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Energ. Ecol. Environ. (2020) 5(4):253–271
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-020-00158-2
REVIEW PAPER
Traditional agricultural practices in India: an approach
for environmental sustainability and food security
Sanoj Kumar Patel1 • Anil Sharma1 • Gopal Shankar Singh1
1
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
Received: 1 May 2019 / Revised: 20 March 2020 / Accepted: 25 March 2020 / Published online: 18 April 2020
 The Joint Center on Global Change and Earth System Science of the University of Maryland and Beijing Normal University 2020
Abstract Sustainability of environment and food produc-
tion is among the greatest challenges of the twenty-first
century. Green revolution, however, achieved the targets of
high food productivity, but at the cost of environmental
degradation such as water pollution, soil contamination,
climate change and biodiversity loss. Feeding the growing
population and sustaining the quality of the environment
are the two major challenges of Indian agriculture system.
Traditional agricultural practices have been an integral part
of food production in India since ages. These practices
have the potential to mitigate the adverse effects of climate
change with spatial and sequential diversity. This review
covers three aspects of traditional farming of India: culti-
vation, biological method of pest management and locally
available sustainable practices of crop protection. Double
cropping, mixed cropping, crop rotation, agroforestry, use
of local varieties and resources with host–pathogen inter-
action are some of the prominent traditional agricultural
practices in India which have to be strengthened in view of
the environment and food security. Such practices have a
significant role in achieving the sustainability of agriculture
by improving nutrition quality. The overall objective of
this article is to highlight the potential of these practices for
the sustainability of environment and food production.
Keywords Traditional agriculture
Crop diversity

Sustainability
Food security
Environmental protection
& Gopal Shankar Singh
gopalsingh.bhu@gmail.com
1 Introduction
Nourishing the expanding population of the world with
sustainable food and dietary requirements is a pronounced
challenge in the present century. The high consumption
rate of growing population induces unprecedented demand
for cultivation and natural resources (Foley et al. 2011).
World population is estimated to reach 9.5 billion by 2050
(Godfray et al. 2010). To feed this increased population
more than two times, the present food production will be
required (FAO 2016). About 80% of the arable land is
cultivated with mono-crops of a few species like rice, corn,
wheat and soybean which seriously diminish the genetic
diversity of global agriculture (Adams et al. 1971). High
population is also mounting the demand for land for cul-
tivation and water for irrigation. This leads to the over-
exploitation of resources and the deterioration of natural
and agriculture systems (Godfray et al. 2010). Climate
change has seriously weakened agricultural productivity
and increased the number of hungry people from 40 to 170
million (Altieri et al. 2015). The major mono-crops like
maize and wheat have significantly lessened productivity
by 40 million ton per year from 1981 to 2002 (Lobell et al.
2011). The inappropriate use of chemical fertilizers, fossil
fuels, agrochemicals and mono-cropping of modern vari-
eties has triggered the degradation of socio-ecological cost
of the environment (Phungpracha et al. 2016).
Traditional agriculture has adaptive and mitigation
ability towards these anthropogenic threats that can provide
sustainable production and environmental safety (Watson
2019). It is a dynamic tool for the conservation of natural
resources such as water and agro-ecosystem from land-
scape to family farms. The traditional farming system is
based on the ecological principle and the interaction
123
254
between human environment and existing natural resour-
ces. The uniqueness of traditional agriculture is its eco-
logically benign nature, public acceptability,
environmental and economic feasibility (Wezel et al.
2009). It sustains productivity by adequate utilization of
available local resources and develops site-specific agri-
culture practices that are compatible with the regional
climatic condition and spatial and sequential diversity
(Lincoln 2019). A large number of rural communities
survive on the home yard farming that contributes greater
than half of the global food production (FAO and IFAD
2019). Traditional agriculture includes a set of practices
which are collectively called traditional agriculture prac-
tices (TAPs).
TAPs are conservative and localized in the indigenous
community. These practices are adaptive to the local
environment and based on indigenous local knowledge
(ILK) which grants it more pliability where other practices
may fail. TAPs can be defined as a set of knowledge–
practice–trust nexus which has developed by its adaptive
nature and passes on to the next generation through a
cultural transmission that explains the relationship between
living beings with their environment (Berkes et al. 2000).
Adaptation to these practices recuperates all components of
the cultivation system towards climate change (Di Falco
and Chavas 2008; Lin 2011). The adaptive capability is
implemented at the field/landscape level as well as crop
types to species (Dubey et al. 2019). The field/landscape-
level adaptation is mostly obtained by agroforestry, live-
stock-integrated farming and diversification of landscape
with the cultivation of different crops (Altieri and Nicholls
2017). Crop/species-level adaptation is emphasized by
mixed cropping, intercropping, crop rotation, mulching,
pasture cover and push–pull method of pest management
(Khan et al. 2011; Koohafkan and Altieri 2011; Lithour-
gidis et al. 2011). Apart from the above-mentioned prac-
tices, traditional varieties are also adopted according to
regional stress of climate like drought, flood and salinity.
Some examples of drought-tolerant traditional rice vari-
eties are Laodubi, Borah, Jahinga, Beriabhanga, Pattesari,
Leserihali and Kolajoha, and flood-adapted varieties are
Sub1, Veliyan, Chettuveliyan and Chenthadi (Kumar et al.
2010; Jnandabhiram and Prasad 2012; Ismail et al. 2013;
Chivenge et al. 2015). Besides this, drought resistance
traditional crops are maize (Zea mays), pearl millet (Pen-
nisetum glaucum), foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and finger
millet (Eleusine coracana). Further, salinity-tolerant crops
are henna and faba bean (Vicia faba) that reduce the
powdery mildew when cultivating with wheat, maize and
chilli peppers (Jnandabhiram and Prasad 2012; Boudreau
2013).
In Pampas Province of Argentina, TAPs of diverse
cover, mixed crop, crop rotation, integrated pest
123
S. K. Patel et al.
management and restoration of nutrient were applied with
no-tillage that endorsed the high production as well as
maintaining soil nutrient and microbial diversity (Bedano
et al. 2016). The long-term use of organic compost as
single or in combination with N (nitrogen) and P (phos-
phorus) fertilizer enhanced the considerable amount of soil
micronutrients such as P, K, Mg, Ca and Zn in the upper
horizon of soil (Bedada et al. 2016). Organic input in the
form of crop residue and farmyard manure (FYM) is an
excellent alternative to restore soil fertility at affordable
input cost (Vanlauwe et al. 2010). Ancient Hawaiians were
also known for their traditional farming system in which
the farming was adapted to local climate by developing
site-specific cultivation to sustain the water and nutrient
cycling using natural resources as input (Lincoln et al.
2019). This primeval farming generated about 1 million ton
of food production annually which nourished 85% of the
contemporary population (Ladefoged et al. 2009; Kagawa-
Viviani et al. 2018). In African Sahara, the diversified and
livestock-integrated farming of traditional varieties had
more resilience and adaptation to climate variability than
the subsistence and extensive farming (Douxchamps et al.
2016). Raised bed farming in the high ground basin of
Surinam, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and flooded land in
Savannas is also a climate-smart system (Altieri et al.
2013).
Traditional agriculture provides financial resilience to
the marginal farmer and pastoralist that enhance the diet
and nutritional security of the global population (Johns
et al. 2013). Anadi is an example of glutinous traditional
rice variety cultivated only in Nepal, which is used to
prepare delicious recipes like Latte, Khatte and Siraula in
Nepal and sweet delicacies from the Philippines (Carpenter
2005; Rana et al. 2007). Traditional aromatic fine rice
varieties such as Ramani, Jetho Budho, Basmati, Bayarni
and Pahele have high demand in domestic as well as
overseas markets (Rana et al. 2007). A wild leafy veg-
etable Okok (Gnetum africanum and Gnetum buch-
holzianum) is well known for their high nutritional
properties in Nigeria and Cameroon. It was used as food
and widely collected by most of the people as a source of
income generation (Abia et al. 2007; Mensah et al. 2008).
A value chain analysis of Gnetum species in Cameroon
revealed that about 62% of the annual economy (1125
US$) of the harvester come from leaf collection which
contributed an average annual revenue of 1268 US$ (75%)
to the retailer as well as 7000 US$ (58%) to the exporter
(Ingram et al. 2012). A similar study was reported in the
native community of Tajik Pamirs of Tajikistan, where
local varieties of apple, apricot and mulberry were well
adopted to nutrient-deficient soil of cold desert which
increased annual household income on an average of
63.5% (Giuliani et al. 2011). In the Indian scenario, small
Traditional agricultural practices in India: an approach for environmental sustainability and food…
millets such as proso millet (Panicum miliaceum), kodo
millet (Paspalun scrobilatum), finger millet (Eleusine
coracana), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), foxtail
millet (Setaria italica) and barnyard millet (Echinochloa
spp.) are the traditionally cultivated crops. Ancient society
has preferred these crops for their rich nutritional and
health remuneration values as well as resilience to extreme
conditions of drought, flood and infertile soil (Maikhuri
et al. 2001; Goron and Raizada 2015).
India is the second-most populous country after China in
the world where 70% of the total population depends on
agriculture for their livelihood and nourishment. TAPs are
widely distributed in the different parts of India, most
frequently in the Himalayan region, where people depend
on the utilization of local resources (Singh et al. 1997;
Jeeva et al. 2006). Traditional farming like mixed cropping
is effective to minimize the risk of pest and mono-crop
failure in a sustainable manner (Singh and Singh 2017).
Agroforestry and shifting cultivation practices are ecolog-
ically nutrient conservative in nature and largely practised
by the tribals of Northeast India, Orissa and Maharashtra
(Sinha 1997; Murthy et al. 2013). The north-eastern pro-
vince of India abounds with great natural, cultural and
biological diversity which is conserved by environment-
friendly indigenous knowledge of more than 120 scheduled
tribes (Chhetry and Belbahri 2009).
Due to expanding population, a drastic increase in per
capita consumption of food resources has created pressure
to adopt modern agriculture, thereby increasing the burden
on natural resources (Rands et al. 2010; Varma et al. 2015;
Patel et al. 2019a). The living population in developing
continents like South Asia and most of Africa will reach
2.4 billion by 2050 (Lipper et al. 2014). Therefore, it needs
to grow the production capacity by 60% until 2050 to feed
this additional population that ultimately leads to serious
concern on TAPs due to the habitat destruction, attacks of
invasive species, increasing modern agricultural practices
and change in lifestyle of people (Dweba and Mearns
2011).
Given the above analysis, sporadic studies are available
on the TAPs which mainly covers the cultivation sustain-
ability and yield efficiency of traditional practices (Joshi
and Singh 2006; Alam et al. 2014; Pradhan et al. 2016).
Pest and crop management-based practices are also high-
lighted from different parts of India (Chhetry and Belbahri
2009; Prakash et al. 2016; Kumar et al. 2019); however,
systematic information is lacking that cover all three
aspects of traditional agriculture including traditional
practices of cultivation, pest management and crop pro-
tection. It is the call of the hour to re-examine and
reimplement TAPs to achieve the goal of sustainability.
The main objective of this review is to analyze the dif-
ferent indigenous agriculture practices of India in light of
255
environmental sustainability and food security. This study
also highlights the importance of these practices in terms of
social, cultural, economic and environmental perspective.
2 Ecological extent and economical characteristics
of TAPs
Traditional farming has a distinct feature with respect to
physical and biological aspects, which encompasses the
large dissimilarity between natural and semi-natural farms
with different land covers and spatial crop diversities
(Plieninger et al. 2006). It produces 30–50% consumable
domestic food of the developing countries that supports
food security at the local and national levels (Koohafkan
and Altieri 2011). Implementation of traditional practices
enhances the sustainability of agriculture as ecological
phenomena, whereas integrated livestock management
strengthens the soil fertility and pest management through
pest feeding birds like hen and duck. The knowledge of
traditional crop diversity serves as a valuable resource for
crop improvement. Ancient society often cultivated several
locally known landraces valued for a wide variety of traits
(e.g., short duration to check delayed rains as the result of
climate change). TAPs are effective for higher agronomic
production as well as soil conservation in the upper culti-
vated horizon. This cultivation increases soil organic car-
bon (SOC) through sequestration and simultaneously
mitigates greenhouse gas (GHGs) emission through legu-
minous cultivation (Balota et al. 2004; Chivenge et al.
2007; Friedrich et al. 2009; Lal 2009). However, pest
control is also an important aspect of crop protection as
well as high production because eruption frequency and
large geographical dispersal of pest-induced diseases are
more prevalent in changing climate era (Lamichhane et al.
2015). These ancient farming practices equally considered
the production and pest management of crops. Addition-
ally, mixed practices enhance crop adaptability towards
herbivores and act as a natural protector to reduce the
attacks of crop pests (Murrell 2017).
The sustainability potential of traditional agriculture
mainly includes three aspects such as social equality,
economic profitability and environmental health (Fig. 1). It
incorporates the four United Nations Sustainable Devel-
opment Goals (UNSDGs) emphasizing no poverty (SDG-
1), zero hunger (SDG-2), responsible consumption and
production (SDG-12) and climate action (SDG-13). The
social aspect considers the self-employment of the farmer,
health safety of the agricultural field and consumer (Bacon
et al. 2011). The food security is also increasing due to
auto-consumption of local people, whereas high market
demand for traditional crops strengthens the economic
profitability (Haddad et al. 2011; FAO 2015). Traditional
123
256 S. K. Patel et al.

individual crop varieties showing 80% higher yield than

conventional practices. Several studies indicated that the
production of traditional agriculture depended on crop
types, species varieties, land types, ecology and climatic
condition (Fischer et al. 2012; Gomiero 2018; Zeweld et al.
2019). Execution of TAPs in severe drought condition to
maintain the high moisture content of the soil provided
70–90% higher yield with respect to conventional agri-
culture (Gomiero et al. 2011; Gomiero 2013). Similar
research also compared the productivity and feasibility of
traditional and modern agriculture with respect to soil
health, crop diversity conservation, soil microbial diversity,
reduction in pesticide contamination, health safety of
society and nutrient content of food (Bacon et al. 2012;
Fig. 1 Sustainability potential of traditional agriculture
Sarkar et al. 2012; Dangour et al. 2009; Paustian et al.
2016; Meng et al. 2017; Murrell 2017). All of the above
crops such as durum wheat (Triticum durum) and barley
studies indicated a general agreement that TAPs have
(Hordeum vulgare) are used in beer production that pro-
better performance than modern agriculture to achieve the
vides more economic benefit coupled with environmental
goal of agricultural sustainability towards changing cli-
safety (Albanese et al. 2018). However, the low input cost
mate. The key parameter of TAPs expressed a better yield
of cultivation strengthened the local market channels and
than modern agriculture in the combination of practices
minimized the urban migration of the local community
and types of crops as illustrated in Table 1.
(Johns et al. 2013). Local farming is mainly based on the
organic input which promotes soil health by increasing
nutrients and microbial diversity of the soil (Patel
4 Status of traditional agriculture in India
et al. 2019b). Such practices have a high resilience towards
climate change and capability to reduce pest attacks due to
Traditional agriculture is nearly 4000 years old (Sofia et al.
diversity in the crop fields (Lal 2009; Koohafkan and
2006). Indian agriculture comprises a mosaic of diverse
Altieri 2011).
TAPs which is the result of its various agro-climatic con-
ditions, soil type and vegetation resulting in heterogamous
farming. Apart from ecological adaptation, the source of
3 Traditional versus modern agriculture economy, survival capability, religious and cultural aspect
also plays a significant role in traditional crop diversifica-
Yield from the agricultural system is the benefit derived in
tion. Agriculture is the cornerstone of the Indian economy,
the form of social, economic and ecological profit. It is
which contributed about 50% workforce and 17–18% of
generally acknowledged that high productivity is the cen-
gross domestic product (GDP) as reported in the economic
tral theme of sustainable agriculture of worldwide culti-
survey report of India for the year 2017–2018. Presently,
vation (Godfray et al. 2010; Foley et al. 2011). Various
two-thirds of Indian agriculture is rainfed which produces
studies supplemented the comparative benefits of tradi-
almost half of the total production of the country (Roul
tional and modern agriculture (Table 1).
et al. 2015). This rainfed farming has remained unaffected
Badgley et al. (2007) initially attempted to analyze the
to the detrimental effect of the green revolution. Indian
yield comparison between organic and modern agriculture
agriculture is based on the monsoon cycle where variable
practices at the global scale and documented a large output
climatic conditions make it more diverse in the different
of organic practices over conventional practices. This study
parts of the country.
was adequately performed on 34 crop species covering 62
The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is rich in tribes and
sites and 316 case studies. Another study revealed that
sub-tribes famous for their vibrant traditions and indige-
organic-based agriculture had a 25% lower average yield
nous knowledge system (Wangpan et al. 2017). Approxi-
than modern practices (Seufert et al. 2012). When the yield
mately 90% of the tribal livelihood and economic
comparison was made with best practices and high per-
requirement are completely dependent on traditional
forming varieties, it exhibited that the production was
farming (Pradhan et al. 2018). The indigenous farming of
nearly 13% lower than modern practices. De Ponti et al.
Northeast India is unique because crop protection and pest
(2012) performed a meta-analysis of 362 works that sup-
management are performed by slash and burn practices
ported the yield of organic-based agriculture with
(Ramakrishnan 2007; Chhetry and Belbahri 2009). The

123
Traditional agricultural practices in India: an approach for environmental sustainability and food… 257

Table 1 Yield assessment of various staple food crops in traditional versus modern agricultural practices
Traditional agriculture practices Country Cultivated Description References
crop

Zero tillage Indo- Rice–wheat Up to 200–500 kg ha-1 increase was found in wheat Hobbs and
Gangetic cropping yield with no-tillage practice than conventional Gupta
plains of practice under a rice–wheat cropping system (2004)
South Asia
Conservation agriculture production Odisha, India Maize and 3-year combined practice of reduced tillage ? cover Pradhan
systems (CAPSs) (integration of reduce cowpea crop ? intercropping (maize and cowpea) were et al.
tillage, intercropping and cover cropping) performed. No significant increase was found in (2016)
the yield of maize, but a considerable increase was
found in intercrop cowpea. However, 25% and
37% increase were reported in the next crop of
mustard and horse gram, respectively, at the same
field compared to non-intercrop plot
Conservation agriculture (CA) (reduced Keonjhar Maize, Maize and intercrop of cowpea followed by mustard Pradhan
tillage ? intercropping) district of cowpea crop, farmers were gained 754 US$ ha-1 profit in et al.
Odisha and reduce tillage ? intercropping with respect to (2018)
India mustard modern practices as 227 US$ ha-1
Mixed cropping (Crop diversification) China Rice Farmers of 15 town of China cultivated four rice Zhu et al.
varieties on [ 3000 ha landscape. More than 89% (2000)
of increase in yield and 44% less blast attack of
pest was found than mono-cropping without the
use of pesticide
Small ruminant-integrated coconut farming Santa Cruz, Coconut Sheep and goat grazing integrated with coconut PCARRD
Laguna, farming (1991–1994) increased net profit from 60 (1994)
Philippines to 356 US$
Food crop and rubber plantation with Butamarta, Food crops The farming of food crop and rubber with integrated CRIFC
integrated livestock South and livestock system (one cow, three goats and 11 (1995)
Sumatra, rubber chickens) enhanced profit from 68 to 161 US$
Indonesia plantation
Agroforestry Haryana, Hordeum A number of plant species like Prosopis cineraria, Kumar
India vulgare Azadirachta indica, Acacia albida and Tecomella et al.
(barley) undulata positively enhanced the productivity of (1998)
Hordeum vulgare (barley). Plantation of P.
cineraria improved average yield of grain (86%)
followed by T. undulata (48.8%), A. albida
(57.9%) and A. indica (16.8%) individually as
compared to conventional cultivation
Agroforestry-based cultivation Sahel, Sahara Maize and Applering acacia (Faidherbia albida) with other tree Garrity
desert, applering enhanced the production of maize from 1 to 3 ton et al.
Africa acacia ha-1 than the mono-cropping (2010)
Agroforestry-based agriculture Rajasthan, Wheat, Agroforestry of different leguminous plant species Yadav
India barley, and mulching of leaf improved microbial density, et al.
gram C (262–320), N (32.1–42.4) and P (2008)
(11.6–15.6 lg g-1) contents, respectively, towards
the non-plant cultivation
Optimized farming practices Southern Durum Crop rotation minimized the use of nitrogen fertilizer Ali et al.
Italy wheat and cut-down the GHG emission. It enhanced per (2017)
kg. of wheat production as compared to modern
agriculture

north-east territory includes the eight states Assam, Aru-
nachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura,
Nagaland and Sikkim comprising subtropical weather with
hot, humid summers, tough monsoons and mild winters.
The north-west part including states of Gujarat, Rajasthan
and some part of western Uttar Pradesh receive less and
erratic precipitation. The Western Ghats traversing south-
ern parts of the Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu and Goa is one of the biodiversity hot spots which are
rich in tradition and culture with the highest productive

123
258
tropical evergreen forest. The Indian states showing diverse
types of TAPs are given in Table 2.
5 Important traditional agricultural practices
(TAPs) of India
Various TAPs are reported across India with a distinct
feature in the context of environmental safeguarding
towards synthetic fertilizer contamination of agro-ecosys-
tem (Joshi and Singh 2006). These farming can protect the
agro-ecosystem from the detrimental effect of chemical
pesticide contamination, mechanical cultivation and crop
damage caused by the physical threat of storm and hail
(Jeeva et al. 2006). According to the application of TAPs,
these practices are classified into three categories: culti-
vation-based traditional practices, plant disease and pest
management-based practices and crop protection-based
practices.
5.1 Traditional agricultural practices for cultivation
Various types of traditional farming are performed glob-
ally, but they follow the similar principle of ecological
conservation (Gomiero 2018). These practices operate at
minimum mechanization of the field through partial or
permanent organic cover and diversification of crops by
rotation and mixed cropping (Bhan and Behera 2014). The
mechanical disturbance of the soil is also minimized by the
adaptation to reduced tillage/zero tillage and multi-crop-
ping. The organic cover is obtained by a cover crop,
organic composting, livestock-integrated farming, pasture
cover and grazing. A large number of TAPs are performed
by the Indian farmers towards the expansion of modern
agriculture for the conservation of the environment, culture
and genetic resources.
5.1.1 Organic compost-based agricultural practices
Organic composting is a process of microbiological
degradation and recycling of waste into FYM which is a
non-polluting and environment-friendly method of waste
management. It is effective in managing a large amount of
agriculture waste generated after harvesting (Singh and
Singh 2017). Compostable waste of industrial effluent and
agricultural run-off are generally mixed with organic pol-
lutants like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, pesticides,
petroleum and other pollutants. This compostable waste
gets decomposed with the help of microbes and changes
into simple organic mineral forms, which is taken up by
plants as a nutrient (Ren et al. 2018). It effectively
enhances the organic nutrient content in soil and provides a
123
S. K. Patel et al.
novel approach for the restoration of polluted soil (Ren
et al. 2018).
Livestock manure, FYM, crop manure and domestic
sludge are some of the cost-effective sources of organic
compost used in cultivation. Application of green manure
in the maize cultivation reduced 30% use of nitrogenous
fertilizer and at the same time increased the N uptake by
the plant minimizing the loss of N in soil and water system
(Shun et al. 2015). Further, it inhibits the nitrogenous GHG
(N2O) emission from the field which potentially contributes
75% of total agricultural soil emission (Zheng et al. 2004;
Mohanty et al. 2017). Minimum use of nitrogenous fertil-
izer in the field also retains the functioning of microbial
diversity (Ding et al. 2017). In California, the long-term
addition of compost in the cultivation of various crop
systems recovered the functioning of soil system by
improving the soil fertility, moisture content, water-hold-
ing capacity and rhizospheric diversity (Drenovsky et al.
2010). This enhancement was effective to check soil ero-
sion and healthy production during drought conditions,
whereas bulky microbial diversity upkeep production dur-
ing flooded conditions. Agricultural waste, public garbage
and crop residues have different C/N ratios with available
N, P and K for the plant. These available nutrients are
depolymerized and mineralized by the participatory
microbial diversity that secretes several kinds of the
hydrolytic enzyme ( Kandeler et al. 1999; Marx et al.
2001).
5.1.2 Livestock-integrated agricultural practices
Animal husbandry in agriculture is one of the oldest
practices that are considered as the mainstay of cultivation
in a tropical and developing country. This interaction cre-
ates an opportunity to reduce extensive chemical fertilizer
input and repair the recoupling of different nutrient cycles
of an agro-ecosystem (Krall and Schuman 1996; Hen-
drickson et al. 2008). Long-term utilization of animal
manure is effective to enhance the production along with
soil fertility. The regular use of animal manure with dif-
ferent amendments in the field is useful to minimize the
extra burden of inorganic fertilizer (Tittonell et al. 2015).
Current global scenario indicates that a quarter of the
world’s terrestrial land with the integration of animal
husbandry produces almost one-tenth of the world’s meat
supply (Thornton and Herrero 2001). Moreover, nearly
50% of global food production is generated from the mixed
crop–livestock system (Herrero et al. 2010). Crop–live-
stock system is the cyclic process in which animal pro-
duces milk and meat with animal labour, while animal
excreta is used as input for agriculture and crop residue as
food supplements. Animal panning by smallholders works
as an indemnity towards hard times because it provides
Traditional agricultural practices in India: an approach for environmental sustainability and food… 259

Table 2 Different traditional agricultural practices performed in India

S. Traditional Characteristic features Performing community State References
no agricultural
practices

1 Forest gardening Selection of superior species which incorporated in Mostly forest tribal Almost entire Altieri (1987)
home garden India
2 Rice fish culture The Apatanis tribes practise aquaculture along with Apatanis tribes Arunachal Kumar and
rice farming in their lower plots Pradesh Ramakrishnan
(1990)
3 Aquaforestry Cultivating fish and prawn in saline water and Most of the coastal Coastal areas Dagar et al.
growing coconut and other trees on bunds of population of Andhra (1991)
ponds Pradesh
4 Shifting Burning the forest land for release of nutrients that Nishis, Karbis, Kacharis Northeast India Ramakrishnan
cultivation support production for several years in the and Patnaik
cultivation of annual as well as perennial crops (1992)
5 Kanabandi Farmers build barrier by using pieces of small dead Most of the local farmers Rajasthan Mathur (1995)
wood or local vegetation to check wind velocity of arid region
within safer limits
6 Terraces or bun It is a slope and valley type cultivation which useful Khasis, Jaintias and Garos Meghalaya Jeeva et al.
cultivation for improving crop production and retaining (2006)
moisture for soil conservation
7 Badi cropping It is similar to home gardening practice which is Baiga tribes Madhya Singh et al.
system mainly used by tribal for the maintenance of soil Pradesh (2006)
fertility
8 Live bunding/ Bushes of subabul, shevri and grasses like vetiveria Most of the local farmers Uttar Pradesh Srivastava and
vegetative are planted between the bunds of field across the Pandey (2006)
bunding slope for soil conservation against the water
erosion
9 Livestock Farmer used panning of cow, sheep, goat and Aheer and Gadaria Madhya Singh and Sureja
panning and fallowing the field at the end of winter to improve Pradesh and (2008)
fallowing fertility of the field for the next crop Uttar Pradesh
10 Utera cropping Under rainfed agro-ecosystem, the next crop is Baiga tribes Madhya Singh and Sureja
system sowing before harvesting to utilize the soil Pradesh (2008)
moisture of the previous crop
11 Alder-based Alder (Alnus nepalansis) is cultivated in jhum Indigenous tribes, Angami, Nagaland Rathore et al.
farming system cultivation, a legume tree that fixes atmospheric Chakhesang, Chang, (2010)
in Jhum nitrogen for nutrients and leaf litter to retain the Yimchunger and Konyak
cultivation soil moisture
12 Farming below In this process, a series of buds has been created to Kuttanad Farmer of costal Kerala Sathyanathan
the sea level regulate the flooding and salinity in agriculture by area (2010)
the use of biobuds such as coconut tree, banana
waste, bamboo, coir and clay
13 Kaipad (rice–fish Rice cultivation is performed from April to October Farmers of coastal area Kerala Vanaja (2013)
farming) and prawn/fish farming from November to April
14 Pannendu It is known as 12-crop system, in which millets, Most of the farmers Andhra Bhushan et al.
Pantalu pulses, oil crop and various vegetables are grown Pradesh (2001)
on the single piece of land
15 Homesteads A number of tree species is growing for fuel, fodder Most of the farmers Himachal Kashyap et al.
(Kyaroo) and timber along with livestock, poultry and fish Pradesh and (2014)
to satisfying the basic need of the farmer Jammu and
Kashmir
16 Zabo System Zabo means impounding of water, mostly practised Chakhesang tribe Nagaland Singh et al.
by the Chakhesang tribe of Nagaland up to 100% (2014a, b)
slope, which is a combination of forest,
agriculture, animal husbandry and pisciculture
17 Sanda practice It is an excellent practice for water management in Local farmers Uttar Pradesh Morya et al.
(double rainfed condition in which rice nursery is (2016)
transplanting) transplanted two times in a cropping season

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260
regular economic strength to the farmer by the sale of
ruminant milk, egg and meat from poultry and organic
compost as farm input (Herrero et al. 2010).
Animal husbandry at landscape level reduces the use of
synthetic fertilizers which ultimately cuts down the GHG
emissions resulting in a considerable reduction in carbon
footprint (Abhilash 2015). The overnight keeping of herds
of cattle, sheep and goat on the cultivated land in late
winter and summer is reported from eastern Uttar Pradesh
and Madhya Pradesh state of India (Singh and Sureja 2008;
Morya et al. 2016). The 5–8 overnight panned of cattle
discharges excreta direct into the field which is a prominent
source of soil nutrient for sustainable management of the
upcoming crop system. Livestock plays a significant role to
provide drought power with compost for soil, whereas
animal food products (meat, milk and cheese) contribute an
extra source of income in the marginal and low-income
families of developing countries. In several parts of India,
threshing of the most crops is performed by bullock
trampling where sun-dried crop plants are spread on the
threshing floor and tramping performed by repeated
walking of a bullock in a circular path (Joshi and Singh
2006).
5.1.3 Agroforestry-based agricultural practices
Agroforestry practices diversify the cropping system at
farm/landscape level in which tree-integrated cultivation is
performed. The planted tree species may be fruit or fodder,
depending upon the requirement of the farmers. The
intercropping of trees along with the crops is one of the
ancient practices as its origin is considered to the beginning
of agriculture and animal husbandry (Oelbermann et al.
2004). Integration of crops and animal husbandry in
agroforestry reduces soil erosion and potentially improves
the soil moisture with water-holding capacity which likely
enhances carbon sequestration and microbial diversity
(Garrity 2004; Williams-Guillen et al. 2008; Garrett et al.
2009; Nair et al. 2009). The tree species of agroforestry
system support the societal, economic and environmental
requirements of the local people by supplying food, fuel
and fodder. Several other social and economic profits of the
farmer are also reaped by agroforestry in the form of
household income, the sustainability of crop system, soil
conservation, environmental clearance, the local market
and gender equality (Mercer and Hyde 1992; Alavalapati
et al. 2001).
Tree-integrated farming has climate adaptive and miti-
gation potential that boosts CO2 sequestration along with
crop productivity to sustaining food security. Kirby and
Potvin (2007) and Sharrow and Ismail (2004) reported that
the combined cultivation of trees and shrubs improved the
carbon assimilation as compared to mono-crop and
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S. K. Patel et al.
pasture-based practices. Jha et al. (2001) stated that accu-
mulation of carbon in soil of agroforestry stored about 83.6
ton C/ha to the 30 cm depth. The rate of carbon sink and
biomass incensement depends upon the age of the tree
(Kim et al. 2016). A 15-year-old field of agroforestry
system showed a remarkable increase in carbon seques-
tration from 30 to 70% with the rate of 4.4–10 ton C
ha-1 year-1 (Kim et al. 2016). The planted trees sequester
CO2 from the atmosphere and reduce the other GHG
emissions that have more global warming potential com-
pared to CO2 such as CH4 and N2O at the rate of 13 to 41
ton CO2 equivalent ha-1 year-1 (Dubey et al. 2019). In
tropical agroforestry practices, incorporation of tree and
crops that biologically fix atmospheric nitrogen is common.
These integrated species fixed nitrogen along with GHG
assimilation, while cultivated tree reduces the severity
towards extreme weather such as storm, flood, hurricanes
and pest attacks (Lin 2011; Matocha et al. 2012).
In India, the geographical coverage of agroforestry is
111,554 km2, which is nearly 3.39% of the total geo-
graphical area, covering irrigated and rainfed cultivation
(FSI 2013). Tree-based cultivation is performed in the
entire country in the form of shifting cultivation in the
Himalayan and north-eastern region, Taungya practice in
Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha as well as Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in southern India
(Murthy et al. 2013). Tree species such as Eucalyptus
cauriana, Dalbergia sissoo and Populus spp. are highly
preferable species in agroforestry. However, home gar-
dening, aquaforestry and alder-based practices are also an
ancient form of a traditional agroforestry system. India has
assured to reduce the strength of CO2 emission of its GDP
to 33–35% lower than 2005 by 2030 under the Paris
Agreement. India will be planting an additional forest to
sink carbon of 2.5–3 billion ton equivalent of CO2 till 2030
to achieve this target.
5.1.4 Mixed/intercropping-based agricultural practices
Biologically diverse agro-ecosystem is more protective
towards the natural and anthropogenic threats with large
production. When crop diversity is maintained, it helps to
expand the soil nutrient balance and regulates natural
defences against pest and extreme weather (Thrupp 2002;
Scherr and McNeely 2008). Intercropping is the practice in
which two or more species or genotypes grow together at
the same time and same field (Brooker et al. 2015).
According to cultivation practices, intercropping is known
with different names such as relay intercropping, where the
second crop is cultivated before the earlier crop matures,
and strip intercropping, in which two crops are grown
together in strips (Booker et al. 2015). The mixed cropping
is also known as polyculture, co-cultivation and
Traditional agricultural practices in India: an approach for environmental sustainability and food…
intercropping. It is mainly performed in traditional culti-
vation, where subsistence agriculture is dominated with
minimal mechanization.
In modern agriculture, intercrop/mixed cropping has
played a significant role to enhance productivity in extreme
weather and low input farming. It produces a higher yield
than the mono-cropping because of intercropping displays
variable adaptation to the climatic threats (Shava et al.
2009; Hu et al. 2017). Mixed cropping reduces the tillage
and mechanical disturbance of the field because two or
more cultivated crops have a different flowering and
fruiting season. It is an ideal way to efficiently use the
renewable resources of solar energy, water and soil nutri-
ents. The diversified farm represents high production cou-
pled with increasing soil fertility which originates as a
result of interaction between different types of crop species
(Rakshit et al. 2017, 2018). The multi-cropping provides
about 15–20% of the food supply of the global population
(Altieri 1999). In Latin America, approximately 70–90% of
maize is intercropped with beans, potato and other crops,
whereas 89% cowpea of Africa and 90% beans of
Colombia are cultivated in the intercropping (Lithourgidis
et al. 2011).
Despite the use of the cover crop, tropical farmers
generally prefer legume cultivation along with cereals in
mixed cropping. Legume crops provide nitrogen in nutrient
stress condition through symbiotic nitrogen fixation of
rhizospheric bacteria (Mao et al. 2015; Duchene et al.
2017). The leguminous crops are also helping to check the
emission of N2O as well as speed up the release of min-
eralizable nitrogen-containing compounds (Rochette and
Janzen 2005; Jensen et al. 2010; Scalise et al. 2017). This
mineralized nitrogen is available to the plants as nutrient
and reduces the demand for inorganic fertilizer and release
of N2O (Hauggaard-Nielsen et al. 2016). The competition
between plants of mixed cropping with companion crops
can be diminished through the alteration in plantation date.
Intercropping is effective in weed control because the
weeds are suppressed in this system due to large biomass
and better soil cover (Banik et al. 2006). As 80% of the
experiments demonstrate, biomass production of the
diverse system is 1.7 times more than a monoculture sys-
tem (Cardinale et al. 2007).
5.1.5 Crop rotation-based agricultural practices
Crop rotation is a sequence of cultivation in which two
different categories of the crop are cultivated after a cyclic
rotation for instance cultivation of cereal and legume. It is a
traditional practice which is effective in the control of
weeds, pests and diseases. Rotation assists nutrient
restoration of the field after cultivation of large demanding
mono-crop and diversifies the field with high net
261
production (Gaudin et al. 2015). The sequence of rotation
may be crop–crop or crop–animal depending upon cir-
cumstances. The crop–crop rotation is a traditional prac-
tice, while crop–animal rotation is emerging as a climate-
smart approach like rice–fish cultivation. Gaudin et al.
(2015) emphasized that cultivation of soybean after the
alteration of corn with the integration of reduced tillage
improves the production of corn and soybeans by 7% and
22%, respectively. Additionally, it effectively assimilates
more GHGs as compared to continuous cultivation of
mono-crops (Triberti et al. 2016). In the crop rotation,
leguminous crops are preferred that fix atmospheric nitro-
gen and prevent the attack of weeds and pest. When a
leguminous crop is cultivated in rotation, it enhances the
nitrogen in the soil, thereby reducing the demand of inor-
ganic fertilizers in the next crop. The elevated nitrogen also
promotes the phyto-biomass cover which increases soil
moisture and productivity (Wang et al. 2010; Raphael et al.
2016).
Crop rotation is repeatable and sustainable for reducing
soil degradation, improving water-use efficiency (WUE)
and high productivity (Zixi et al. 1994; Fengrui et al.
2000). The rotation of different rooting crops with minimal
tillage produces a large network of the root system with
large micro-pores which increases the availability of water
for the crops (Hobbs et al. 2008). Percolated water of lower
depth promotes microbial diversity and minimizes the loss
of water as infiltration and evaporation which is effective to
prevent the pathogens outbreak (Pikul and Aase 1995;
Leake 2003; Hobbs et al. 2008). The sequential crop
rotation for 3–4 years diminished the use of nitrogenous
fertilizer and chemical pesticide as well as reduced
70–75% of labour input of farming system (IFAD 2005;
Dhar et al. 2018). A similar benefit was also elucidated by
Di Paola et al. (2017) that production of animal protein
with the integration of grain feeding consumed 2.4–33
more cost in terms of land and water resource use, while it
generated 2.4–240 more pollutants in terms of GHG
emission with respect to plant-based protein (Fig. 2).
5.1.6 Pasture cover or grazing-based agricultural
practices
Pasture cover is one of the dominating terrestrial land-use
practices across the world that share about 40% of areas of
ice-free land on earth (White et al. 2000). It provides a rich
source of microbial and arthropod diversity. The tufts of
the pasture provide favourable temperature for microbial
growth resulting in double microbial diversity found in the
tuft as compared to a bare microsite (Mathieu et al. 2009).
Pasture cover supplies various ecosystem services such as
carbon assimilation, water purification, the recreational and
aesthetic value in the form of ecotouris and grassland for
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Fig. 2 Various common
traditional agricultural practices
performed by marginalized
farmers in India
livestock grazers (Dignam et al. 2016). In the temperate
region of the world, legume plants cultivation with pasture
is vital for the production of milk, fodder and meat. The
perennial legume is useful in enhancing the food quality
and nitrogen enrichment through atmospheric microbial
nitrogen fixation (Ledgard 2001; Woodfield and Clark
2009). The cattle of New Zealand dairy businesses
achieved their 90% of nutrient and fodder requirement
from pasture grazing (Bocquier and González-Garcı́a
2010). Pasture cover reduces the grazing pressure on the
forest and works as the seral between large forest and spots
of open forest. FYM is excreted during browsing and acts
as the nutrition for these forests. In the Himalayan region
of India, dry leaves of forest and grasses of pasture are
spread on the shed of cattle for warming purpose in winter.
At the end of the season, the bedding material of the shed is
decomposed to mix with urine and dung which is poten-
tially used as FYM for agriculture additive.
5.1.7 Home gardening
Home gardening is a form of agroforestry which is mostly
reported from Himalaya, Northeast and Central India
(Kumar and Nair 2004; Kala 2010; Saikia et al. 2012;
Saikia and Khan 2014). It is one of the least explored
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S. K. Patel et al.
production systems in the prospect of ecosystem services
(Calvet-Mir et al. 2012). It is the piece of land that is
located nearer to the households and dominated by a clo-
sely layered canopy of different woody and non-woody
plants with the integration of domestic animals (Peyre et al.
2006). Despite the reservoir of vegetables, home gardens
are also known for depository of native diversity of fruits,
ornamental and medicinal plants (Blancas et al. 2010; Parra
et al. 2012). Globally, it has developed into a diverse
system that provided year-round food availability and at
the same time minimized unpredictable environmental
threats such as floods, drought and pest attack (Fernandes
and Nair 1986; Jose and Shanmugaratnam 1993). The
tropical region is well known for home gardening, where
trees and horticulture practices are performed together.
Home garden optimally uses the soil nutrient in a multi-
dimensional way for sustainable yields of different crops
for additional revenue.
5.2 Traditional agriculture practices for plant
disease and pest management
Apart from cultivation practices, traditional agriculture has
the potential to improve pest management. Several local
knowledge-based pest management practices are applied to
Traditional agricultural practices in India: an approach for environmental sustainability and food…
suppress pests, such as time of cultivation, grain storage,
frequency of tillage and combination of the mixed crop
(Murrell 2017). In biological control of pests, agriculture
system is diversified by the use of mixed cropping and crop
rotation, while fallowing and hoeing are executed to
achieve weed and soil germinated pest management (Sofia
et al. 2006). Perennial cover crops are cultivated in tradi-
tional agriculture to retain the soil moisture and nutrient
conservation.
5.2.1 Summer ploughing/resting
In most parts of the world, summer ploughing and land
resting are very common practices to control pest and
diseases. During this event, the eggs and dormant spores of
the different pathogens are sun-dried which is resulting in
sterilization of the soil condition for the next crops. These
two are highly effective in destroying the embryos of
dormant pest and weed (Joshi and Singh 2006). The pest
and disease are also managed by dry as well as wet over-
flow fallowing of the fields. Summer ploughing is also
significant for soil moisture retention in the drought-prone
area towards high input cost of irrigation (Morya et al.
2016). The soil moisture in fallowing is checked by dust
mulching which diminishes evaporation by dust layering
and enhancing the receptivity of soil towards the rain.
5.2.2 Push–pull method of pest management
The push–pull methods are close to the intercropping,
where cash crop is planted with a push plant which repels
pest from target or cash crop, while the borderline of the
field is planted by host plant that attracts (pull) pest (Khan
et al. 2011). Push plant which is grown with cash crop has a
preference to push only pest organism by the release of
semiochemical kairomones (Agelopoulos et al. 1999). The
pull species which is planted on the perimeter of the field
act as the attractor with tastier meat than the main crop. It
induces the secretion of secondary volatile metabolite-
containing terpenoids that defend them from other herbi-
vores and attracts natural enemies of herbivores. For
example, maize is intercropped with Desmodium uncina-
tum (push species) and Pennisetum purpureum (pull spe-
cies) planted on the borderline of the field. Desmodium
uncinatum releases volatile substances ((E)-ß-ocimene and
(E)-4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene), which works to repel
stemborer moth, while Pennisetum purpureum pulls the
female moth to lay egg through the chemical secretions
(octanal, nonanal, naphthalene, 4-allylanisole, eugenol and
linalool) (Khan et al. 2010).
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5.2.3 Use of a mixture of ash and manure
In the Gangetic plain of eastern Uttar Pradesh, most of the
households contain a traditional pit called Gur, where every
type of the biodegradable wastes of houses such as veg-
etable waste and ash of the cooking waste with livestock
excreta is decomposed. This decomposed material is used
as manure for crops. Ash of the dung’s candy frequently
dusting on the newly germinated buds of vegetable crops
like sponge guard, ladies’ fingers, cucumber and radish
towards the protection of caterpillars (Sofia et al. 2006).
The dusting ash on the leaves of potato and mustard plants
hindered the attack of early blight of potato and aphids.
The mixture of ashes and manure having high NPK value
which supplemented to the plant as nutrients (Joshi and
Singh 2006).
5.2.4 Traditional methods of grain storage from pest
attack
After cultivation and harvesting of the crops, grain storage
is a significant activity for food security. The production of
grains in India has vastly increased after the green revo-
lution, but the post-harvest loss is continued at 10%
(Dhaliwal and Singh 2010; Prakash et al. 2016). The
impairment during storage is 6% of the total loss due to the
improper availability of storage facility. Most population in
India is living in the villages and adopt subsistence farm-
ing. They have stored approximately 60–70% of grain
crops at household level through the use of a traditional
storage system (Karthikeyan et al. 2009).
Grains storage are performed after proper drying process
because sun-drying exhausts the presence of bug and pests
on their different life cycle stages and hardens the seed coat
to restrict the bore of storage seed (Kumar and Singh
2013). During the storage, container kept airtight which
elevated the CO2 level and restricted the activity of moulds
and mycotoxins. In other methods of storage, grains are
kept with straw or husk to reduce the moisture content.
Most of the farmers are storing grain in Amavasya (New
moon) because it is believed that risk of pest attack is high
in the moonlight as compared to new moon. The leaf of
Azadirachta indica (neem) and Calotropis procera (madar)
are mixed with cow dung. This mixture used as an excel-
lent insecticide and pest growth inhibitor (Joseph et al.
2013; Misra 2014). Common table salt is a popular practice
for red gram storage in South India (Karthikeyan et al.
2009). Grains are mixed with ash to reduce the relative
humidity of seed surface in many parts of the country
(Rekha and Padmakar 2014). Ash is effective to prevent the
pest for 6–10 months in stored grain. Silica is the major
constituent of ash which inhibited the insect with hindering
the multiplication of fungal pathogen (Prakash et al. 2016).
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Fig. 3 Different traditional crop
pest management practices: a,
b Vegetative barricading for
animal protection through the
use of rice straw and branches
of a spiny plant. c Sitting branch
in the wheat field inviting bird
predation. d Scarecrow for crop
protection
5.2.5 Traditional practices of biological pest and weed
control
Weeds and pests are considered as an important component
of agro-ecosystem. In traditional agriculture, about 90% of
the farmers control the weeds and pest by handpicking and
hoeing (Singh and Sureja 2008). In different parts of India,
farmers frequently use cow urine and vermiwash (fluids
waste from livestock shed or vermicompost tank) as pro-
phylactics as well as pesticides (Sofia et al. 2006). Lady-
bugs, birds, spider, hoverfly larvae and frog used as a
predator against aphids, whereas beet webworm, army-
worm, sunflower beetle and grasshopper use to control the
small pest. In Mexico, birds are used as the biological
control agents for insects in which hens are allowed to feed
the insect for 3–4 days in the field (Morales and Perfecto
2000). Birds are devouring pest situated on the upper layer
of soil and effectively reduce the probability of a future
attack of soil-borne insect. In India, farmers have applied
chicken swallowing in the field of cotton and pigeon pea to
control the attack of Helicoverpa (Wightman and Wight-
man 1994; Morales 2002). The sitting tree and branches are
formed on the border of the field to invite bird for predation
(Fig. 3c).
Despite the predatory methods, a lot of biological con-
stituents are used which have significant biochemical
properties for pest management. For example, the dry
flower of Madhuca indica is useful in controlling the attack
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S. K. Patel et al.
of Scolopendra insect on the leaf petioles of soybean crops
in Madhya Pradesh (Singh et al. 2014a, b). The leaf extract
of Ipomoea carnea is used to control the attack of army-
worm (Pseudaletia gossypiella) and bollworm (Pectino-
phora sp.) in chickpea (Singh et al. 2014a, b). Several plant
species contain special properties for microbial pests; for
example, Acorus calamus has antibacterial properties;
Aegle marmelos is known for antibacterial, antifungal,
nematicidal and anthelmintic properties; and Snaps alba
has insect antixenosis, acaricidal and antifungal properties
(Hani 2011). The leaf and crumpled seeds of Azadirachta
indica are still used as the protector towards the insect
attack in the storing materials of foods (Karthikeyan et al.
2009). On the other hand, various natural biopesticides are
prepared from different plants used at local levels such as
ginger (Zingiber officinale), chilli (Capsicum frutescens),
turmeric (Curcuma longa), garlic (Allium sativum), castor
seeds (Ricinus communis), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)
and basil (Ocimum basilicum) (Morya et al. 2016; Prakash
et al. 2016).
5.3 Traditional practices for crop protection
Sunflower, maize and fruit crops of agroforestry have more
dread of animals attack as compared to pest. These attacks
deteriorate the fairness of the ripen crops and cause more
economic deficit in production. Wild grazer destroyed crop
by extensive grazing and foot tempering which causes a
Traditional agricultural practices in India: an approach for environmental sustainability and food…
severe loss in grain production. Farmers adopted various
local and sustainable protection methods to control these
wild animals. Scarecrow is one of the famous and wide-
spread methods for crop protection. It is a very effective
tool of protection from vertebrate in place of the use of
deadly and hazardous pesticides. Generally, it is made up
by filling the old cloth with straw and hanging knotted
earthen pole in the field (Fig. 3d). A bright and white
plastic cloth is preferred which scare the wild vertebrate
pest like birds, blue bull and monkey by making noise
when air is blown (Dwivedi 2011; Dey and Sarkar 2011).
Crops are protected towards the incursion of vermin
through barricading bamboo pole and rice straw’s rope
(Fig. 3b). Except for these large vertebrates, small verte-
brate such as dog, wild pig and jackal are prohibited by
making a barrier of spiny branches of Acacia nilotica,
Ziziphus mauritiana and Aegle marmelos (Fig. 3a). Several
local strategies are also adopted for the protection of crop
towards bird attack like throwing of stone, making a sound
from the knelling metal container. Rattrap is used towards
the protection of crop from rodents, whereas dry bud leaf of
bamboos is plumbed in the field that makes the sound when
air is blown to scare the rodents. The slurry of cattle’s dung
is also spread on the crop to escape from grazing.
6 Challenges of adopting traditional agriculture
practices
A major challenge to adopting TAPs is a decline in pro-
duction. These practices are mainly labour-intensive;
women are involved in seed sowing, manual weeding, post-
harvest processing, grain threshing and milling. To over-
come this hurdle, a cost-effective technology needs to
develop (Rengalakshmi 2005). A second challenge to the
adoption of traditional practice is relatively low-yield result
in the lack of scientific consideration. However, including
traditional practice in the cropping system may overbal-
ance the shortcomings of low yield (e.g., to tackle nutri-
tional deficiency or crop failure in the unfavourable
environment). Moreover, these crops can grow in a
stressful environment, where mainstream crops may fail
(Plaza-Wüthrich and Tadele 2012). Third, home-garden-
level diversity is largely affected due to the access of seed
which may be limited in rural seed systems. However, local
seed markets and community seed bank play a significant
role in the enhancement of traditional crop diversity indi-
cating that a good source of introduction for improved
varieties (Nagarajan et al. 2007). Small millets are culti-
vated by traditional farmers for their extreme abiotic and
biotic stress resistance, and an understanding of the
molecular mechanisms may lead to agronomic improve-
ment of related major cereals. Unfortunately, traditional
265
crop diversity remains largely unexplored at the level of
molecular mechanism, except for a limited number of
studies illustrated earlier. Therefore, improved funding,
coordination, communication and sharing of genetic
resources are needed to overcome these challenges.
7 Prospects of traditional agriculture
The knowledge related to the quantitative effect of plant
and agriculture on local climate is not properly documented
in most parts of India. For better conservation of this tra-
ditional knowledge, documentation and public awareness
are needed at national as well as global level. Traditional
agriculture conserves a wealth of knowledge with various
principles. The integration of these practices with modern
agriculture system provides a smart resilience towards
climate variability. The Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) in 2002, at World Summit on Sustainable Devel-
opment (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa, initiated
the GIAHS (Globally Important Agricultural Heritage
Systems) in support of Agenda 21. The main target of
GIAHS is to identification and conservation of globally
important traditional agriculture system with the associated
landscape, biocultural knowledge and crop diversity.
Globally, more than 100 GIAHS sites in different countries
are designated, and GIAHS Secretariat interacts with
UNESCO to seek association with World Heritage activity.
In recent decades, traditional agriculture has received more
attention on the international track. Convention on Bio-
logical Diversity (CBD) FAO, World Health Organization
(WHO), UNESCO and United Nations Commissions on
Human Rights (UNCHR) and other organizations promote
the conservation of these practices.
In Indian contexts, Patent Act 1970 is the primitive
national initiative for biodiversity conservation, whereas
C.P. Ramaswami Environmental Education Centre
(CPREEC) which is a branch of Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change (MoEF & CC) of Government
of India and Environmental Information System (ENVIS)
is the emerging organization for conservation and restora-
tion of ecological heritage and sacred sites of the country.
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD) is the top rural development financial body
that provides monetary support to the farmers for agricul-
ture economy and conservation policy in India. Apart from
these, several farmer organizations also work for conser-
vation and documentation such as farmer of the states of
Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand under the banner of ‘‘Beej
Bachao Andolan’’ (Save the seed movement) travel to
villages and collect the seeds of traditional crops. ‘‘Ma-
harashtra seed mother pioneer conservation of native
varieties’’ has the same objectives. The Community
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Biodiversity Register has also developed to documentation
process in which indigenous local knowledge techniques
and skills related to the conservation of traditional practices
and natural resource are documented.
8 Conclusion and recommendations
Indian agriculture is dominated by subsidiaries and rainfed
agriculture, which cover about 78% of the smallholder
population. The inadequate market channelling and poor
cope-up ability towards extreme weather condition make
Indian agriculture more vulnerable to climate change. The
unpreparedness, shortage of sufficient storage facility and
mono-cropping with single varieties cause more loss.
Traditional agriculture is resilient to these effects, but low
productivity makes them more vulnerable. The government
overlooked traditional farming after the success of green
revolution because a growing population demanding more
food and built pressure to promote high yielding varieties
and subsidy on chemical fertilizers. The researcher and
policymaker need to integrate the best TAPs with con-
ventional cultivation and construct a way for sustainable
agriculture production (Thurston 1990). These practices are
the storehouse of intergenerational knowledge of the
community and stand in present due to the ability towards
change. The conservation of traditional agriculture not only
is farming in local condition with local resources, but also
strengthens the conservation of traditional knowledge,
local varieties, animal welfare, the farming heritage of the
community, use of renewable energy with soil and water
purification for healthy human society.
For promotion and conservation of these practices, the
government needs to support more research in these areas
and provide more subsidy on organic fertilizer, vermi-
composting, solar plant and drip irrigation. However, tra-
ditional crops are not blindly advocated in the developing
nations for biodiversity strategies. A multi-disciplinary
survey must be conducted with local farmers about their
nutritional value, seed availability, economy, climate and
other crops in the cropping system. Realistic multi-disci-
plinary research efforts are needed to develop farming
systems and select suitable crops because of future climate
change. Hence, sufficient supplies of food and economic
security, conservation of traditional crop wealth, the sus-
tainability of production systems and environmental con-
servation are guaranteed. It is suggested to create a balance
between production and conservation and highlight the
climate-smart approach of traditional agriculture towards
climate change and sustainable food security.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Director and
Head of Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development,
123
S. K. Patel et al.
BHU, Varanasi, for providing all necessary facilities. Anil Sharma is
thankful to University Grants Commission, New Delhi [3615(NET-
DEC. 2014)], for the financial support.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interests The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interests.
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