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Computer Organisation
Computer Organisation
General register organization refers to the structure and management of the CPU registers
that can be accessed by the instruction set architecture (ISA). It includes a set of
registers that are used for various purposes such as holding operands, intermediate
results, and addresses. The general register organization can be classified into three
types:
1. Single Accumulator Register: This has one main accumulator and all operations
are performed with the accumulator.
2. General Register Organization: Multiple registers are available, and any
register can be used in an instruction.
3. Stack Organization: Uses a stack where data is pushed and popped from the top
of the stack.
A Hardwired Control Unit is a sequential circuit that generates control signals based on
the given instructions. It uses fixed logic circuits to control signals.
Advantages:
1. Speed: Faster than microprogrammed control units because control signals are
generated directly by combinational logic.
2. Efficiency: Optimized for specific tasks and can be very efficient in
execution.
• Uses a stack for operations where the top elements of the stack are implicitly
used.
• Example: ADD (pops the two top elements of the stack, adds them, and pushes
the result back).
Memory Hierarchy
Magnetic Disk
A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses magnetic storage techniques to read and
write data. Common examples include hard drives.
Characteristics:
Optical Memory
Optical memory refers to storage media that uses lasers to read and write data. Examples
include CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.
Characteristics:
Associative Memory
Associative memory, also known as content-addressable memory (CAM), allows data retrieval
based on content rather than address.
Characteristics:
BIOS (Basic Input/Output System): A firmware that initializes and tests hardware during
the booting process and provides runtime services for operating systems.
POST (Power-On Self-Test): A diagnostic testing sequence run by the BIOS to check the
functionality of the hardware components.
Advantages:
Crossbar Switch
A crossbar switch is a network switch that connects multiple inputs to multiple outputs
in a grid-like manner, allowing simultaneous data transfers.
Characteristics of Multiprocessor
RISC Architecture
CISC Architecture
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) Architecture aims to reduce the number of
instructions per program, sacrificing the number of cycles per instruction. Key features
include:
Types of RAM
Auxiliary Memory, also known as secondary storage, is used for long-term data storage.
Examples include hard drives, SSDs, magnetic tapes, and optical discs.
Magnetic Disk:
Magnetic Tape:
Virtual Memory
Virtual Memory:
Cache Memory
Cache Memory:
Associative Memory
Characteristics:
Paging:
• Concept: Divides physical memory and logical memory into fixed-size blocks
called pages (logical memory) and frames (physical memory).
• Page Table: Maps logical pages to physical frames.
• Advantages: Eliminates external fragmentation, allows for efficient memory
management.
• Process: When a program accesses data, the CPU looks at the page table to find
the corresponding frame in physical memory.
Segmentation:
• Concept: Divides a program into segments such as code, data, and stack, each
of which can vary in length.
• Segment Table: Maps logical segments to physical memory locations.
• Advantages: Supports logical organization of programs, easy to share
code/data.
• Process: Each segment has a segment number and offset, with the segment table
providing the starting address of each segment.
Demand Paging
Demand Paging:
• Concept: Loads pages into memory only when they are needed, not in advance.
• Page Fault: Occurs when the CPU references a page that is not currently in
physical memory, triggering a process to load the page from disk into memory.
• Advantages: Efficient use of memory, reduced load times.
Hardware
Hardware:
• Function: Initializes and tests hardware components during the boot process
(POST - Power-On Self-Test), loads the bootloader or operating system from a storage
device, and provides runtime services for operating systems and programs.
• Components:
• ROM: Stores the BIOS firmware.
• CMOS: Stores system settings that the BIOS uses to configure hardware.
• Boot Process:
1. POST: Checks hardware components and ensures they are functioning correctly.
2. Bootloader: Locates and loads the operating system.
3. Runtime Services: Provides interfaces for system software to interact with
hardware.
Programmed I/O
• Concept: The CPU actively participates in data transfer between memory and I/O
devices.
• Process: The CPU issues commands to the I/O device, waits for the I/O
operation to complete, and then transfers data.
• Advantages: Simple implementation.
• Disadvantages: Inefficient, as the CPU spends a lot of time waiting.
Interrupt-Initiated I/O
Interrupt-Initiated I/O:
• Concept: The CPU issues a command to an I/O device and continues executing
other instructions. The I/O device interrupts the CPU when it is ready for data transfer.
• Process:
1. CPU Issues Command: Starts an I/O operation.
2. I/O Device Interrupts: Signals the CPU when it is ready for data transfer.
3. Interrupt Handler: The CPU executes an interrupt handler to transfer data.
• Advantages: More efficient than PIO as the CPU can perform other tasks while
waiting for I/O operations.
• Concept: Allows I/O devices to transfer data directly to/from memory without
involving the CPU.
• Process:
1. DMA Controller: Manages data transfer between memory and I/O devices.
2. CPU Initiates Transfer: Sets up the DMA controller with the transfer details.
3. DMA Transfer: The DMA controller performs the transfer, freeing the CPU for
other tasks.
• Advantages: Efficient data transfer, reduces CPU overhead.
Parallel Processing
Parallel Processing:
General-Purpose Multiprocessors
General-Purpose Multiprocessors:
• Concept: Systems with multiple CPUs that can perform various tasks.
• Characteristics:
• Performance: Higher due to parallelism.
• Scalability: Can add more processors.
• Reliability: Fault-tolerant.
Configurations: