PAWAN WAGH ACADEMY

Notes-
Topic- Solid State

States of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas

❖ Solid –
Strong inter-particle
force of attraction

Smallest Constituent particle

Atom Ions Molecules Particles

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 Solid Types

Properties Crystalline Solid Amorphous Solid

Arrangement Crystalline solid shows Amorphous solid

Regularity and shows random
periodicity in arrangement of
arrangement of particle . particles
Range Order They show long Range They show short
Order. Range Order.

Melting They have sharp Melting They do not have

Point point. sharp melting point.

Isotropy or They are Anisotropic in They are isotropic in

Anisotropy nature. nature.

Ex- NaCl, Sugar, Quartz Glass, Rubber, Plastic

❖Anisotropic Property –
In Crystalline solids, properties like Refractive
Index, Thermal Conductivity and Electrical
Conductivity magnitude changes with changes in
direction.

1. MCQ’s Type -
1. Crystalline solid having cubic structure are not
anisotropic.

2. Diamond is the example of naturally formed

single crystal.

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 Crystal Structure

Isomorphism Allotropy / Polymorphism

1. Two or more substance 1.A single substance which
having same crystal exists in two or more
structures are called as structures (forms) are
Isomorphic Polymorphic.

2. They have same Atomic 2. They are formed under

Ratio. different conditions.

3. Ex – CaCO3 & NaNO3 3.Ex-

Atomic Diamond
Ratio -
Carbon - Graphite
1:1:3 1:1:3
Fullerene

• Different Polymorphic or Allotropic Forms –

Diamond

1. Carbon Graphite

Fullerene

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 𝛼- quarts

2. Silica 𝛽-quartz

Cristobalite

Ionic Solids

Covalent
• Crystalline network Solids
Solids
Molecular Solids

Metallic Solids

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Properties Ionic Solid Covalent Molecular Metallic
Network Solid Solid
Solid
Particles Ionic Solid Covalent Molecular Metallic
of Unit consists of Network Solids consists Solids
cell charged ions solids of monatomic consists of
that is cation consist of or polyatomic metallic
and anion. covalently molecules. ions in a sea
bonded of
atoms. electrons.
Interpar- In ionic In covalent In molecular In metallic
ticle solids, Network solids solids,
forces particles are solids, atoms molecules are metallic ion
held together are linked by held together and
by Covalent by dipole- electrons
electrostatic Bond. dipole forces, are held
forces of Hydrogen together by
attraction. Bonds. Metallic
Bond.
Hardness Ionic Solids Covalent Molecular Metallic
are hard and solids are solids are soft Solids
brittle. very hard due to weak shows
due to their intermolecular variable
rigid forces. soft to very
structure. hard nature.
Melting Ionic solid Covalent Molecular Metallic
Point shows high Network Solids shows solid shows
melting point solid shows low melting wide
high melting point. melting
point. point range.
Thermal In solid form- In Graphite – Poor conductor Good
and Poor Good of heat and conductor
Electrical conductor Conductor of electricity. of heat and
Conducti electricity electricity.
vity. In dissolved In Diamond
form – Good – Good
conductor conductor of
heat
Ex - NaCl, CaF2 Diamond, Ice, Benzoic Na, Mg, Cu,
Silica acid Au

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 # 2 Most important Properties of metal

Malleability Ductility

The property by which The property by which

Metal can be hammered metal can be drawn
into thin sheets. into thin Wires.

Metal - Metal -

Wires

Sheets

• Crystal –

(Lattice is geometrical arrangement of points in 3d)

(Basis is attached constituent particles)

❖ Unit Cell –
The smallest unit which repeats itself again and
again to from a crystalline solid is called as Unit
Cell. It is represented below -

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 Unit Cell

a 𝛼
b 𝛽
c 𝛾
Unit Cell (Types)

Simple Cubic Body Face Base

Or Centered Centered Centered
Primitive End
(SC) (BCC) (FCC) (ECC)

Particles are Particles are Particles are Particles are

present at present at present at present at
Corners. Corners. Corners. Corners.
+ + +
Center of Body Center of each Center of any
Face. 2 opposite
face.

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 Crystal System
Edge Length Bond Angle
Cubic a=b=c α=β= ϒ =900
Tetragonal a=b≠c α=β= ϒ =900
Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α=β= ϒ =900
Monoclinic a≠b≠c α= ϒ =900;β≠900
Triclinic a≠b≠c α≠b≠ ϒ ≠900
Hexagonal a=b≠c α=β=900,ϒ =1200
Rhombohedral or a=b=c α=β=ϒ≠900
Trigonal

Total crystal system=7

Total Bravices lattices=14
Crystal System Bravice lattices
Cubic system SCC,BCC,FCC,
Orthorhombic system SCC,BCC,FCC, EC
Tetragonal system SCC,BCC
Monoclinic system SCC,BCC
Rhombohedra system or SCC
trigon system
Triclinic system SCC
Hexagonal system SCC

So Total Crystal System =7 So Total Bravice lattices are

14

Relationship between Molar Mass(M.M) , Density of

substance, Unit cell edge length (a)

Let suppose a is the edge length of cube, so volume of unit

cell = volume of cube = (a)3
1) Let m be the mass of one particle and these are total in
particle per unit cell so mass of 1 unit cell = m x n

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

2) Density of unit cell (ρ) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
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 𝑚𝑥𝑛
= (𝑎 )

1 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑚)

3) But no of moles = =
𝑁𝐴 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑀.𝑀)

𝑀.𝑀
So m=
𝑁𝐴

By putting volume of (4) in eqn (3)

We get
𝑁𝑋 𝑀𝑀 𝑁𝑋𝑀𝑀
ρ= or ρ =
𝑁𝑨𝑥𝑉 𝑁𝐴∗(𝑎)3

Where ‘n’ = no of atoms per unit cell

❖ Trick ρ = न म ना / V

❖ Packing of particles in crystal lattice

1) Coordination number

The number of neighboring spheres that touch any

given sphere is called as Coordination number

Here CN=6 CN≠11

Note
We need to observe, only the close sphere that touch the
central sphere or any given sphere.

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 Closed Packed structure

In one dimension In two In three

(1-d) dimension (2-d) dimension (3-d)

Square close packing or Hexagonal close packing

AAAA type of packing or ABAB type of packing
in (2-d) in (2-d)

Staking of square Placing third

Staking of two
closed packed hexagonal
hexagonal packed
layers or AAAA closed packed
layers
type of packing in layer
3-d

Tetrahedral Octahedral Hexagonal Cubic close

void void close packing
packing or (ccp) or
ABAB type ABCABC
of packing type of
packing

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1) Close packing in one - Dimension
In 1- dimension means just along 1-axis, the close packing
structure in one – dimension forms, when spheres touching each
other are arranged in a row.

Along 1-axis or row

The co-ordination number of given (shaded) sphere is 2

2) Close packing in Two dimension OR Two dimensional

close packing -

Points Square close packing Hexagonal OR packing

OR AAAA type of ABAB type of packing
packing in 2-d in 2d
Type of packing It shows AAAA type of It shows ABAB type of
packing packing
Stacking pattern In these type, A layer In these type , A layer
of Sphere is stacked of sphere is stacked
over another A layer over another B layer
Co-ordination Number The co-ordination The co-ordination
number in these type number in these type
of packing is 4 of packing is 6
Shape obtained after In these type, Square is In these type Hexagon
joining points obtained after joining is obtained after
the point around the joining the points
central atom ; So it is around the central
called as Square close atom , So it is called as
packing Hexagonal close
packing
Representation of
structure

Square close packing OR A-

AAA type of packing in 2- Hexagonal close packing or
dimension ABAB type of packing in 2-
dimension

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3) Close Packing in 3-dimention

The three dimensional crystal structure formed by stacking

of two dimensional layers.

A. Stacking of Square close packed layers OR AAAA type of

packing in 3-dimensional
a) In these type, the square close packed layers are stacked
over each other and generates a 3-dimensional simple
cubic structure
b) In these AAAA type of packing, 1st A layer with its spheres
are place exactly above the 2nd A layer Sphere.
c) In these case, there is a perfect alignment of spheres in
horizontal and vertical fashion.
d) The co-ordination numbers of each sphere is 6.
e) Polonium metal shows these type of structure.

Representation of square close packed structure in 3-

dimension

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B. Stacking of two hexagonal packed layer in 3- dimensional
a) In this type, hexagonal close packed layers are arranged in
a particular manner in order to generate a 3-dimensional
structure.
b) In these type, first layer A and second layer B are aligned
differently
c) In these type of stacking, two types of voids are generated
namely tetrahedral and octahedral voids
d) If the triangular void of first layer is covered by a sphere of
second layer then tetrahedral void is generated
e) If the triangular void of first layer is covered by the
triangular void of second layer then octahedral void is
generated

Representation of Tetrahedral and Octahedral void

i. ii

Sphere (3+1) =4 sphere 3+3= 6

Co-ordination Number=4 Co-ordination Number =6

C. Placing third hexagonal close packed layer

The third hexagonal close packed layer can be placed in

two ways over the second layer

a) By b) By
ABABAB ABCABC
type of type of
packing packing
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 a) AB-AB-AB OR hexagonal close packed (hcp) structure

I. In this type, the third hexagonal close packed spheres are

aligned with the spheres of first layer.
II. The pattern generated is ABABAB type of pattern
III. The Co-ordination Numbers of any sphere is 12 in
hexagonal close packed structure.
IV. Metal such as Mg (Magnesium) & Zinc (Zn) shows such
type of structure
Representation of AB-AB-AB- type of packing

Any given sphere

b) Cubic close packing of ABCABC type of packing

1) In these type, the third hexagonal closed packed sphere do

not align with any first or second layer
2) The pattern generated is ABCABC type of pattern
3) The Co-ordination number of any sphere is 12 in these type
of structure
4) This arrangement generates (ccp) cubic close packing
5) Copper (Cu) and silver (Ag) shows such type of structure

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 Representation of ABC-ABC type of packing

A layer

B layer any given sphere

C layer

Short Table

Simple cubic 6
crystal

Co-ordination Hexagonal close 12

number packing

Cubic close
packing or face 12
centred structure

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 At Corner 𝟏
𝟖

At body
1
Contribution centre
values

At face 𝟏
centre 𝟐

At edge 𝟏
centre
𝟒

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Simple cubic Body centered cubic Face centered cubic
crystal structure/ structure/system crystal
system structure/system
Representation Representation Representation

Number of atoms Numbers of atoms Numbers of atoms

per unit cell (n) per unit cell (n) per unit cell(n)
calculation for calculation for bcc calculation fcc
scc Atoms are present
Atoms are Atoms are present at corners and at
present at corner at corners and the the centre of each
only at centre of Body face
1 1 1 1
Z=8x =1 n=z= (8x ) + (1x1) n=z= (8x )+ ( x 6)
8 8 8 2
No. of
Contribution
No. of Contribution corners No. of Contribution
Contribution corners
corners
Contribution

No’s of face
centre

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Radius of sphere Radius of sphere Radius of sphere
or particle in scc particle in bcc particle in fcc

Face of simple unit Body Diagonal Face diagonal

cell
From figure
From figure From figure
a=2r
In ABC
In ABC
Type equation here.
𝑎 AB2 = BC 2 + AC2 AC2 = AB2+BC2
Or r = ...(Pythagoras thm) = a2+a2
2
= a2 + a2 (4r)2 = 2a2
AB2 = 2a2 So

So
4r=a√2
Now in ADB
AD2 ≠ BD2+AB2
AD2= a2+ (√2a)2
= a2 +2a2
(4r)2 = 3a2 …(AD=4r) 𝒂√𝟐
SO r=
𝟒
4r= √3a

4√𝟑
ar=
= 𝟒 ra 𝟒𝐫
√3 a=
√𝟐

Radiu
r=
√3
𝟒𝐫
a
a=4
s of√𝟑
le in
spher
bcc
e
parti
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cle in
bcc
 Scc bcc fcc
Volume of 1 particle in Volume of 1 particle in Volume of 1 particle in
scc unit cell ….(2r=a) bcc unit cell …(4r=a√3) fcc unit cell…(4r=a√2)

4 4 4
= ∏ r3 = ∏ r3 = ∏ r3
3 3 3
4 √2𝑎 2
4 4 √3𝑎 2
= ∏( )
3 4
= ∏(a)2 = ∏( )
3 3 4
√3
=
∏a3
∏a3 = ∏a3 12√2
= 16
6
Total volume of particle Total volume of particle Total volume of particle
in scc unit cell in bcc unit cell in fcc unit cell
Total
nx Total Total
volume
volume volume √3 volume = ∏a3
of = 2x ∏a3 4x
of 1 of 16 of 12√2
particle
particle particle particle
∏𝐚𝟑 ∏𝐚𝟑
= 1x √𝟑
𝟔 = ∏a3 =
𝟑√𝟐
where n = number of 𝟖
atoms per
unit cell

Packing efficiency= Packing efficiency = Packing efficiency=

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑥 100 𝑥 100 𝑥 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
∏a3 √3 ∏a3
= 1x
6
X 100 = ∏a3 =
8 3√2
X 100 X 100
a3 a3 a 3

= 52.36% = 68% = 74%

%= (100-52.36%) % voids = (100- % voids = (100-

Voids= 48% 68%) 74%)
= 32% = 26%

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 SCC 52 %
Notes tricks
%P.E of
Tricks BCC 68 % 2x4=8

FCC 74 %

Points Simple cubic Body centered Face centered

(scc) (bcc) (fcc)

a and r a=2r 4r= a√3 4r = a√2

relation Or or
r = 0.433a r = 0.3535a

(n) no. of n = 1 n=2 n=4

atoms per
unit cell
Co-ordination 6 8 12
number

%Packing 52% 68% 74%

efficiency

%voids or 48% 32% 26%

empty space

Packing Worst packing Moderate Best packing

nature packing

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 Defects

Point Defect Line Defect Plain Defect

Stoichiometry Impurity Nonstoichiometri

Defect Defect c Defect

➢ Vacancy Defect ➢ Metal

➢ Substitutional Deficiency
➢ Self Interstitial Impurity Defect Defect
Defect

➢ Schottky Defect ➢ Metal excess

➢ Interstitial
Impurity defect Defect

➢ Frenkel Defect

Cation
Stoichiometry:- Fixed Ratio of ions
Anion

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Difference (Comparative study of major types of
defect)

Stoichiometry Non Stoichiometry Impurity Defect

Defect defect
The ratio number The ratio of no’s The defect in
of cation and of cations & which the foreign
anions of anions of atoms different
compound compounds does from host atoms
remains same not remain same are present in
crystal lattice is
called as impurity
defect

a) Vacancy Defect :-
1. During crystallization, a particle is missing from its
regular site in crystal lattice
2. Vacancy is generated as a result of the particle which is
missing
3. The defect in which lattice sites becomes vacant because
of a missing particle is called as Vacancy Defect
Vacancy

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
Þ =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

As mass of particle decrease due to decrease in number of

particles and volume of unit cell (box) is same, So density(Þ)
decreases.

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 b) Self interstitial Defect :-

1. Interstitial sites
The spaces or voids in a crystal in between particles are
called as Interstitial sites
2. When some particle of a crystalline solids occupy
interstitial sites in the crystal structure then it is called as
self interstitial defect

3. Two Ways in which these type of defect occurs

An extra particle occupies an Any particle from that solid

empty interstitial space in the gets shifted from its original
crystal structure lattice and occupies an
interstitial space

Density increase Density remains same

extra particle

Any particle from

solid itself

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 Schottky defect Frenkel defect
1) The defect in which of cations and 1) The defect in which ion of an
anions are missing from their compound is missing from its regular
regular positions in the crystal lattice site and occupies interstitial
lattice and which crates vacancy is position is called Frenkel defect
called as schottky defect

2) Condition for formation 3) Condition for formation

1. Ionic compound on of ions 1.Ion Co-ordination

no’s of ions
2. Small difference between size of 2. Large difference between
cation and anion line of cation and anion

3. High degree of ionic character 3. Low degree of ionic

character

Consequence of Schottky Consequence of Frenkel

defect defect
1) No of ions decreases, 1) Mass remains same, so
mass decreases density remains same
Volume remains same
so density decreases
2) The missing cation and 2)The cations & anions
anions are equal so electrical are equal , so electrical
neutrality is present neutrality is preserved

Ex: NaCl, AgBr Ex: Zns, AgCl, AgBr, AgI,

CaF2

Schottky Defect Frenkel Defect

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 Impurity

Substitutional impurity Interstitial impurity defect

defect
1) The defect in which the 1) The defect in which the
regular atoms are displaced or impurity atoms occupy
substituted by impurity interstitial spaces in the
atoms, is called as
Substitutional impurity
crystal lattice is called as
defect Interstitial impurity defect
Examples
1) Alloy:- Examples
Brass is alloy of Cu(copper) In steel Fe atoms occupy
and Zn (zinc) and formed normal lattice site and carbon
when some of the Cu atoms atoms occupies interstitial
are replaced by Zn atoms position
Brass

2) Vacancy through aliovalent

impurity:-
Vacancy is created by
addition of aliovalent ion
Ex:- (Nacl + SrCl2) where Na+ ions
is replaced by Sr+2

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 Non-Stoichiometry defect

Metal deficiency defect Metal excess defect

The defect in which the positive

metal ions are missing from
By extra By anion
their original lattice site and the
extra negative charge is +ve ion vacancies
balanced by presence of cation occupying These type of
of same metal with the higher interstitial defects imparts
oxidanation state is called as colour to the
position
metal deficiency defect crystal
ZnO Zn+2+½ O2
Ex :- Nio Nacl shows
yellow colour
due to F centre

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 Band Theory

Band:-
The closely spaced electronic energy levels results in the
formation of a band
Band

Valence Band Conduction Band

The band having lover The band having higher

energy than conduction energy is called as
band is called as valence conduction
band

The e_ in valence band are

not free to more as e_ are The e_ in conduction band
tightly bound to nucleus are mobile (free to move )

Band gap:-
The energy difference between the valence and conduction
band is called as band gap

Properties of solid

1. Electrical prop 2. Magnetic prop

❖ Electrical properties of solid

1.Conduction:-
a. Solids having electrical conductivity in the range 104 to
107 are called as Conductors
b. Metals conduct electricity by movement of electrons and
electrolytes conduct electricity by movement of ions
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 Ex:- metals & electrolytes
c. Metals are good conductors of electricity as they contain
large number of electrons in conduction band
d. The conduction band are labelled as ‘S’ band overlapping S
& P bands (depending upon the atomic orbitals involved in
the band formation)
e. The conductivity of metal decreases with increase in
temperature, due to which the vibrational motion of
metallic cation increases with increase in temp
Representation of various bands in Conductors

2.Insulators
a. Solids having low electrical conductivities in the range
10_20 to 10-10 Ω-1m-1 called as insulators
Ex nonmetals, molecular solids
b. In insulators, the valence band is completely filled with
electrons and the conduction band is empty
c. The large energy band gap between valence and
conduction band is called as Forbidden Zone
d. As the conduction band, in case of insulator is empty, so it
do not conducts electricity

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 Representation of various bands in Insulators

3.Semiconductor:-

a. Solids having electrical conductivity in the range of 10_6 to 104

Ω_1m_1 are called as semiconductor
Ex Metalloids like Silicon, Germanium
b. The valence band is completely filled with electrons and conduction
band is empty
c. The energy gap between the valence & conduction band is smaller
than insulator
d. Above absolute 0oC temperature, electron in valence band excites to
conduction band, so then conduction band contains electrons and
are free to move
e. When electric potential is applied, semiconductor conducts
electricity
Semiconductor

Intrinsic Semiconductor’s Extrinsic semiconductor

Pure semiconductor material which A semiconductor, which is doped

have very low value of electrical and which have higher conductivity
conductivity is called as intrinsic than pure semiconductor is called
semiconductor as extrinsic semiconductor

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Doping:-
The process of addition of impurity so as to increase the
conductivity of a semiconductor is called Doping

Dopant:-
The impurity which is added is called as dopant

Extrinsic Semiconductor

n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

1)It is generated by the 1). It is generated by the addition
addition of group 15 elements of group 13 elements to the
to intrinsic semiconductor intrinsic semiconductor which
which belong to group 14 belongs to group 14 elements
element.
Ex. Doping of silicon with Ex. Doping of silicon with
phosphorous boron, aluminium
2)n-type semiconductor have 2)p-type semiconductor have
one extra electron in condition one less e-less than than pure
band semiconductor

n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

•
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• On the basis of Magnetic nature Solid
Solid

Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

1. These substance 1. These substance

1. These substance
are weakly are strongly
are repelled by the
attracted by the attracted by the
magnetic field
magnetic field magnetic field

2. They exhibit
2. electrons are 2. They can be
magnetic nature only
paired, so spin is permanently
in the presence of
balanced magnetized
magnetic field

3. N2,F2, Nacl, 3. Fe, Co, Ni, Gd,

3. Cu+2, Fe+3, Cr+3
H2O, Benzene CrO2

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