; its archbishops, bishops and deans are appointed by the monarch.
But it is not a state church because it receive no public financial aid. The Church is hierarchical structure
ruled by the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. Together with the 24 senior bishops sit in the House of
Lords. Bishoprics are divided in 13,000 parishes each headed by a vicar or a rector. The vicarage is also the
residence of the vicar. All the financial revenues of the Church come from its property and investments
holdings. The Church of England is the third largest landholder in the UK, its patrimony is estimated at £400
million. Priests have freedom as to how they conduct their church services. These can vary from the
elaborate ritual of High Church worship to the simple, functional presentation of Low Church services. The
High Church emphasizes on the church tradition and the historical influence of Roman Catholic practises
and teaching. The Low Church bases its faith and practise on simplicity and often on a literal interpretation
of the Bible and is suspicious of Roman Catholic influences. The two wings do not always cooperate happily.
The membership of the Church of England is difficult to determine because the church doesn’t have adequate
registers of members. There is still an open debate on the role of women in the Church of England as well as
on the presence of gay priests. The Lambeth Conference held every ten years in London and it is presided
over by the Archbishop of Canterbury. It has great prestige and its deliberations on doctrine, relations with
other churches and attitudes to political and social questions can be influential.
The Church of Scotland
It is more commonly called the Kirk and it has been independent from the Church of England since 1707. It
was established in 1560 by John Knox in opposition to the Church of England accused to be still too close to
Roman Catholicism. It is based on Calvin’s doctrine which in Scotland bears the name of Presbyterianism.

The General Assembly is the main structural body of this church. It meets every year under the presidency
of an elected Moderator, who serves for one year and is the leader of the Church during the period of office.
The Roman Catholic Church
The Roman Catholic Church in Britain had much persecution and discrimination for centuries after the
Reformation and had difficulties in surviving. Today Catholicism is widely practiced throughout Britain and
enjoys complete religious freedom, except for the fact that no monarch can become a Catholic. There are
seven Roman Catholic provinces in Great Britain (four in England, two in Scotland and one in Wales), each
under the supervision of an archbishop; thirty dioceses each under the control of a bishop; and over 3,000
parishes. The head of the Church in England is the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster and the senior lay
Catholic is the Duke of Norfolk. It is estimated that there were five million members of the Roman Catholic
faith in England and Wales in 2009.
The Free Churches
All those Protestant churches which reject the hierarchical structure of the Church of England are called
“free churches”. Some were created after the Reformation other, much later, during the 19 th century. They
base their beliefs on egalitarian and humanitarian principles and are traditionally supported by the Labour
Party. The Free Churches are more diffused in the north of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland
and most of their membership has historically derived from the working class. The main Free Churches
today are the Methodist Church, the Baptist Church, The United Reformed Church and the Salvation Army.
The Methodist Church is the largest of the Free Churches. It has a major impact and influence upon the
growing England working class. It also plays an important role in social services and is worldwide spread.
The non-Christian tradition
The non-Christian tradition in Britain is mainly liked with immigrants into the country over the centuries,
such as the Jews and, more recently, Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus, among others.
The Jewish community: first evidences of a Jewish presence in England date back to the Norman or even the
Roman occupation. After the expulsion in the 13° century, new communities came and established from the
mid-seventeenth century. There are mainly divided in two groups: the Orthodox and the Liberal and they can
practice their religious cult in the 300 synagogues. Today the number of members is reduced due to the
society, mixed marriages, emigration of young Jews, low birth rate…
The Islam, Hinduism and Sikhism: beside the Jewish community, these are the main non-Christian religions.
The have established in England as result of a massive immigration from former British colonies. The
number of practitioners is increasing due to the high birth rate. Estimates in 2010 suggest that the total
Muslim population might be 2.4 million. Most have origins in Pakistan and Bangladesh, after the Arab
countries, the Middle East and Eastern Europe. The Islamic Cultural Centre and its central Mosque in
London are the largest Muslim institutions in the West. There are also the Sikhs and Hindu religion in
Britain. Most of these come from India with a minority from East Africa and have many temples located
around the country. Muslims, above all, try to influence the public opinion on a wide range of matters.
Cooperation among the faiths
After centuries of conflicts, restrictions and discrimination, Christian churches share a good cooperation
today and an open, friendly dialogue with the Roman Catholic Church. However some tensions continue in
Northern Ireland. Although this cooperation means pros and cons, the basic idea is to be more evangelical in
order to mirror and adapt the principles and values of Christianity in a modern society. This cultural
interchange is made possible also at school. Religious education is still compulsory despite some proposals
to remove it. A debate about the opportunity to have religion as a school matter is still open. Supporters
believe that it will increase tolerance, others (the Labour Party especially) wish to have more faith schools.
Leisure, sport and the arts
The British have a reputation for being mad about sports. The most popular sports are football, rugby
football and cricket. Most sport is the ‘work’ of skilled professionals. The game of football or ‘soccer’ was

first played in Britain and then spread in other countries. There are also plenty amateur soccer players in
Britain who enjoy playing the game during the weekend. Amateur clubs can compete against the
professionals in the English Football Association Cup competition. Rugby football is very popular both in
England and other Commonwealth countries. the story is told that, in 1823, boys at Rugby School in England
were playing football in the normal way, when suddenly on boy picked the ball up ran with it. So a new
game was born. There are two forms of rugby: Rugby Union is the amateur game and Rugby League is the
professional one. The two games have different rules. Rugby League is mainly played in the North of
England. Rugby Union is the traditional sport of Wales. Football is the favourite winter game in Britain, and
cricket is the favourite summer sport. Cricket isvery much connected with Britain. It is playe with
enthusiasm which were once a part of the British Empire, so cricket is played, for example, in India and
Pakistan and it survives in the Greek Island of Corfu. Cricket is played by professional players in teams
representing the English counties. From these county teams, a national team is chosen to play
Commonwealth countries like Australia and India. These international matches are called Test Matches and
can last up to five days. The county teams play during the week. In the recent years they have had to play
one-day matches on Sunday. Amateur cricket follows the same rules as the professional game. A typical
amateur cricket match takes place on a village green, an open grassy space in the centre of the village. It is
played between two team, the “home” team and the “visitor” who come from another village in the
neighbourhood. It has a long history in Britain. It is sometimes called the sport of kings because it is very
expensive to own a racehorse. However interest in racing is not restricted to the rich. Gambling – especially
on horses – is a part of many people’s lives in Britain. It used to be illegal to bet with money except on race
courses and with certain licensed bookmakers who took bets on the telephone. There used to be a lot of
illegal betting, for example in the street or in factories. In 1960 an Act of Parliament was passed, making
betting shops legal. There are two kinds of horse racing: flat racing and steeplechasing. In the former the
horses run on level or flat ground; in the latter they jump over obstacles (fences). A variety of sports are
practised: golf, tennis, athletics, swimming and polo but there are some which have become more popular in
recent years. One of them is horse-riding, but it is still a leisure occupation for the rich. Another is sailing. It
is estimated that over 3 million Britons go sailing in small boats every year on lakes, reservoirs and rivers.
Eating out
Food in Britain has had a bad reputation abroad for a very long time. Visitors from foreign countries
complain the meals they order in restaurants and cafés. However, in a city like London there is great variety.
There are so many restaurants serving continental and non-European dishes that it can be difficult to find one
serving only own cooking to Britain – Asian, Caribbean, Greek Cypriot. There are restaurants specializing
various foreign cooking in addition to the many Italian and French ones.
Meals
In spite of complaints about uninteresting food, there seems to be a great interest in cooking among people in
Britain. Cookery books are published, and newspapers and magazines regularly print unusual recipes from
foreign countries and revive old recipes from the past and from various regions of Britain. A good
combination of tradition and innovation is represented by gastropubs. There are generally three main meals
breakfast – lunch – dinner. The latter has tripartition: starter – main course – dessert. “Cream tea” is the
traditional way to enjoy tea drinking which can substitute dinner.
Shopping for food
The sort of food a family eats depends, to some extent, on how well off the family is. The richest families
spend more on fruit and vegetables that have a short season, and on meat, fresh fish, and cheese. The poorest
families buy more sugar, potatoes, lard, and white bread. Bread has always been a basic food but the amount
eaten nowadays is declining. The sliced white loaf produced in a factory is the cheapest. More and more
people buy food from a “take away”. This is a quicker than cooking a meal. The traditional take away foods
in Britain are fish and chips, jacket potatoes, but also hamburgers and Chinese food. Today, however,
supermarkets provide high quality fresh foods ready-to-eat from all parts of the world.

Natural foods
There has been a change of diet during the last few years, some people prefer not to eat factory-made,
processed foods. They want to eat foods which are grown without the aid of chemical fertilizers. There is an
increase of vegetarians and vegans.
Teas and beers
The average number of cups of tea drunk each day is 3.5, though some people drink as many as 10 cups a
day. The consumption of coffee, on the other hand, trebled during the 1960s. The introduction of instant
coffee made it an easy drink to prepare. Beer has been one of the favourite drinks of the British since the
early 1600s. Most beer drinking is done in pubs. Traditionally, beer is drawn from the cellar up to the bar of
the pub to be served to the customer as draught beer.
Beer styles
British beer is noted for being warm that is, it is not iced or deliberately kept cool. During the last 40 years
many of the breweries have manufactured keg beer. Keg beer is artificially fizzy and kept in special barrels
called kegs. Other types of beers are: lager (Germany), stout. Some people drink a mixture of beer and
lemonade called: shandy. A regional speciality from the West of England is cider, which is made from
apples.
Wine and spirits
As Britons have taken holidays abroad, have grown used to drinking wine consequently the consumption of
wine has increased. Vineyards have existed in southern England since Roman times and new vineyards have
been established in recent years. But the quantity produced is never likely to satisfy the growing British thirst
for wine. Most of the wine drunk in Britain will continue to be imported from Italy, France, Spain, Germany,
South America and U.S.A. Among spirits, whisky is the favourite one and, of course is the national drink of
Scotland. “Scotch” is exported to the rest of the world. Nowadays whisky with a peaty flavour is getting
more and more popular.
Theatres
During the Middle Ages the only theatre performances allowed were the religious ones called Mystery,
Miracle and Morality plays. The situation drastically changed during the Renaissance, especially under the
reign of Queen Elizabeth I, in which the theatre reached its peak of popularity. The audience was
heterogeneous and included all social classes. Theatres were built outside the City Corporations to avoid
censorship. However, during the Republican period, under Oliver Cromwell, theatres were closed in 1642
because they were supposed to corrupt people. When they were opened again in 1660 nothing was as it used
to be anymore. Theatres became an elitist entertainment reserved to the upper classes. Women were finally
allowed to act on the stage.
London theatres
A great deal of the Englishman’s leisure time is spent in going to theatres, concerts and cinemas. Although
there are very good professional companies in most provincial towns, London is the leading centre of
dramatic activity. There are about fifty theatres in London the most important of which are: the National
Theatre on the south ban of the river Thames. Drury Lane and the Aldwich Theatre. Concerts are mainly
given at the Albert Hall and at the Royal Festival Hall. In 1963 the National Theatre Company was formed
and started putting on plays at the Old Vic. In the past, under the leadership of its director, Laurence Olivier,
the National Theatre Company reached world-wide renown. Another very important company is the Royal
Shakespeare at Stratford –on-Avon, every year from April to November.
St. Martine’s Theatre
It is a legendary place in the heart of London considered as Agatha Christie’s home. Indeed it is the set where
her masterpiece has been represented for 60 years. The Mousetrap has celebrated over 25,000 performances.

It is quite simply a great piece of theatrical history because of what it is, “a whodunit” written by the greatest
crime writer of all time.
The Covent Garden Opera House
Opera and ballet have their home at the Covent Garden Opera House. Originally built in 1858, the
current Royal Opera House is the embodiment of the highbrow culture hub, and legends including Maria
Callas, Margot Fonteyn, Luciano Pavarotti and Rudolf Nureyev have graced its stage.
The Globe
It is the London theatre associated to William Shakespeare. It was built in 1599 outside the city corporation
to avoid censorship. Its architectural structure is very unusual, it is circular without a roof and the stage in the
middle.
Musicals
After Broadway, London is the European hub of musical performances. Beside the classical Andrew Lloyd
Webber’s musical like Cats, Jesus Christ Superstar, London hosts more classical musicals like Top Hat and
Singin’n the Rain and new productions entirely British. The best examples are: We will rock you based on
Queen’s music., or Billy Eliot which was also a successful film in 2000.
Cinema
The cinema too enjoys great popularity in Britain in competition with television. However most of the films
the British see have been made in U.S.A. The British cinema has reached a very high artistic level and many
British films have gained international success, but the amount of film production is not very high. Pinewood
Studios are the legendary television and cinema stages. Foreign films are not dubbed, but they have subtitles.
Museum
Most museums in London are free of charge. Free museums are, for instance, the British Museum, the
National Gallery and the Tate Gallery. (Britain and Modern). One has to buy a ticket for other museums, for
example: Madame Tussauds, Victoria and Albert Museum, The Tower of London – The National Treasure.
The British Museum
One of the world's oldest museums, the British Museum is vast and its collections, only a fraction of which
can be on public display at any time, comprise millions of objects. It is mainly an archeological museum.
The Great Court is a large and beautiful covered piazza, designed by Foster and Partners, surrounding the
free reference library in former Round Reading Room. The British Museum contains, among many other
things, two must-see masterpieces: The Rosetta Stone and Lord Elgin’s Marbles. The former is a stele which
allowed the decoding of Egyptian hieroglyphics. The latter are the Parthenon Marbles, mainly sculptures,
which Thomas Bruce, Seventh Lord Elgin, gathered during his service as ambassador to the court of the
Ottoman Sultan in Istanbul. In practice, the term is commonly used to refer to the stone objects he gathered
or - according to critics- looted - from Athens between 1801-05.
The Nation Gallery
Situated in the heart of London, precisely in Trafalgar Square. It’s a neo-classical building was founded in
1824 to display a collection of just 36 paintings, today. The National Gallery is home to more than 2,000
works. There are masterpieces from virtually every European school of art. National Gallery boasts the
presence of a very famous painting of the Renaissance: “The Ambassadors” by Hans Holbein The Younger
(1533). The painting is characterized by a visual device called anamorphosis.
Tate Britain Gallery

Probably the most British museum in London. It is situated in the south of London in an area called Pimlico.
Its name comes from the name of the collector of works of art who founded the gallery, Mr Tate, the rich
owner of a sugar plantation. The Tate Gallery is the home the most important British painters: Turner,
Constable and, above all, the Pre-Raphaelites. The latter consists of a brotherhood of artists (painters, poets,
designers) founded in 1848 who considered the art before Raphael as the ideal one and tried to reproduce it.
Top Architectural Attractions
The London Eye
The London Eye was opened on New Year’s Eve 1999 to celebrate the Millennium. It is 135 metres high and
from the top you can see all London. On a clear day you can even see Windsor Castle which is 40 km away.
The London Eye has 32 capsules, each with room for 25 people. Each ‘trip’ lasts 30 minutes. It moves
slowly, at a speed of about 15 metres a minute, but it never stops. Passengers have to get on when it is
moving.
The Millenium Bridge

London's Southwark Council sponsored a competition in 1996 to choose the designer of a new Millennium
Footbridge that would span the Thames River between the Southwark Bridge and the Blackfriars Bridge.
This would be the first bridge built across the Thames River since the building of the magnificent Tower
Bridge of 1894. The winning entry, a suspension bridge, was tagged ‘the blade of light’ and was designed by
Arup, Foster and Partners and Sir Anthony Caro.This footbridge would stretch a total of 325 meters and
would include supporting cables below the deck level in order to preserve the view of several landmarks on
either side. The design allowed for a 4-meter-wide deck for walkers and the structure was designed to hold
5,000 pedestrians at any given time. Construction of the bridge began in late 1998 and was completed in
June 2000. The southern end of this suspension bridge is located near the Globe Theatre and the Modern Tate
Museum. The northern end sits near St. Paul’s Cathedral Pedestrians can gain a wonderful view of the
cathedral's dome from the bridge and the sight is especially marvelous at night.
The Gherkin
The cigar-shaped structure has a steel frame with circular floor plans and a glass façade with diamond-
shaped panels. The swirling striped pattern visible on the exterior is the result of the building's energy-saving
system which allows the air to flow up through spiraling wells. On the street level, the Gherkin's base is well
integrated with an open public plaza. Huge white X braces create a dramatic entrance. The top of the tower,
where visitors find an open hall covered by a glass conical dome is even more spectacular. From here you
have great views over the city. Unfortunately the building is not open to the public. Its unique, bold and
energy efficient design has won the Gherkin many awards including the Stirling Prize, the London Region
Award.
The Shard
Designed by the Italian architect Renzo Piano, the Shard is the tallest skyscraper in Europe: 310 metres with
72 floors. It was built using the 95% of re-cycled materials and the position of the mirrors is designed to
make the most of the light and the wind. As a whole, The Shard is a kind of vertical city with open spaces.
There are restaurants and convivial lounge bar between floors 31 and 33 and some decidedly private such as
luxury apartments between floors 53 and 65, wide, with an enviable view and, for this reason, quite
expensive (between 30 and 50 million pounds, about 6,000 per square meter). It is situated in the trendy area
of Southwark close to the river Thames.
The Crescent

The Royal Crescent in Bath was designed by John Wood the Elder and built by his son John Wood the
Younger in the 18th century (between 1767 and 1774).Although some changes have been made to the
various interiors over the years, the Georgian stone (the Bath stone) façade remains much as it was when it
was first built. Many notable people have either lived or stayed in the Royal Crescent since it was first built
over 230 years ago, and some are commemorated on special plaques attached to the relevant buildings. The
Royal Crescent now includes a hotel and a Georgian house museum, while some of the houses have been
converted into flats and offices. It is a popular location for the makers of films and television programmes,
and a major tourist attraction in its own right.
Holidays
Before the 18th century people move from one place to another in search of better living conditions, for
military reasons or for commercial exchanges. Tourism is therefore a relatively recent phenomenon, a
symbol of the modern age and one of the consequences of the Industrial Revolution (XVIII-XIX century). It
combined several factors for its success: the development of transport and communications, the increased
leisure time available, thanks to the grant of leave, and, of course, the improvement of families’ living
conditions.
The Gran Tour
Nevertheless, tourism was an elitist activity reserved to the privileged. Only the 0,3% of the British
population could travel for pleasure, mostly the aristocracy or rich merchants and landowners. The new trend
was to travel to improve one’s personal artistic and intellectual education. This experience took the name of
The Grand Tour. Young English intellectuals, but also German and French, made this trip, which usually
lasted a long time, to know the Mediterranean culture and the historical and artistic heritage of the classics,
especially of Ancient Rome and Greece.
Tourism as a mass phenomenon kicks off in the fifties, namely in a phase of economic recovery after the
devastation of the Second World War. Guided tours became very popular.
Today’s holiday
Two-thirds of all British people have their holidays in July and August, which are the most popular months
for holidays. English school children are on holiday from the end of July to the beginning of September. The
traditional British holiday is a seaside holiday: Brighton, Torquay, Plymouth are some of the most favourite
destinations. Europe is the most popular destination for UK residents, accounting for 80 per cent of visits
abroad. Spain has been the most popular country to visit since 1994, with 13.8 million visits in 2005. France
was second in popularity, with 11.1 million visits. The number of visits by UK residents to the USA
increased by 2 per cent in 2005 to 4.2 million, 6 per cent higher than the number in 2001.The number of
visits abroad made by UK residents has more than tripled since 1985, to a record 66.4 million visits in 2005.
Italy and the Britons
Beside the famous artistic Italian cities and archaeological sites, the Chianti region in Tuscany, is an area
very dear to the British (hence the term Chiantishire) and is a symbol of the good life. Yet, the tourists who
frequent it are relatively few compared to those who flock to the beaches of the Mediterranean.


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Riassunto "British Civilization" - J.

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Two possible definitions:

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The Party System

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effectively in a globalized world. British perception of the EU according to some surveys:

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The legal system

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The trade unions

The National Health Service (NHS)

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School organization and examinations

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The Millenium Bridge

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