PHYSICS_Paper-8_Full Notes (1)

University of Mysore
BSc 6 Semester Physics Syllabus

th
Paper – 7: PHY C14-T: Elements of Condensed Matter & Nuclear Physics
UNIT – 1
Crystal systems and X-rays: Crystal structure: Space Lattice, Lattice translational vectors, Basis of crystal
structure, Types of unit cells, primitive, non-primitive cells. Seven crystal system, Coordination numbers, Miller
Indices, Expression for inter planner spacing.
X Rays: Production and properties of X rays, Coolidge tube, Continuous and characteristic X-ray spectra;
Moseley's law. X-Ray diffraction, Scattering of X-rays, Bragg's law.
Crystal diffraction: Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer- powder diffraction method, Intensity vs 2θ plot (qualitative).
Free electron theory of metals: Classical free electron model (Drude-Lorentz model), expression for electrical
and thermal conductivity, Weidman-Franz law, Failure of classical free electron theory; Quantum free electron
theory, Fermi level and Fermi energy, Fermi-Dirac distribution function (expression for probability distribution
F(E), statement only); Fermi Dirac distribution at T=0 and E<Ef, at T≠ 0 and E>Ef, F(E) vs E plot at T = 0 and
T≠ 0. Density of states for free electrons (statement only, no derivation). Qualitative discussion of lattice vibration
and concept of Phonons. Specific heats of solids: Classical theory, Einstein’s and Debye’s theory of specific heats.
Hall Effect in metals. 12 Hours
ACTIVITIES: 03 Hours
UNIT – 2
Magnetic Properties of Matter, Dielectrics and Superconductivity
Magnetic Properties of Matter
Review of basic formulae: Magnetic intensity, magnetic induction, permeability, magnetic susceptibility,
magnetization (M), Classification of Dia, Para, and ferro magnetic materials; Langevin Classical Theory of dia –
and Paramagnetism. Curie’s law, Ferromagnetism and Ferromagnetic Domains (qualitative). Discussion of B-H
Curve. Hysteresis and Energy Loss, Hard and Soft magnetic materials
Dielectrics: Static dielectric constant, polarizability (electronic, ionic and orientation), calculation of Lorentz field
(derivation), Clausius-Mosotti equation (derivation), dielectric loss. Piezo electric effect, cause, examples and
applications.
Superconductivity: Definition, Experimental results – Zero resistivity and Critical temperature– The critical
magnetic field – Meissner effect, Type I and type II superconductors. 12 Hours
UNIT – 3
General Properties of Nuclei: Constituents of nucleus and their intrinsic properties, quantitative facts about
mass, radii, charge density (matter density), binding energy, main features of binding energy versus mass number
curve, angular momentum, parity, magnetic moment, electric moments
Radioactivity decay: Radioactivity: definition of radioactivity, half-life, mean life, radioactivity equilibrium (a)
Alpha decay: basics of α-decay processes, theory of α emission (brief), Gamow factor, Geiger-Nuttall law. (b) β-
decay: energy kinematics for β-decay, positron emission, electron capture, neutrino hypothesis. (c) Gamma decay:
Gamma rays’ emission & kinematics, internal conversion (Definition). 12 Hours
UNIT – 4
Interaction of Nuclear Radiation with matter: Gamma ray interaction through matter, photoelectric effect,
Compton scattering, pair production, Energy loss due to ionization (quantitative description of Bethe Block
formula), energy loss of electrons, introduction of Cerenkov radiation
Detector for Nuclear Radiations: Gas detectors: estimation of electric field, mobility of particle, for ionization
chamber and GM Counter. Basic principle of Scintillation Detectors and construction of photo-multiplier tube
(PMT). Semiconductor Detectors (Si and Ge) for charge particle and photon detection (concept of charge carrier
and mobility) qualitative only, Accelerators: Cyclotrons and Synchrotrons. 12 Hours
Paper – 8: PHY C16-T: Electronic Instrumentation & Sensors
UNIT – 1
Power supply : AC power and its characteristics, Single phase and three phase, Need for DC power supply and
its characteristics, line voltage and frequency, Rectifier bridge, Filters: Capacitor and inductor filers, L-section
and π-section filters, ripple factor, electronic voltage regulators, stabilization factor, voltage regulation using ICs.
Basic electrical measuring instruments
Cathode ray oscilloscope- Block diagram, basic principle, electron beam, CRT features, signal display. Basic
elements of digital storage oscilloscopes.
Basic DC voltmeter for measuring potential difference, Extending Voltmeter range, AC voltmeter using rectifiers,
Basic DC ammeter, requirement of a shunt, Extending of ammeter ranges. 12 Hours
UNIT – 2
Wave form generators and Filters
Basic principle of standard AF signal generator: Fixed frequency and variable frequency, AF sine and square
wave generator, basic Wein-bridge network and oscillator configuration, Triangular and saw tooth wave
generators, circuitry and waveforms.
Passive and active filters. Fundamental theorem of filters, Proof of the theorem by considering a symmetrical T-
network. Types of filters, Circuitry and Cut-off frequency and frequency response of Passive (RC) and Active
(op-amp based) filters: Low pass, high pass and band pass. 12 Hours
UNIT – 3
Data Conversion and display
Digital to Analog (D/A) and Analog to Digital (A/D) converters – A/D converter with pre-amplification and
filtering. D/A converter - Variable resistor network, Ladder type (R-2R) D/A converter, Op-amp based D/A
converter.
Digital display systems and Indicators- Classification of displays, Light Emitting Diodes (LED) and Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD) – Structure and working.
Data Transmission systems – Advantages and disadvantages of digital transmission over analog transmission,
Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), Pulse time modulation (PTM) and Pulse width modulation (PWM)- General
principles. Principle of Phase Sensitive Detection (PSD). 12 Hours
UNIT – 4
Transducers and sensors
Definition and types of transducers. Basic characteristics of an electrical transducer, factors governing the
selection of a transducer, Resistive transducer-potentiometer, Strain gauge and types (general description),
Resistance thermometer-platinum resistance thermometer.
Thermistor. Inductive Transducer-general principles, Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LDVT)- principle
and construction, Capacitive Transducer, Piezo-electric transducer, Photoelectric transducer, Photovoltaic cell,
photo diode and phototransistor – principle and working. 12 Hours
***********************
Unit-1 Paper-8
Power supply
AC power and its characteristics
An AC power supply is a type of power supply used to supply alternating current (AC)
power to a load. The power input may be in an AC or DC form. AC power supplies also regulate
the voltage supplied to the load and/or bring the current drawn by the load to safe levels.
Characteristics of AC power
The five characteristics of AC power are
1. Amplitude
2. Cycles
3. Frequency
4. Peak to peak
5. RMS
1. Amplitude: Amplitude is the maximum value of

current or voltage. It is represented by either of the two
peaks of the since wave. This voltage level is also
referred to as the peak voltage, and can be either
positive or negative. Positive and negative refer only to
the direction of current flow. A negative number does
not mean that the voltage or current flows are less than
zero, only that the current flows in the opposite
direction.
2. Cycles: A cycle is one complete repetition of the sine

wave pattern. It is produced by one complete revolution
(3600) of the AC generator. Since the sine wave begins at
zero, goes positive through the positive peak, then
negative through zero and reaches the negative peak, and
to zero, we say a full cycle has been completed.
3. Frequency(f): Frequency is the number of times that a

wave cycle repeats itself in one second. Hertz (Hz,
cycles per second) is the unit of measurement of
frequency. This is one of the critical parameters which is
frequently specified in AC electrical systems.
1
∴ f  Hz
T
4. Peak to peak: There are two values of voltage that we must

be familiar with. The first is "peak-to-peak" voltage. This is
the voltage measured between the maximum positive and
negative amplitudes on the sine wave. It is twice the
amplitude.
Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 1

Unit-1 Paper-8
5. RMS: This stands for Root Mean Square and it is the

standard way of measuring and reporting alternating current
and voltage. It is not the peak; it is the average.
The RMS is found by dividing the peak amplitude by the
square root of 2 (approximately 1.414). This yields the
actual, useable voltage. It is typically represented by a
dotted line drawn across each peak near the 70 percent
point.
I0
I rms   0.707 I 0
2
V0
Vrms   0.707 V0
2
Single Phase: In a Single Phase Power Supply, the power is distributed using only two wires
called Phase and neutral. Since AC Power takes the shape of a sinusoidal wave, the voltage in a
single phase supply peaks at 900 during the positive cycle and again at 2700 during the negative
cycle. The phase wire carries the current to the load and the neutral wire provides the return path
of the current. Usually, the single phase voltage is 230V and the frequency is 50Hz.
Advantages
 Single-phase connections are intended for domestic supplies and residential homes.
That’s because, most of the appliances require a small amount of electricity to perform
such as television, lights, fans, refrigerator, etc.
 The functioning of a single-phase connection is simple and ordinary. It comprises a
compact and lightweight unit where the flow of electricity through the wires will be
lower if the voltage is higher.
 Because of the reduction in power, it ensures that the power from a single-phase
connection operates at optimum and transmit power effectively.
 Depending on the region, a single phase supply is sufficient for loads up to 2500 Watts.

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Disadvantages
 Heavy equipment such as industrial motors and other machinery alike cannot run by
using a single-phase power supply.
 Small motors, which are less than single Kilowatt cannot run on a single-phase power
supply because of the absence of initial torque required by the motor. So, for the smooth
running of the motor, extra equipment called a motor starter is required.
Three Phase: A Three Phase Power Supply consists of three power wires (or the three phases).
Additionally, depending on the type of the circuit (which there are two types: Star and Delta). In
a three phase power supply system, each AC Power Signal is 1200 out of phase with each other.
In a three phase power supply, during one cycle of 3600, each phase would have peaked in
voltage twice. Also, the power never drops to zero. This steady stream of power and ability to
handle higher loads makes a three phase supply suitable for industrial and commercial
operations.
There are two types of circuit configurations in a three phase power supply. They are the Delta
and the Star. Star circuit configuration requires a ground and neutral wire. The Delta circuit
configuration doesn’t need neutral wires. Moreover, all kinds of high voltage equipment can
utilize power from the Delta circuit configuration.
Advantages
 Doesn’t require any kind of additional starters to run heavy industrial motors because it
has enough power to provide the necessary torque.
 Large machinery runs effectively. Industrial and commercial loads prefer a three-phase
connection because of the heavy electricity requirement.
 When the number of phases increases in the supply system, the voltage of the three-
phased power becomes smoother.
 The three-phase connection does not need conducting materials in excess to transmit
electrical power. Therefore, when it about providing a cost-effective solution, a three-
phase connection is more economical.
Unit-1 Paper-8
Disadvantages
 The biggest disadvantage of a three-phase connection is that it cannot handle the
overload. As such, it might damage the equipment, and the chances of costly repairs are
higher. This is because the cost of individual components is expensive.
 Because the unit voltage is very high, a three-phase power connection requires high
insulation costs. Insulation varies due to voltage and the size of the wires depends on the
power distribution.
Differences between a single-phase and three-phase connection
Single Phase Power Supply Three Phase Power Supply

Single Phase Power Supply requires two conductors Three Phase Power Supply requires three
conductors
The two wires (conductors) in single phase system All the three wires (conductors) in three phase
are called Phase and Neutral system are called phases
Since there is only a single wire, there is only one The three wires in three phase supply carry AC
AC Signal (usually a Sinusoidal Wave) signal of its own and the three signals are 120° apart
Power delivery in single phase supply is not Due to three conductors with 120° phase difference,
consistent due to peaks and dips in voltage the power delivery in three phase supply is always
steady and consistent (the peaks and dips of the
three AC signal are compensated by each other)
The supply voltage in single phase power supply is In three phase power supply, the supply voltage is
≈230V ≈415V
Single Phase supply is relatively less efficient than a Three Phase Power Supply is more efficient as it
three phase supply for the same power delivery can deliver three times the power than a single
phase power supply with just one additional wire
Usually, Single Phase Power Supply is served to Three Phase Power Supply is usually served to large
residential and domestic needs (often, split phase commercial centers and industries
from a three phase supply)
It is ideal for small loads like lighting and heating Three Phase Supply can handle large industrial
motors
Single Phase Power Supplies always have a neutral Neutral wire is optional in Three Phase Power
wire (it acts as a return path from the load) Supplies (Delta Connections have no neutral wire,
but Star Connections may or may not have neutral
wire)
The chance of fault is higher as a Single Phase Even if there is fault in one or two phases, the
Power Supply has only one phase (if it fails, then remaining phase(s) will continue to deliver power in
there is no power) Three Phase Power Supply. So, the chance of fault
is less

Unit-1 Paper-8
DC power supply
Today almost every electronic device needs a DC supply for its smooth operation and
they need to be operated within certain power supply limits. This required DC voltage or DC
supply is derived from single phase ac mains.
A regulated power supply can convert unregulated an AC (alternating current or voltage)
to a constant DC (direct current or voltage). A regulated power supply is used to ensure that the
output remains constant even if the input changes. A regulated DC power supply is also called as
a linear power supply, it is an embedded circuit and consists of various blocks.
The regulated power supply will accept an AC input and give a constant DC output. Figure
below shows the block diagram of a typical regulated DC power supply
The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows:

1. A step down transformer
2. A rectifier
3. A DC filter
4. A regulator
5. Load
1. Step-down Transformer: A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the ac
mains to the required voltage level. The turn’s ratio of the transformer is so adjusted such as
to obtain the required voltage value. The output of the transformer is given as an input to the
rectifier circuit.
2. Rectification: Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out the
rectification process. Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or
current into corresponding direct (DC) quantity. The input to a rectifier is ac whereas its
output is unidirectional pulsating DC. Usually a full wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier is used
to rectify both the half cycles of the ac supply (full wave rectification).
3. DC Filtration: The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having very
high ripple content. But this is not we want, we want a pure ripple free DC. A filter is used.
To suppress ripple. Different types of filters are used such as capacitor filter, LC filter, Choke
input filter, π type filter.
4. Regulation: The output voltage or current will change or fluctuate when there is change in the
input from ac mains or due to change in load current at the output of the regulated power
supply or due to other factors like temperature changes. This problem can be eliminated by
using a regulator. A regulator will maintain the output constant even when changes at the
input or any other changes occur. Transistor series regulator, Fixed and variable IC regulators
or a zener diode operated in the zener region can be used depending on their applications. IC’s
like 78XX and 79XX are used to obtained fixed values of voltages at the output.
5. Load: Output DC voltage is measured through the load.

Unit-1 Paper-8
Need for DC power supply and its characteristics

DC (Direct Current) power supplies are used in various applications related to automation,
telecom, industry, energy management, medical, home automation, etc. They are converting the AC
(Alternating Current) mains to DC, at various power / voltage levels. The most spread DC power supply
technology nowadays is the switched-mode power supply, also known as an SMPS or a primary
switched-mode regulator.
Characteristics of Power Supplies
1. Load regulation
Load regulation is the capability to maintain a constant voltage or current level on the output channel
of a power supply, despite changes in the supply load
The load regulation of a power supply is defined by LR = VNL-VFL
LR = load regulation, VNL= load voltage with no load current, VFL= load voltage full load current
VNL  VFL
% LR   100
VNL
2. Line regulation
It is also known as source regulation or source effect.
The line regulation is the ability of the power supply to maintain constant output voltage, despite
changes to the input voltage with the output current drawn from the power supply remains constant.
SR
% SR   100
Vnom
SR= change in load voltage for a full line change, Vnom = nominal load voltage (at line voltage 230V)
(3) Output impedance

For regulated power supply, output impedance at low frequency is very small. The use of voltage
feedback reduces the output impedance. The regulated power supply has typically output impedance in
milli ohms.
R out (OL)
R out (CL) 
1  Aβ
CL= closed loop, OL=open loop, Aβ= open loop gain.
(4) Ripple rejection

Ripple in electronics is the residual periodic variation of the DC voltage within a power supply
that has been derived from an AC source. A good power supply should have ripple rejection ability and
for this, we are using filters and voltage regulators.
As the voltage regulator stabilizes the output voltage again changes in input voltage. It reduces the ripple
that comes in with the input voltage. The ripple rejection is specified in dB.
(5) Overload protection

In a power supply, due to overloading large current flows which may cause damage.
In some power supplies protection is provided against temporary overloading by the current limiting
technique.

Unit-1 Paper-8
Line voltage and frequency

Line voltage is a voltage between any two lines in a
three-phase system.
From the diagram

VRY= VYB= VBR= VL= line voltage
Line voltage for household usually is either 120volts or

240 volts with frequency of either 50 or 60 cycles per
sec.
Bridge Rectifier
The rectifier converts the Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). But the obtained
Direct Current (DC) at the output is not a pure Direct Current (DC). It is a pulsating Direct Current
(DC).The pulsating Direct Current (DC) is not constant. It fluctuates with respect to time. When this
fluctuating Direct Current (DC) is applied to any electronic device, the device may not work properly.
Sometimes the device may also be damaged. So the fluctuating Direct Current (DC) is not useful in
most of the applications. Therefore, we need a Direct Current (DC) that does not fluctuate with
respect to time. The only solution for this is smoothing the fluctuating Direct Current (DC). This can
be achieved by using a device called a filter.

Unit-1 Paper-8
Working of Bridge rectifier

Bridge rectifier contains four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4 connected to form bridge as shown in
the above figure. The ac supply to be rectified is applied diagonally opposite ends of the bridge
through the transformers between other two ends of the bridge the load resistance R L is
connected.
During the +ve half cycle of secondary voltage
the end P of the secondary winding becomes +ve w.r.t
end Q. This makes diodes D2 and D4 forward bias while
the diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Only diodes D2
and D4 conduct so the current flows through RL in the
path PA(D2)BRLD(D4)CQ.
During the –ve half cycle of secondary voltage the

end P of the secondary winding becomes -ve w.r.t end Q.
This makes diodes D1 and D3 forward bias while the
diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased. Only diodes D1 and
D3 conduct so the current flows through RL in the path QC
(D3)BRLD(D1)AP.
Filter: A filter circuit is an electronic device which blocks the AC component present in the
rectified output and allows the DC component to reach the load.
The following figure shows the functionality of a filter circuit.
A filter circuit is constructed using two main components, inductor and capacitor
1. An inductor allows DC and blocks AC.

2. A capacitor allows AC and blocks DC.
Types of Filters:
(1) Inductor filter
(2) Capacitor filter
(3) L-section filter
(4) π-section filter

Unit-1 Paper-8
(1) Series Inductor Filter: As an inductor allows DC and blocks AC, a filter called a Series
Inductor Filter can be constructed by connecting the inductor in series, between the rectifier
and the load. The figure below shows the circuit of a series inductor filter.
The rectified output when passed through this filter, the inductor blocks the ac components
that are present in the signal, in order to provide a pure DC. This is a simple primary filter.
The ripple factor for the inductor filter is
RL
r
3 2ωL
(2) Shunt Capacitor Filter: As a capacitor allows AC through it and blocks DC, a filter called
Shunt Capacitor Filter can be constructed using a capacitor, connected in a shunt, as shown in
the following figure.
The rectified output when passed through this filter, the AC components present in the signal
are grounded through the capacitor which allows AC components. The remaining dc
components present in the signal are collected at the output.
The ripple factor for the capacitor filter is
1
r
4 3 f C RL
The product of CRL is the time constant of the filter circuit.

Unit-1 Paper-8
(3) L-Section or L-C Filter: A filter circuit can be constructed using both inductor and
capacitor in order to obtain a better output where the efficiencies of both inductor and
capacitor can be used. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of an LC filter.
The rectified output when given to this circuit, the inductor allows DC components to pass
through it, blocking the AC components in the signal. Now, from that signal, a few more AC
components if any are present are grounded so that we get a pure DC output.
This filter is also called a Choke Input Filter as the input signal first enters the inductor. The
output of this filter is a better one than the previous ones.
The ripple factor for the L-section filter is
1
r
6 2 ω 2 LC
(4) π-section filter: This is another type of filter circuit which is very commonly used. It has a
capacitor at its input and hence it is also called a Capacitor Input Filter. Here, two capacitors
and one inductor are connected in the form of π shaped network. A capacitor in parallel, then
an inductor in series, followed by another capacitor in parallel makes this circuit.
The figure below shows a circuit for π-section filter (Pi−filter)
Working of a π-section filter: In this circuit, we have a capacitor in parallel, then an inductor
in series, followed by another capacitor in parallel.
 Capacitor C1 − This filter capacitor offers high reactance to dc and low reactance to ac signal.
After grounding the ac components present in the signal, the signal passes to the inductor for
further filtration.
 Inductor L − This inductor offers low reactance to dc components, while blocking the ac
components if any got managed to pass, through the capacitor C1.
 Capacitor C2 − Now the signal is further smoothened using this capacitor so that it allows any
ac component present in the signal, which the inductor has failed to block.

Unit-1 Paper-8
With this type of filter, the rectified output becomes almost free of the a.c component.
The ripple factor for π- section filter is
2X C1 X C2
r
XLR L
1 1
Hence , X C1  , X C2  and XL = 2ωL
2ω C1 2ω C2
 1  1 
2    
r  2ω C1   2ωC 2 
2ω L R L 
2
r
8 ω C1C2 L R L
3
If C1 and C2 expressed in microfarads frequency are assumed to be 50 Hz, then the ripple factor is
2 2
r 

8 ω C1C2 LR L 8 2    50 C1 10 6  C2 10 6 L R L
3 3

5700
r
LC1C 2 R L
Electronic voltage regulator

Electronic voltage regulators utilize solid-state semiconductor devices to smooth out
variations in the flow of current. In most cases, they operate as variable resistances; that is,
resistance decreases when the electrical load is heavy and increases when the load is lighter.
There are mainly two types of voltage regulators: Linear voltage regulators and switching
voltage regulators; these are used in wider applications. The linear voltage regulator is the easiest
type of voltage regulator. It is available in two types, which are compact and used in low power,
low voltage systems
The main components used in the voltage regulator are
 Feedback Circuit
 Stable Reference Voltage
 Pass Element Control Circuit
The voltage regulation process is very easy by using the above three components. The first
component of the voltage regulator like a feedback circuit is used to detect the changes within
the DC voltage output. Based on the reference voltage as well as feedback, a control signal can
be generated and drives the Pass Element to pay off the changes.
Here, pass element is one kind of solid-state semiconductor device similar to a BJT transistor,
PN-Junction Diode otherwise a MOSFET. Now, the DC output voltage can be maintained
approximately stable.

Unit-1 Paper-8
LM7805 is one of most commonly used positive regulator in electronic circuits to lower down
the voltage from the higher input voltage.
Stabilization factor
The change in the load voltage due to the change in the input voltage is expressed in
terms of a factor called voltage stabilization.
ΔVo
Sv =
ΔVin
Voltage regulator using ICs

A voltage regulator is an integrated circuit (IC) that provides a constant output voltage
regardless of changes in the load or input voltage.
Classification of IC voltage regulator

The IC voltage regulator is classified as
(1) Fixed voltage regulator
(2) Adjustable voltage regulator
(3) Switching regulator.
(1) Fixed voltage regulator: A fixed voltage regulator produces a fixed DC output voltage,
which is either positive or negative. Voltage regulator basically comes in two different series:
78XX and 79XX. IC-78XX series of voltage regulators produces positive output voltage. IC-
79XX series of voltage regulators produces negative output voltage.
A fixed voltage regulator has three terminals, unregulated input voltage(Vin), regulated output
voltage (Vout), and a ground terminal.

Unit-1 Paper-8
Voltage regulators can also withstand over current drawn due to short circuits or overheating. It
will cut off the circuit before damage occurs. One must take care while mounting the regulator
because reverse polarity may destroy the regulator.
(2) Adjustable voltage regulator: An adjustable voltage regulator produces a DC output

voltage, which can be adjusted to any other value of a certain voltage range. Hence adjustable
voltage regulator is also called a variable voltage regulator. The DC output voltage value of an
adjustable voltage regulator can be either positive or negative.
IC-LM 317 of voltage regulator produces positive output voltage. IC-LM337 of voltage regulator
produces negative output voltage.
An adjustable voltage regulator has three terminals, unregulated input voltage (Vin), regulated
output voltage (Vout), and adjustment terminal (Adj).
(3) Switching regulator: A switching regulator (DC-DC converter) is a regulator (stabilized

power supply).A switching regulator can convert input direct current (DC) voltage to the desired
direct current (DC) voltage.
In an electronic or other device, a switching regulator takes the role of converting the voltage
from a battery or other power source to the voltages required by subsequent systems.
The general-purpose switching regulator is Motorola’s MC1723.

Unit-1 Paper-8
Basic Electrical Measuring Instruments
Cathode ray Oscilloscope (CRO): The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument.
It is used to obtain waveforms when the different input signals are given.
Block diagram of CRO
The major block circuit of general purpose

CRO is as follows:
1) CRT
2) Vertical amplifier
3) Delay line
4) Horizontal amplifier
5) Time base generator
6) Trigger circuit
7) Power Supply.
 The CRO contains the cathode ray tube and acts as a heart of the oscilloscope. In
an oscilloscope, the CRT produces the electron beam which is accelerated to a high
velocity and brings to the focal point on a fluorescent screen. Thus, the screen produces a
visible spot where the electron beam strikes with it. By detecting the beam above the
screen in reply to the electrical signal, the electrons can act as an electrical pencil of light
which produces a light where it strikes. To complete this task we need various electrical
signals and voltages. This provides the power supply circuit of the oscilloscope. Here
power supply uses high voltage and low voltage. The low voltage is used for the heater
of the electron gun to generate the electron beam. A high voltage is required for the
cathode ray tube to speed up the beam. The normal voltage supply is necessary for other
control units of the oscilloscope. The horizontal and vertical plates are placed between
the electron gun and the screen, thus it can detect the beam according to the input signal.
Just before detecting the electron beam on the screen in the horizontal direction which is
in X-axis a constant time-dependent rate, a time base generator is given by the
oscillator. The signals are passed from the vertical deflection plate through the vertical
amplifier. Delay line provides some amount of delay to the signal, which is obtained at
the output of vertical amplifier. This delayed signal is then applied to vertical deflection
plates of CRT. Thus, vertical amplifier amplifies the signal to a level that will be
provided the deflection of the electron beam. If the electron beam is detected in the X-
axis and the Y-axis a trigger circuit is given for synchronizing these two types of
detections. Hence the horizontal deflection starts at the same point as the input signal.
Horizontal Amplifier amplifies the sawtooth signal and then connects it to the horizontal
deflection plates of CRT. Hence output waveform displayed on screen.

Unit-1 Paper-8
Basic principle:
The CRO working principle depends on the electron ray movement because of the
electrostatic force. Once an electron ray hits a phosphor screen, then it makes a bright spot on it.
A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope applies the electrostatic energy on the electron ray from two
vertical ways. The spot on the phosphor monitor turns due to the effect of these two electrostatic
forces which are mutually perpendicular. It moves to make the necessary waveform of the input
signal.
Electron Beam: The electron beam, which is produced by an electron gun gets deflected in both
vertical and horizontal directions by a pair of vertical deflection plates and a pair of horizontal
deflection plates respectively. Finally, the deflected beam will appear as a spot on the fluorescent
screen.
CRT Features: CRT has
1. Electron gun
2. Deflection plate assembly
3. Glass envelope
4. Fluorescent screen
5. Base, for connections
CRT Features: Electrostatic CRTs are available in a number of types and sizes to suit individual
requirements. The important features of these tubes are as follows.
1. Size: Size refers to the screen diameter. CRTs for oscilloscopes are available in sizes of 1, 2, 3, 5, and
7 inches. 3 inches is most common for portable instruments. For example a CRT having a number
5GP1. The first number 5 indicates that it is a 5 inch tube. Both round and rectangular CRTs are found
in scopes today. The vertical viewing size is 8 cm and horizontal is 10 cm.
2. Phosphor: The screen is coated with a fluorescent material called phosphor. This material determines
the colour and persistence of the trace, both of which are indicated by the phosphor. The trace colours
in electrostatic CRTs for oscilloscopes are blue, green and blue green. White is used in TVs, and blue-
white, orange, and yellow are used for radar. P11 phosphor is considered the best for photographing
from the CRT screen.
3. Operating Voltages: The CRT requires a heater voltage of 6.3 volts ac or dc at 600 mA.
4. Deflection Voltages: Either ac or dc voltage will deflect the beam. The distance through which the
spot moves on the screen is proportional to the dc, or peak ac amplitude. The deflection sensitivity of
the tube is usually stated as the dc voltage (or peak ac voltage) required for each cm of deflection of
the spot on the screen.
5. Viewing Screen: The viewing screen is the glass plate, the inside wall of which is coated with
phosphor. The viewing screen is a rectangular screen having grid marked on it. The standard size used
nowadays is 8 cm x 10 cm (8 cm on the vertical and 10 cm on horizontal). Each centimeter on the grid
corresponds to one division (div). The standard phosphor colour used nowadays is blue.

Unit-1 Paper-8
Signal display
There are two basic ways of display of Electrical signals by Oscilloscope—the X-Y
mode and the triggered-sweep mode. The X-Y mode displays the graph of the variation of two
external signals—one versus the other. The triggered-sweep mode displays the variation of only
one external signal as it varies with time.
X-Y mode: When the oscilloscope is being used in the X-Y mode, an external signal applied to
the horizontal deflection plates controls the deflection of the electron beam to the right and left
(X-direction). Simultaneously an external signal applied to the vertical deflection plates moves
the electron beam up and down (Y-direction). If both applied voltage signals change slowly with
time, the display on the screen will be a slowly moving spot of light. If both signals are periodic,
the moving spot will trace the same path on the screen over and over again.
If the frequencies of the periodic electrical signals by oscilloscope are high enough, the
repeating trace will appear to be a steady pattern painted by solid lines of light on the screen.
Frequencies of 50 Hz or more will cause the trace to appear as a non-flickering solid line due to
persistence of vision and the persistence of the phosphor.
Triggered-sweep mode: the time base generates a sweep waveform at accurately timed
intervals. The sweep waveform causes the electron beam to be swept horizontally across the
screen at a uniform rate. Simultaneously, the vertical input signal deflects the electron beam up
and down. Because the horizontal position of the beam is proportional to time, the resulting
display is an image of the vertical input signal as it varies with time.
In order for this image to be a steady pattern on the screen, the sweep waveform must be started
at exactly the same point on the vertical input waveform as the previous sweep waveform was
started. In addition, for the pattern to appear to be a solid line, the sweep waveform must be
repeated at least 50 times per second.
Basic elements of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

The digital storage oscilloscope is an instrument which gives the storage of a digital
waveform or the digital copy of the waveform. It allows us to store the signal or the waveform in
the digital format, and in the digital memory also it allows us to do the digital signal processing
techniques over that signal. The maximum frequency measured on the digital signal oscilloscope
depends upon two things they are: sampling rate of the scope and the nature of the converter. The
traces in DSO are bright, highly defined, and displayed within seconds.

Unit-1 Paper-8
Block diagram of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

The block diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope consists of an amplifier,
digitizer, memory, analyzer circuitry. Waveform reconstruction, vertical plates, horizontal
plates, cathode ray tube (CRT), horizontal amplifier, time base circuitry, trigger, and clock.
The block diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope is shown in the below figure.
As seen in the above figure, at first digital storage oscilloscope digitizes the analog
input signal, then the analog input signal is amplified by amplifier if it has any weak signal.
After amplification, the signal is digitized by the digitizer and that digitized signal stores in
memory. The analyzer circuit process the digital signal after that the waveform is
reconstructed (again the digital signal is converted into an analog form) and then that signal is
applied to vertical plates of the cathode ray tube (CRT).
The cathode ray tube has two inputs they are vertical input and horizontal input. The
vertical input signal is the ‘Y’ axis and the horizontal input signal is the ‘X’ axis. The time base
circuit is triggered by the trigger and clock input signal, so it is going to generate the time base
signal which is a ramp signal. Then the ramp signal is amplified by the horizontal amplifier,
and this horizontal amplifier will provide input to the horizontal plate. On the CRT screen,
we will get the waveform of the input signal versus time.
The digitizing occurs by taking a sample of the input waveform at periodic intervals. At
the periodic time interval means, when half of the time cycle is completed then we are taking
the samples of the signal. The process of digitizing or sampling should follow the sampling
theorem. The sampling theorem says that the rate at which the samples are taken should be
greater than twice the highest frequency present in the input signal. When the analog signal is
not properly converted into digital then there occurs an aliasing effect.
When the analog signal is properly converted into digital then the resolution of the
A/D converter will be decreased. When the input signals stored in analog store registers can be
read out at a much slower rate by the A/D converter, then the digital output of the A/D
converter stored in the digital store, and it allows operation up to 100 mega samples per second.
This is the working principle of a digital storage oscilloscope.

Unit-1 Paper-8
Basic DC Voltmeter for measuring potential difference

The most commonly used dc meter is based on the fundamental principle of the motor.
The motor action is produced by the flow of a small amount of current through a moving coil
which is positioned in a permanent magnetic field. This basic moving system, often called the
D’Arsonval movement, is also referred to as the basic meter.
A basic D’ Arsonval movement can be converted into a dc voltmeter by adding a series
resistor known as multiplier, as shown in Figure. The function of the multiplier is to limit the
current through the movement so that the current does not exceed the full scale deflection value.
A dc voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points in a dc circuit or a
circuit component.
To measure the potential difference between two points in a dc circuit or a circuit component, a
dc voltmeter is always connected across them with the proper polarity.
The value of the multiplier required is calculated as follows. Referring to above figure
 Im = full scale deflection current of the movement (Ifsd)

 Rm = internal resistance of movement
 Rs = multiplier resistance
 V = full range voltage of the instrument
From the circuit of Figure
Therefore
The multiplier limits the current through the movement, so as to not exceed the value of the full
scale deflection Ifsd. The above equation is also used to further extend the range in DC voltmeter.

Unit-1 Paper-8
Extending Voltmeter Ranges:

The range of a voltmeter can be extended to measure high voltages, by using a high
voltage probe or by using an external multiplier resistor, as shown in Figure. In most meters the
basic movement is used on the lowest current range.
The basic meter movement can be used to measure very low voltages. However, great care must
be used not to exceed the voltage drop required for full scale deflection of the basic movement.
AC voltmeter using rectifiers

AC Voltmeter using half wave Rectifier – If a diode D1 is added to the dc voltmeter, as
shown in Figure, we have an ac voltmeter using half wave rectifier circuit capable of measuring
ac voltages.
The sensitivity of the dc voltmeter is given by
A multiple of 10 times this value means a 10 V dc input would cause exactly full scale
deflection when connected with proper polarity. Assume D1 to be an ideal diode with negligible
forward bias resistance. If this dc input is replaced by a 10 V rms sine wave input. The voltages
appearing at the output is due to the +ve half cycle due to rectifying action.
The peak value of 10 V rms sine wave is
The dc will respond to the average value of the ac input, therefore

Unit-1 Paper-8
Since the diode conducts only during the positive half cycle, the average value over the entire
cycle is one half the average value of 8.99 V, i.e. about 4.5 V.
Therefore, the pointer will deflect for a full scale if 10 V dc is applied and 4.5 V when a 10 Vrms
sinusoidal signal is applied. This means that an ac voltmeter is not as sensitive as a dc voltmeter.
As
The value of the multiplier resistor can be calculated as
AC Voltmeter using Fullwave Rectifier:
Consider the circuit shown in Figure .The peak value of a 10 V rms signal is
Average value is
Therefore, we can see that a 10 V rms voltage is equal to a 9 V dc for full scale deflection, i.e.
the pointer will deflect to 90% of full scale, or

Unit-1 Paper-8
Basic DC ammeter
The basic d.c. ammeter is nothing but a D'Arsonval galvanometer. The coil winding of a
basic movement is very small and light and hence it can carry very small current. For large
currents, the major part of current is required to bypass using a resistance called shunt. It is
shown in the Figure.
The shunt resistance can be calculated using conventional circuit analysis.

Let Rm = Internal resistance of coil
Rsh = Shunt resistance
Im = Full scale deflection current
Ish = Shunt current
I = Total current
Now I = Ish + Im
As the two resistances Rsh and Rm are in parallel, the voltage drop across them is same.
Therefore
But
hence
For each required value of full scale meter current, we can determine the value of shunt
resistance.

Unit-1 Paper-8
Requirements of a Shunt:
The following are the requirements of the shunt.
 The resistance of the shunt remains constant with time.

 The temperature of the material remains same even though substantial current flows through
the circuit.
 The temperature coefficient of the instrument and the shunt remains low and same. The
temperature coefficient shows the relation between the variation in the physical properties
of the apparatus concerning the change in the temperature.
Extending of Ammeter Ranges:
The range of an ammeter can be extended to measure high current values by using external
shunts connected to the basic meter movement (usually the lowest current range), as given in
Figure
Note that the range of the basic meter movement cannot be lowered.
(For example, if a 100 μA movement with 100 scale division is used to measure 1 μA, the meter
will deflect by only one division. Hence ranges lower than the basic range are not practically
possible.)

NEP: Vi Semnel Sugnthi .s.singh
Title: Electonic Istumentation Senus
U:2
Wave fonm Genenato and Filas
Barie Piniple dntandond AF aignal geneaalo
Signal Ceaton laag
eleiono. hee niqnaimpotant ndup
qeneloo hawe a
Vouriey pplicaio, QUh s
th qain, Fraauency epoNe etecheckig
They povide varie tu waNeforuns
lunlina eleetnic civcito ,wuay a fon
Powe. Thetm ooilato io ed ow t
deo cibe
ainuoeidJ imtumed
n
oup oignal that povides ory a

to deocibe aigna,andte taun geraata
an
instiume tha paovie
everad oulp waveo,induding ine
Cwan e, gyuae wave
tiangau cwave an
Pule,as wel an on ampliue modalahd
wawefom
when we Day that thu ooilas
geneueo a ignal t is imply Conveatad
fsom dc so uco into ac
ergy om
opeiie fnegvency.
he mcin seq,uivu ment d) a ciqn genialo
he taquency the cign adohould be ngwn
and aale
Veny omal to dativcly Jag vales

3: The aignal hould be ditorton tree
Moat te AF genaatso cCommony cove
tsom 2oHz to eoo KZ
Fixed Fsuqueny
Ho tagvenu contllad oocilatoA ciit
in the inaunen o uaed to genuatt cigna
ome apecified audio aeaueney Sucn
tixed foeguency migt be 40 Hz aigna
nd orr audio tling Hz aigna
Fon exitng a brudge civet
Oocillations atcpeiie audiosayv
-nie aste eaniby aneatad bythe une
inen Cou tansmus to oblain poitive ted
-back thaough indective caupling beseen the
primay and
uondoy uinding.
Vosioba Fsegueny
AVaiablo guencks ocilatox `oa genead
pspoe wa a lalbenatyohoudd Cove
atlsat the tull sange audibilia(ee Hz
0
to 20 KHz) and ohould hawe Yairdy oratart
otpove ta entis
Pure oiusoida wcwe
fheeney
AF Sine genualo
The ine we qenato sapnesenta the
wwe
Jangut ainge colgny aig nal genuata.

This itumen Coves o Frcaayuenyrang
faom a feur Hentz to man Griga- Hetz
Theain wave qeruaton in 'to aimpl on
co ohon in thu iouce belou
Set faeavency set Level
Attenuaon>RF Output
Sine Wawe aernato
Basie
gentoa Connirta
ein ae
The ainple ooilatba and
d tuo banic blocks,an
altsuato.he pemance d the geratau
on SUcces thee o min
dependo
otabilia and fsoadon fsuom distontion
dapendathe on the denign the ooillaa
whide yitude pends on the dign
the attenwatoL
standad siana Gerao
Htandand aignal geneatoa poducos hnswn
os the wument
maorsmen gain,igna
t noire soio (s/),bendwithnd 6he
popeieo. Tt io ned in tonina adio
eceives and anta
Ronge " Faqen y
RF Widy
Band
Ooillat | Amplifiea Abtenua
Exlauna
Oodlatoa
moddaior
Oseilatoa
Modaltion
Moddaion
fageny
Fig Slandad Signa CenuatoA edemento in Bloek
diagam
modulaon ma be dorne by
tiongula pulae.
The elemanto d ca ciqnad gereialA is ahown
in the block diagamn Sigo
The Cauie faaeney io qenuatid by
an Lc ank
sina
vey oalble RF ooillaloa oupover any
civeuk, having a Conntarn
fsqeney sang. Th frageny
oocilaliono s indicalad by the fsaoyeny
aina. Am
Sange Contol and ta diad
psovidsd by an intenal ine wawe qenuaten
io
onom etnal aow
Modulation a done in owpu ampiie
cireui. Thio ampliien airesito oupu
to an atteusten' The ouput Vollsgs
outpwmdu attnuato
stead y
outp tting
FAsouency tabilia olimid by tte
Lc tank cvci deaign te matu ooeilat
sang uprto tte
Ary hange in taqeneyexten and the
civeuit deign to orn timu to tobiine
inunert mut be given
at tte neur sonantayueny
In higheauen y ooilalas, emeital
to inolat tu oolatoa civcl faomthe output
ciyct. This inlati on cs soayuied, o hat
changes oceuing in ta oupu eireut do nst
ofte t cocillots tasaqoenc,ampid and
diotoicn chauaciotis
AF Sine and Sqywar cOane qeralo.
(basic Wein-bvidae netwovk and oilato)
Amplitude
wien Sin
WNe
Bvridg |AplifieA Attenuaer

Sine
outpu
Function
Switeh
Wawe
Arplifi Atberwalsi
Sauasu
0upu
Sarae
Wce
Shape
higue : AF Sine ond Sayuae Ware GenaliA

The block diagam un AFSine -- Sayuae wne
audio oo ilata is ohown in thu digure aboe

The aignal genutn o calld an Ooilaoa
Awien bidae ooilaloa s ad inthis genuata.
The fauency d ooilationo ean be changd
Dy vauying he Capailance in the oocilJatac.
The tasgeny can be changd in apo by
puitehing in seistons ftent Valus.
The owtpw h lien bAidge oailataa
goes to the tunion wteh. hefunion
owiteh diuto tt ooilaoA output eitu t
amplidien
ohapei. At the outpu, we
ottenuo.
The inotmn genates afuqvency anging
in 5 deeades with ovedapping sanges. he
ampliade Can be vauied
(ams). oulpu is todesn
tsuom SmV to sv
thuagha ampliie. Can be Vaied
The aq
wwe anplitde
hom o - eov (Peak). geruaton Coaito
a nignal
Tha faot pand
tthu following hiobo.
FAoveny muliplieu,
Fasayveney deton , amplitda
Ampliade Mllipie, Veiabls
Amplide, Fonion owitd,
Symmey Centl, aloo on- off Swith
Oupu aNoilabla,Sync and
gerate,cieuitu &wawefoung
Triongla waNe
Level Conto!
Detectoa SW1
C
I!3
+E I
oulput >t
C ’t choui
Chuwen
-E -I
Cheneral cicui lay oa Tianglan

Ne genauatoa
(4
The cirauit dioqam a tardaud triangla
we qenuatoa io ohown in thk Figue. ACapaulaa
Cwawe
changd t conatant ste nil thu Volaa

acuss' becones jnt egyual to a poniive then
hold E, whih t is chagud in the swene
diution at tu bame rat ontiJ the Volfaga
dop to a nigative thahald-E, the yele
zapeaing'aall thusayti. Such aa derign io
widey empod in tontion geruans and
in ooila uned in phase -do d oopo,
The chauging dinchaging the Gapaeitoa co dore at
eoyva atig
Sourtoot aeneialo, ireilauy and aweom
kevel
Delador
SW
Vp
>t
Linea naurtoott cireia und waveton
Saurtsot wvefonm cignals can be genatd
by the cneit ohon. In Qauwbott uocwelom
dinchagina sati in inesuanad Connidably

to obtaun the saauid oartooth uwavem
Title: Electonic Lstumentation Senos
Uri e Contidion
Fillrs
Pannive Fil
Panive an maindy neoevko wainginduclor,
Capacilos and sunis lorogb Componen Vaus
wee calelatd by Conidaing a
peied couee eislne nd feading 'd hoving
ins a Conmant oadimpedanea . This lu es
a T o 7T becton in which the eeies artm
Z, and shunt Connek by the
swalionship z, 2 =R where R io a saal Gtent
Called te impedanca. thee
One te main iadvantaae citt
paaive l s
thu apeiti ed ouce and teminaten impedana.
Arottu dioadvantaa was the neceitg wing
blleu and non lineas indeancas vey bu
faenciea. Panive Hkas
looKH2
tsegyuenies above a fus
Active ilano
ia often a fraquenu letive
An elt te
apceiied baund freayvenies
cireu that pare a
this bord.
ond blodeo cignas ) faenies outid
The eemnt ed in panive l s R,
Cond Ative Itao on te othu hand,employ.
L.
1
An actve iltt cFene
offeru the following advantages
Parsive ilt
I:1: ain and froguenek adjustment fheibility.
2. No
No looding
3. le Cont
problem
A\though atve iltas
wsed in tu ield Comunicaiono and aigna
Paocanni
cunsth
ng
, thy enployd in on tosn
in alm all eltonic yim, sadig
TV,
tlphons,sada,rpace
- mudica
eauipmento.
oatllio ond bio
Acttve a
laniied as ollowo
1. hous Pans
3. Band as s.5. AU Pars
2. igh Pas k- Band slõp
Fundamenta
het
Thuoem
tminahd in da chaactaile impedance
llswing is appicable. zo the
) Ove te ange
chaactuioie foeauencies os uhih te
impedanca Zo
stezislive (rua), the atanuaiona Hlla o
pury
) Over te sange (d) wil bezero
chauacteiclis dtusouencies don uhich th
tu oteualionimpedane Zo co puuy (imoginag
(d)wil be gaeguata tran zeno.
Mahematicad Proot te Thesn (Symmeticad
T-Netwovk
The ndamentad theem on Ho cah be
paoved by Conidacing o nimph it ireud in
tu onm acymmetiea T netsoake Conmins
aies and alhunt eement, ashwn in
belos
1
Zin eZo RL
T-Newove
The chaactuistio impedanca zo the nlaork
in thu Fiq ure is qiven by
Z,?
Similar te cuet naio ort apagain

Gonan Zo Is
Being o i n o r k bott zi und Zz are aactive
es
Thue wil be two canes don impedance Values
Zo, dapendirq on the Vaes and nign
Henco 4
+ =]- ( )
Similay
e
|+ (-(xey +x,X2
4
Zo
-J
Zo wil be seaJ
X+X,X is ngai ve
Ve
(oay eqad to -A)
Zo wil be imaginauy -X+x,X io poriive.
4
LWe anu not hee.
Coniceing
ypes Fia, Cireitay and ct-of
Cand tteovency racyueny
veneuy uepoe Panive (Re) HJe
Fitas claniied ar
a
1. hour Paus 3. Band Pos

2. High Pos H. Band stop
Coraide a banie conguation ) an eleutie.s
ahown in ioue belou. The
io ainuooidad, d vauabla tsueny.The itu
ivuil mou be bo deignd that nome tasoyenie
paned uom the inpu to tha ouput ta
il uwith vey ittle altenuation (Pars band)
whie othes quatly oattenu atd(atteraton
bond).
Electle Civeui
lhe suaponae Vaiiow iltrs are ahown in Fige
below. Teae aa ial
idual renpomenthat
epoesthat cannot be
achieved in aead practica
Output oulput
PAss Attenvaton
BANp Band Attenu
-ation PASS
Bund BAND
tefugueny
Lou Pos (a) faeney
High Pas (b)
Ouput outpu
Atten tas Atten
vation|
Band Bonduatton Pars Attenu Pos
Band Bard aáon Band
Band
Band Pes(c) faeaeny tce Foeoenay

Figusu: Ideal Renpoe Band Pors (o
d Vaious i a
output
feavenuy
AU Pos (e)
he ida sepene da dou
in Fia (a). The Mola
oast gain ia gven by
Hence goun A = Vo outpub/inpu.
Vin
The
gain conan ove a
Saqeny ang
otalina taom zec to a cut ot faaoyuenay te
The oupu ony cignal hauing atuauenoy yual
than te wil be ottenuatd(thew iu be no outpu
Voläg da taqvenies quatu than th cutt
at ot
Tqueny te) Hena the oulput il be availoble
t m o tofe with Conta gon.
The chauactiisi A a High Pars ilo
ohown in a Cb). The hih paus i e has a
Zeun gain ntatng fom to a faqeny te
thu
he cut faaeny, Above te ctt tqvenay
the gan is Comtant and eoyva to A.
he banmd pas fitu chcuncinlio is hown
in Fig- Ce). It sapnoduces
been fe. andfwhile nignal nignalsfaling
beien o
ond fe, ,aund fsuavencie y a than fe2
The band op a chaua ainl in ahotwn
in Fia cd). This itu atauais a poticuda band
d faqencies fom te, ta tez, whi
all feoyuencies besen
paning
Ocnd fe, and e, onwaud
This i u io also Callad noteh titu
cll Pe fil
in Fig (e). In hio ilba allchaacaca
o houn
withou alaruion Th taouenies prd
Atu o that paEvi dus impostantfeoie this
oa fuoquenies puedictabe phane ahit
ce mo Herentinput
wed in ignal.h
lommuniecioo.
Active (op- amp baaad) ils.
Lour PasHu
Vo
3
Vin H output
hour Poas ltu

hown above o Commony ed ton
he ciuu
Jou pauvs atie tiltus. The iliing is dona by the
twae d an RC nlsovk. Th op amp io wsed as o
Uniy gain anpliie The Renist Re s eva
Thu diftencs Vo Atage betueen invetina and

nan- invetrg inputo is eser ally ov. Hence, ta
acAos te capoita c eavals th outpu
Sina te ciraid o e Volaae follouwer,
Vin dividos beisen Randc. he apator Valtoge
Vo is gien by
/jwc
R+ /jwc
X
Nin
Vin Aacians
Vin adia per eond
whe w othu feruenay
m. To obtaun
(w- 2 )andj othe imaginay
the coned doop Voltag gain he , we hae
Ac = Vo
Vin
Conide Ey
At ppAoochso,lAcl:1,
At veuy high faqvencies ppasoce inging,]Aeu]=0.
Hence this ;Ak, isèa aa lows pas di
Fia(b) ohow
fug veney Tanpoae Slope : -20dbA
w V e s AL).
Feu taaqencies quata
than ttu ct te Faqvenay
fqeny
CWcAcLl deeeaes a Low Pau Awe fila fqveny
a nati 2odb)decade Ruoponse Fig (6)
The cut qt frqven cy io did an tha
auenay Vin whee lAce io sudueed to O07
Vale .The cut d4 fagueny
io Caleuated om
Re
te = is the cut
Thuo te. 27RC
whe
fqeny inHz
R=Reiane in n
CaCapaciance intaad
Can be seaand to ole R,J
R= 274eC
High Pas Fitu
vollag
Cein | Slope=+20de/Jeode
Ae
0404
-15V
R Vo Pars Bond
R
(b) High Pas tiltu

(o) High Poss Hlti civeui fusayveny pee.
H Nigh pors t es Arned tom the lou
pas tu by intichenging Component Rand c.
Figca) nhow tte int ondan high pos t
wit a dour cut d toenay t,tu tovency
at which the magnude d tthe qain io oto tims
a pas band Vale. A faLvencies hialhe
than t are in thu pans band witt the highee
tsuauenydimind by the do ed bop ban d
wi t the op arp.
Fon the iat ond high pa die,the ouput
RF i27f RC
Vo =1+. I+jerkc
in
Vo
Vin
AF |+3(/4)
Ae (|+ RE
K)’ pas bond gan
5
F=feqeney te input cigna
Henee thu magnitud gtte Voltage gaun
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UNIT-3
A Digital Display System and indicators are output device that provides a visual display of
numbers, letters, and symbols in response to electrical input and serves as constituents of an
electronic display system.
Classification of displays
1. Analog display devices (Cathode ray tubes)

 Oscilloscope tubes
 TV CRTs
2. Digital display devices
 Light emitting diode (LED)
 Liquid crystal display (LCD)
 Gas discharge plasma displays (Cold cathode displays or Nixies)
 Electro-luminescent displays (ELDs)
3. Others
 Electronic paper
 Using the principle of nanoelectronics (Carbon nanotubes, nanocrystals)
 Laser TV
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED is a semiconductor p-n junction diode which converts electrical energy to light
energy under forward biasing. It emits light in both visible and IR region.
LED Symbol
Principle:
Energy is required to take an electron from the valance band to the conduction band. That
is to generate an electron-hole pair. conversely, energy is emitted when an electron and hole
recombine. In semiconductors like Si and Ge, this recombination energy is emitted in the form of
heat. But in semiconductors like GaAs (Gallium arsenide), and GaP (Gallium Phosphide) the
energy is emitted in the form of light. This is the basic principle of light emission in LED.
Dr. Poornima S, SBRR Mahajana First Grade College (Autonomous), Mysuru. Page 1 of 12
UNIT-3
Construction and working of LED
It consists of a forward forward-biased P-N junction diode. A resistance R is connected in

series to limit the current through the diode to protect it from damage. In the P N junction diode
holes are the majority carriers in the P region and electrons are the majority carriers in the N
region. When a forward-biased voltage is applied, across the junction diode the diffusion of holes
from the P to N region and that of electrons from the N to P region takes place. While crossing
the junction electron and hole recombine with each other. The energy released due to the
recombination process is in the form of a photon of energy h υ = Eg, Eg is the band gap of the
semiconductor, h is Planck’s constant, υ is the frequency of radiation emitted.
h υ = Eg
c
h = Eg
λ
hc
λ
Eg
Eg (the energy gap) should be 1.72eV to 3.1eV because λ of the visible light is between
0 0
4000 A to 6000 A .
UNIT-3
Example (1) Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): 1.43eV, λ lie in IR region
(2) Gallium Phosphide: 2.26 eV emits green light.
(3) Silicon Carbide: 3.2eV emits yellow light.
Advantages of LED
(1) Small in size and light in weight
(2) They operate at low voltages and consume less power.
(3) Less expensive.
(4) They can work in extreme temperatures.
(5) They offer great design flexibility.
(6) They are more durable and have a long life.
(7) They are fast in action as these need no warm-up time.
Application of LED
1. Picture phones and digital watches
2. Camera flashes and automotive heat lamps
3. Aviation lighting
4. Digital computers and calculators
5. Traffic signals and Burglar alarm systems
6. Microprocessors and multiplexers
7. Optical Communication
8. Indicator lamps in electric equipment
9. LED television
10. Vehicle headlamps, domestic and decorative illumination, and street lighting.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
LCD is an acronym used for Liquid Crystal Display. It is basically a display technique in
which liquid crystals are used in order to produce an image on the screen. This liquid crystal
displays the images or characters as the light emitted by the source can be either passed or
obstructed by the molecular movement of the crystal. In liquid crystal display, twisted nematic
type crystal is basically used.
UNIT-3
Construction of LCD
 The liquid crystal having a thickness of nearly about 10 to 20 micrometres is placed

between two glass sheets.
 On the inner surface of the two glass sheets, conductors are inserted. These conductors
form electrodes.
 The two electrodes show positive and negative polarity to be applied.
 The external potential is provided to the display unit with the help of these two
electrodes.
 The light emitted by this source is first fed to the polarizer.
 Also, a polarizer of opposite polarity as that of input is placed at another end of the
display unit.
 At the opposite end of the electrode, a glass cover is placed at which the desired image is
displayed.
Working of LCD
 When light from a backlight source is emitted and allowed to fall on the vertical
polarizer.
 Then the unpolarized light by the source gets vertically polarized.
 When initially no external potential is provided between the two electrodes, the
molecules of the liquid crystal remain twisted.
 This causes the vertically polarized light to get horizontally polarized due to the
orientation of the molecules.
 Now this horizontally polarized light from the output of the nematic crystal is fed to the
horizontal polarizer
 Thus it passes the light thereby causing illumination of the pixel. Hence, generates a
visible image on the screen.
 Suppose when a large voltage is applied between the two electrodes. Then this applied
voltage causes the twisted mechanism of the molecules to get damaged causing them to
operate in a straight manner.
UNIT-3
 Due to this, the vertically polarized light while passing the nematic crystal does not
change its polarization.
 This vertically polarized light is blocked by the horizontal polarizer thereby generating a
dark pixel at the display.
 In this way, bright and dark images are generated.
Advantages of LCD
1. The heat generated during operation is less as compared to CRT and LED displays.
2. The power consumption by an LCD is very low in comparison to other display
devices.
3. LCDs can be suitably used with MOS integrated circuits.
4. The overall cost of the device is low.
Disadvantages of LCD
1. It needs an external source of light for displaying the image.
2. Its operating temperature range is limited and lies between 0 to 60°C.
3. LCDs are less reliable display units.
4. The image visibility relies on light intensity.
Applications of LCD
1. LCD finds its major applications in displaying images on the screens of various
electronic gadgets like televisions, calculators, computer monitors, etc.
2. These are also used in digital watches and mobile screens.
3. These are also used in visualizing RF waves in transmission through waveguides and in
medical applications like in liquid crystal thermometers etc.
UNIT-3
Data transmission system

Data transmission is sending and receiving data via cables (e.g. Telephone lines or fiber
optics) or wireless systems (e.g. mobile phones).
Advantages and disadvantages of digital transmission over analog transmission

The advantages of digital transmission over analog transmission are noise immunity, better suited
for multiplexing, it uses signal regeneration rather than signal amplification, and transmission
errors are detected and corrected more easily.
The disadvantages of digital transmission over analog transmission are that it requires
significantly more bandwidth, has to convert analog signals to digital and converted back to
analog form at the receiver, requires precise time synchronization between clocks in the
transmitters and receivers, and is incompatible with older analog transmission systems.
Pulse Modulation is a technique in which the signal is transmitted with the information by
pulses. This is divided into Analog Pulse Modulation and Digital Pulse Modulation. (Pulse
modulation is a type of modulation in which the signal is transmitted in the form of pulses. It can
be used to transmit analog information).
Pulse modulation can be classified into two major types
(1) Pulse Analog Modulation
(i) Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
(ii) Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)
(a) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
(b) Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
(2) Pulse Digital Modulation
(i) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
(ii) Delta Modulation
(iii) Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
UNIT-3
(i) Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):
Pulse amplitude modulation is a technique in which the amplitude of each pulse is

controlled by the instantaneous amplitude of the modulation signal. It is a modulation system
in which the signal is sampled at regular intervals and each sample is made proportional to
the amplitude of the signal at the instant of sampling.
There are three types of sampling techniques for transmitting a signal using PAM.
They are: (a) Ideal sampling PAM
(b) Flat-top sampling PAM
(c) Natural sampling PAM
(a) Ideal Sampling PAM:
Ideal Sampling is also known as Instantaneous

sampling or Impulse Sampling. The train of impulse is
used as a carrier signal for ideal sampling. In this
sampling technique the sampling function is a train of
impulses and the principle used is known as the
multiplication principle.
UNIT-3
(b) Flat Top Sampling PAM:
The amplitude of each pulse is directly proportional to the modulating signal

amplitude at the time of pulse occurrence. The amplitude of the signal cannot be changed with
respect to the analog signal to be sampled. The tops of the amplitude remain flat.
(c) Natural Sampling PAM:
The amplitude of each pulse is directly proportional to the modulating signal

amplitude at the time of pulse occurrence. Then follows the amplitude of the pulse for the rest of
the half-cycle.
UNIT-3
Applications of PAM
a) It is used in Ethernet communication.
b) It is used in many microcontrollers for generating control signals.
c) It is used as an electronic driver for LED lighting.
d) This modulation technique is mostly used in digital data transmission & applications
changed by PCM &PPM.
Advantages of PAM
a) Simple modulation and demodulation.
b) The transmitter and receiver are very simple and easy to construct.
The disadvantage of PAM
a) Wide bandwidth requires 𝐵𝑃𝐴𝑀 ≥ 1/ 2𝜏, 𝜏 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒.
b) High noise interference.
c) Vary the peak power required for the transmitter.
(ii) Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)
Here the pulses will have the same amplitude. However, one of their timing
characteristics is made proportional to the amplitude of the sampled signal. This variable
characteristic can be either frequency, position, or width. This way pulse time modulation can be
classified into two types.
(a) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Pulse Width Modulation is also known as pulse duration modulation (PDM). Here, as the
name suggests, the width of the pulse is varied in proportional to the amplitude of the signal.
Since the width is changing, the power loss can be reduced when compared to PAM signals.
UNIT-3
Advantages of PWM
a) Low power consumption.
b) It has an efficiency of about 90 percent.
c) Noise interference is less.
Disadvantages of PWM
a) The circuit is more complex.
b) The system is expensive as it uses semiconductor devices.
c) Switching losses will be more due to high PWM frequency.
Applications of PWM
a) Used for encoding purposes in the telecommunication system.

b) Used to control brightness in a smart lighting system.
c) Helps to prevent overheating in LEDs while maintaining its brightness.
d) Used in audio and video amplifiers.
(b) Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
In this type of modulation, both the amplitude and width of the pulse are kept constant.
We vary the position of each pulse with reference to a particular pulse. Here a single pulse is
transmitted with the required number of phase shifts. So we can say that pulse position
modulation is an analogue modulation scheme where the amplitude and width of the pulse are
kept constant, while the position of the pulse with respect to the position of a reference pulse is
varied according to the instantaneous value of the message signal.
UNIT-3
Advantages of PPM
a) As it has constant amplitude noise interference is less.
b) We can easily separate signal from a noisy signal.
c) Among all three types, it has the most power efficiency.
d) Requires less power when compared to pulse amplitude modulation.
Disadvantages of PPM
a) The system is highly complex.
b) The system requires more bandwidth.
Applications of PPM
a) It is used in air traffic control system and telecommunication systems.
b) Remote-controlled cars, planes, and trains.
c) It is used to compress data and hence it is used for storage.
Comparison of PAM, PWM, and PPM
Sl.No PAM PWM PPM

1 The amplitude of the pulse The width of the pulse is The relative position of the
is proportional to the proportional to the amplitude pulse is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating of the modulating signal. amplitude of modulating
signal signal
2 The bandwidth of the The bandwidth of the The bandwidth of the
transmission channel transmission channel depends transmission channel
depends on the width of the on the rise time of the pulse depends on the rise time of
pulse the pulse
3 The instantaneous power of The instantaneous power of The instantaneous power of
the transmitter varies with the transmitter varies with the the transmitter remains
the amplitude of pulses width of pulses constant with width of
pulses
4 Noise interference is high Noise interference is minimum Noise interference is
minimum
5 Similar to Amplitude Similar to frequency Similar to Phase modulation
modulation modulation
UNIT-3
Phase-Sensitive Detection (PSD)- lock-in amplifier

The lock-in amplifier is said to have a phase-sensitive detector which compares the phases of the
reference and incoming signal and is thus able to recover a weak signal from an overwhelming
background noise.
All amplifiers have a bandwidth of several kilohertz. Phase-sensitive detective effectively

reduces the bandwidth over which noise is collected to a few hertz depending on the time
constant. PSD eliminates the noise except over a few hertz around the frequency of the
signal and hence improves the signal-to-noise ratio. This is the principle of PSD.
Paper – 8:
UNIT – 4: Transducers and sensors
Transducers: A transducer is an electrical device that is used to convert one form of energy into another
form. The best transducer examples are loudspeakers, microphones, position, thermometers, antenna, &
pressure sensor.
Types of Transducers:
Basically, there are two types of transducers. They are mechanical transducers and electrical transducers.
Mechanical Transducers: These are a set of primary sensing elements that respond to changes in a physical
quantity and gives mechanical output.
Example: pressure transducer, temperature transducer, and so on.
Electrical Transducers: Electrical transducers are those that respond to changes in physical quantities give
electrical outputs.
Electrical transducers are further divided into passive electrical transducers and active electrical transducers.
Active transducers don’t require any power source for their operation and work on the principle of energy
conversion. Examples are resistive transducers, capacitive transducers and inductive transducers
Passive transducers require an external power source for their operation and generate an output in the form of
capacitance, or resistance. Examples are photoelectric transducers, piezo electric transducers etc.
Basic characteristics of an electrical transducer
 Accuracy must be high
 They must be sensitive
 They should give same output when repeated any number of times
 They should be small in size, less in volume and light weight
 They should have wide operating range so that it can be used for wide range of measurements.
Factors to consider while selecting a transducer
 Transducers should have high input impedance and low output impedance to avoid the loading effect.
 A transducer should be highly sensitive to desired signals and insensitive to unwanted signals.
 Transducers should be able to work in corrosive environments.
 The transducer circuit should have overload protection to withstand overloads.
1
Resistive transducers
The transducer whose resistance varies because of the environmental effects is known as the resistive
transducer. The resistive transducer converts the physical quantities into variable resistance which is easily
measured by the meters. Ressistive transducers are used in potentiometrs, strain gauge, platinum resistance
thermometer, thermistor etc.
The resistive transducer element works on the principle that the resistance of the element is directly
proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor.
Where R – resistance in ohms. A – cross-section area of the conductor in meter square. L – Length of the
conductor in meter square. ρ – the resistivity of the conductor in materials in ohm meter.
1. Potentiometer: A potentiometer is a reisistive type transducer that converts either linear or angular
mechanical displacement into an output voltage by moving a sliding contact along the surface of a resistive
element. It is a passive transducer since it requires an external power source for its operation. Potentiometers
are widely used in various applications, including volume controls, position sensors, and voltage dividers.
Advantage of Potentiometers:
 They are inexpensive.
 Simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the requirements are not particularly
severe.
 They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.
 Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide sufficient output to allow control operations.
Disadvantages of Potentiometers:
 When using a linear potentiometer, a large force is required to move the sliding contacts.
 The sliding contacts can wear out, become misaligned and generate noise.
2
2. Strain gauge: A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain or deformation of an object under
external forces. It convert mechanical strain into an electrical signal. The gauge consists of a thin metallic
wire that is attached to the surface of the material under observation. When the material is subjected to strain,
the gauge undergoes deformation, which alters the electrical resistance of the metallic element. This change in
resistance is directly proportional to the applied strain, allowing for accurate measurements.
Types of Strain gauge:
 Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges
 Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges
 Fiber Optic Strain Gauges
 Piezoelectric Strain Gauges
Advantages of strain gauge:
Strain gauges offer several advantages, including high accuracy, sensitivity, reliability, cost effective and gives
real time data. They can be easily attached to the surface of various materials, providing a non-intrusive
measurement method.
Disadvantages of strain gauge:
One major disadvantage of strain gauges is their sensitivity to temperature changes. It has installation
complexity, limited measurement range, they are delicate and can be easily damage.
3. Resistance thermometer-platinum resistance thermometer: The platinum thermal resistance

(PTR) uses platinum for determining the temperature. It works on the principle that the resistance of platinum
changes with the change of temperature.
Advantages of Platinum Resistance Thermometer
 The temperature measurement through platinum resistance thermometer is easier as compared to the
gas thermometer.
 The meter gives the precise reading of temperature.
 The thermometer has a wide range from 200 to 1200° Celsius.
 The thermometer is quite sensitive.
 The platinum has same resistance at the same temperature.
Disadvantages of Platinum Resistance Thermometer
The following are the disadvantages of platinum thermal resistance.
 The thermometer gives the slow response.
 The melting point of the thermometer is 1800° Celcius. But when platinum measures the temperature
higher than 1200°C they start evaporating.
3
4. Thermistor: Thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance changes rapidly with the small change in
temperature. In other words, it is a type of resistor in which the flow of electric current changes rapidly with
small change in temperature. The word thermistor is derived from the combination of words “thermal” and
“resistor”.
Thermistors are classified into two types based on how they behave with the change in temperature:
 Negative Temperature Co-efficient (NTC) thermistors
 Positive Temperature Co-efficient (PTC) thermistors
Advantages of thermistor:
 The thermistor is compact, long durable and less expensive.
 The properly aged thermistor has good stability.
Disadvantages of thermistor:
 They are non linear, Self heating, Passive i.e. current source is needed and Fragile
Inductive Transducer-general principles:

Inductive transducers are devices that convert a physical quantity into an electrical signal based on changes in
inductance. It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The inductance changes due to any
appreciable change in the quantity to be measured. These transducers are commonly used in applications where
linear displacement, position, velocity, or proximity measurements are required.
Change of Self Inductance of Inductive Transducer
We know very well that self inductance of a coil is given by
Where, N = number of turns. R = reluctance of the magnetic circuit.

Also we know that reluctance R is given by
4
Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)- principle and construction:
Linear Variable Differential Transformer, LVDT is the most used inductive transducer for converting
translating linear motion into electrical signal. This transducer converts a mechanical displacement
proportionally into electrical signal.
Principle: LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction and the displacement which is a nonelectrical
energy is converted into an electrical energy. It is also called as Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is
a passive inductive transformer.
Construction: It consists of one primary and two secondary windings which is wound on the former. The
secondary winding is placed on each side of the primary winding and secondary winding have equal number
of turns. The primary winding of LVDT is connected to an AC source. The movable soft iron core is placed
inside the former and the displacement is measured with the help of arm connected to the soft iron core. The
Soft iron core is made up of nickel iron having a high permeability. The whole assembly is placed in a Steel
housing.
Capacitive Transducer:
The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure and other physical quantities. It is
a passive transducer that means it requires external power for operation. The capacitive transducer works on
the principle of variable capacitances. Capacitive transducer converts the non-electrical quantity i.e.
displacement, force, pressure etc. into an electrical quantity i.e. voltage and current by means of change in
capacitance.
The capacitance of the parallel plates is given as
5
Advantage of Capacitive Transducer
The following are the major advantages of capacitive transducers.
1. It requires an external force for operation and hence very useful for small systems.
2. The capacitive transducer is very sensitive.
3. It gives good frequency response because of which it is used for the dynamic study.
4. The transducer has high input impedance hence they have a small loading effect.
5. It requires small output power for operation.
Disadvantages of capacitive Transducer
The main disadvantages of the transducer are as follows.
1. The metallic parts of the transducers require insulation.
2. The frame of the capacitor requires earthing for reducing the effect of the stray magnetic field.
3. Sometimes the transducer shows the nonlinear behaviours because of the edge effect which is
controlled by using the guard ring.
4. The cable connecting across the transducer causes an error.
Piezoelectric Transducer:
A piezoelectric transducer or piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to
measure changes in acceleration, pressure, strain, temperature or force by converting pressure energy into an
electrical charge. When a force or pressure is applied on a piezoelectric material, the transducer converts this
energy into voltage. In this way, physical quantities like mechanical stress or force can be measured directly
using a piezoelectric transducer.
A generic piezoelectric transducer consists of a quartz crystal which is made from silicon and oxygen
arranged in crystalline structure (SiO2). Generally, a unit cell (basic repeating unit) in all crystals is
symmetrical; but in piezoelectric quartz crystal, the arrangement of atoms is not symmetrical. Though the
atoms inside them may not be symmetrically arranged, yet their electrical charges are balanced so that the
positive charges cancel out negative charges. The quartz crystal has the unique property of generating electrical
polarity when mechanical stress applied to it along a certain plane.
Piezoelectric Transducer Applications:
As piezoelectric materials cannot measure static values they are primarily used for measuring surface
roughness, in accelerometers and as a vibration pickup.
 Used in seismographs to measure vibrations in rockets. In strain gauges to measure force, stress,
vibrations etc… Used by automotive industries to measure detonations in engines.
 Used in ultrasonic imaging in medical applications.
6
Photoelectric Transducer
The photoelectric transducer converts the light energy into electrical energy. It is made of semiconductor
material. The photoelectric transducer uses a photosensitive element, which ejects the electrons when the beam
of light absorbs through it.
The discharges of electrons vary the property of the photosensitive element. Hence the current induces
in the devices. The magnitude of the current is equal to the total light absorbed by the photosensitive element.
The figure below shows the scheme of semiconductor material.
The photoelectric transducer absorbs the radiation of light which falls on their semiconductor material. The
absorption of light energises the electrons of the material, and hence the electrons start moving. The mobility
of electrons produces one of the three effects.
1. The resistance of the material changes.
2. The output current of the semiconductor changes.
3. The output voltage of the semiconductor changes.
The photoelectric transducers are classified into photovoltaic cell, photo diode and phototransistor.
Photovoltaic cell: Principle and working

The photovoltaic cell is the type of active transducer. The photovoltaic cell, commonly known as a solar cell,
is a device that converts light energy directly into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. The silicon
and selenium are used as a semiconductor material.
Principle: This works on the principle of photovoltaic effect. When the semiconductor material absorbs light,
the free electrons of the material starts moving. The movements of electrons develop the current in the cell,
and the current is known as the photoelectric current. This phenomenon is known as the photovoltaic effect.
The efficiency of PV cell is given by
Working: The construction is similar to a p-n junction diode, with a thin layer of p-type semiconductor and a
thick layer of N-type semiconductor.
7
When photons from sunlight strike the surface of the photovoltaic cell, they penetrate the semiconductor
material and transfer their energy to electrons in the material. The absorbed photons create electron-hole pairs
within the semiconductor material. Electrons are excited from the valence band to the conduction band,
generating free electrons and positively charged holes. Due to the built-in electric field within the
semiconductor material, the free electrons and holes are separated, with electrons migrating towards the n-type
(electron-rich) region and holes towards the p-type (hole-rich) region of the cell. This separation of charges
creates a voltage potential across the cell, which causes a flow of electrons along an external circuit connected
to the cell, generating an electric current. This current can then be used to power electrical devices or stored in
batteries for later use.
Photodiode: Principle and working

The photodiode is a semiconductor material which converts the light into the current or voltage. The electrons
of the semiconductor material start moving when the photodiode absorbs the light energy.
Principle: It works on the principle of the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect is the process by which
light photons incident on a material transfer their energy to electrons, causing them to break free from their
atoms and become mobile, thereby generating electron-hole pairs.
Working: Photodiode is typically constructed from a semiconductor material, such as silicon or germanium,
with a p-n junction. At the interface between the p-type and n-type regions, a depletion region forms due to the
diffusion of charge carriers. Photodiodes are usually operated under reverse bias condition. This reverse bias
creates an electric field within the depletion region, which acts to separate the electron-hole pairs generated by
incident light. When photons from incident light strike the semiconductor material of the photodiode, they
transfer their energy to electrons, promoting them from the valence band to the conduction band. This creates
electron-hole pairs within the semiconductor material.
8
The electron-hole pairs created by the absorbed photons are separated by the electric field within the depletion
region. Electrons are pushed towards the n-type region, while holes are pushed towards the p-type region,
creating a flow of current. The magnitude of the current is proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
Phototransistor: Principle and working

A phototransistor is a type of light-sensitive transistor that converts light energy into electrical signals. It
operates similarly to a regular transistor, but its base current is controlled by the intensity of light instead of an
external voltage.
Principle: The principle behind a phototransistor is based on the photoelectric effect, where light energy
incident on a semiconductor material generates electron-hole pairs.
Working: When light strikes the base-emitter junction of the phototransistor, it generates electron-hole pairs
in the base region. The generated charge carriers (electrons and holes) modulate the conductivity of the base
region.
This modulation affects the current flowing between the collector and emitter terminals. Thus, the collector
current is directly proportional to the intensity of light falling on the phototransistor. Phototransistors are
commonly used in applications where detection of light levels or changes in light levels is required, such as in
optical switches, light meters, and position sensors.
**********************
9
Question Bank
Paper – 8: PHY C16 – T: Electronic Instrumentation & Sensors
UNIT – 1
1. What is AC power? Mention its characteristics [5]
2. Differentiate between single phase and three phase [4]
3. What is the need for DC power supply? Mention its characteristics [5]
4. Explain the construction and working of bridge rectifier. Obtain an expression for ripple
factor [8]
5. Explain the working of
i) Capacitor filter
ii) Inductor filter
iii) L-section filter
iv) π – section filter [2 marks each]
6. With the help of block diagram explain the construction and working of cathode ray
oscilloscope [8]
7. With the help of diagram explain the main features of CRT [6]
8. Describe the basic elements of digital storage oscilloscope [5]
9. Explain the action of AC voltmeter using rectifier [4]
10. Mention the requirements of a shunt [3]
UNIT – 2
1. What is fixed and variable frequency? Explain [4]
2. Explain the basic principle of standard AF signal generator [3]
3. Explain triangular wave generators with waveform [4]
4. Explain saw tooth wave generators with waveform [4]
5. Explain AF sine wave generator with block diagram [3]
6. Explain the standard signal generator with block diagram [6]
7. With block diagram explain AF sine and square wave generators using Wein bridge
network and oscillators [6]
8. What are passive and active filters? Explain [4]
9. Mention the advantages of active filters over passive filters [2]
10. Prove the fundamental theorem of filters using symmetric T- network [6]
11. Mention the different types of filters and explain the response of various filters [6]
12. Arrive at the cutoff frequency of an active Op-amp based low pass filter [6]
13. Arrive at the cutoff frequency of an active Op-amp based high pass filter [6]
14. Mention the types of band pass filters and arrive at the bandwidth expression by explaining
the frequency response curve [6]
Dr Shiva Prasad NG, Dept of Physics, GFGC, Chamarajanagara 4

UNIT – 3
1. Explain digital to analog and analog to digital converters [4]
2. Give the classification of A/D converter [3]
3. With the necessary theory explain the working of variable resistor D/A convertor [7]
4. With the necessary theory explain the working of R-2R ladder-type D/A convertor [7]
5. Explain the operation of successive approximation type analog to digital converter [7]
6. What is digital display system? Give its classification [4]
7. Explain the construction and working of LED [7]
8. Explain the construction and working of LCD [7]
9. Write any three applications of LED [3]
10. Write any three applications of LCD [3]
11. What is data transmission? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of data transmission
over analog transmission [5]
12. What is pulse modulation? Mention its types [3]
13. Explain the general principle of pulse amplitude modulation, pulse time modulation and
pulse width modulation [6]
14. Explain the principle of Phase Sensitive Detection [3]
UNIT – 4
1. What is transducer? Discuss its types [5]
2. Mention the factors to consider while selecting a transducer [4]
3. Mention the basic characteristics of an electrical transducer [2]
4. What is resistive transducer? [2]
5. What is potentiometer? Mention its advantages [3]
6. What is strain gauge? Mention its types [4]
7. What is platinum resistance thermometer? Mention its advantages [3]
8. What is thermistor? Mention its types [3]
9. Discuss the general principle of inductive transducer [3]
10. Explain the principle and construction of Linear Variable Differential Transducer [5]
11. What is capacitive transducer? Mention its advantages and disadvantages [5]
12. What is piezoelectric transducer? Write its applications [4]
13. Write a note on photo electric transducer [4]
14. Explain the principle and working of photo voltaic cell [5]
15. Explain the principle and working of photo diode [5]
16. Explain the principle and working of photo transistor [5]
**********
Dr Shiva Prasad NG, Dept of Physics, GFGC, Chamarajanagara 5

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University of Mysore

BSc 6 Semester Physics Syllabus

Paper – 7: PHY C14-T: Elements of Condensed Matter & Nuclear Physics

1. Amplitude: Amplitude is the maximum value of

2. Cycles: A cycle is one complete repetition of the sine

3. Frequency(f): Frequency is the number of times that a

4. Peak to peak: There are two values of voltage that we must

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 1

5. RMS: This stands for Root Mean Square and it is the

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 2

Differences between a single-phase and three-phase connection

Single Phase Power Supply Three Phase Power Supply

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 4

The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows:

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 5

Need for DC power supply and its characteristics

Characteristics of Power Supplies

(3) Output impedance

(4) Ripple rejection

(5) Overload protection

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 6

Line voltage and frequency

From the diagram

Line voltage for household usually is either 120volts or

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 7

Working of Bridge rectifier

During the –ve half cycle of secondary voltage the

1. An inductor allows DC and blocks AC.

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 8

The ripple factor for the inductor filter is

The ripple factor for the capacitor filter is

The product of CRL is the time constant of the filter circuit.

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 9

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 10

Electronic voltage regulator

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 11

Voltage regulator using ICs

Classification of IC voltage regulator

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 12

(2) Adjustable voltage regulator: An adjustable voltage regulator produces a DC output

(3) Switching regulator: A switching regulator (DC-DC converter) is a regulator (stabilized

The general-purpose switching regulator is Motorola’s MC1723.

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 13

Basic Electrical Measuring Instruments

Block diagram of CRO

The major block circuit of general purpose

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 14

CRT Features: CRT has

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 15

Basic elements of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 16

Block diagram of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 17

Basic DC Voltmeter for measuring potential difference

 Im = full scale deflection current of the movement (Ifsd)

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 18

Extending Voltmeter Ranges:

AC voltmeter using rectifiers

The sensitivity of the dc voltmeter is given by

The dc will respond to the average value of the ac input, therefore

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 19

The value of the multiplier resistor can be calculated as

AC Voltmeter using Fullwave Rectifier:

Dr. Poornima S, Associate Professor, SBRR MFGC (A). Page 20