Chapter 1 : States of Matter

I
ice water

solids liquids & gazes

pour

,
i
&
water

solids · kinetic theory

.
veda

.
ritha

...
·

~-C
E-
↑

· -- when substance is heated , particles absorb thermal

-

·
energy which is
&
·
Fixed volume Fixed shape high density. , , ~ converted to kinetic energy
.
·
doms vibrates in place Heating solid causes particles to vibrate more , 3 as temperature increases

they vibrate to the point solid's structure breaks 3 It melts

closely packed together regular pattern
·
.

with more heating the liquid expands as well until particles at

,

Liquids:...
A
:: ... -
surface gain enough energy to escape 3 the liquid boils when by reach
..... -
-
these
changes are shown on a heating curve & reverse is a
cooling
in temperature effects
curve , these curves show how changes
·
Fixed 3 take shape of container
volume
changes of state .
Less dense than solids more dense than
gas
·

Pressure 8 temperature in
,

Particles move and slide past each other .

·

Gases :: gases I

the more the temperature increases , the volume of gas also

·
not fixed volume take shape of container , increases . and the density decreases if volume increases .
Lowest
density a lot of space betwee particles
·
, if you have gas stored in containera Squeezed ,
the pressure
so gases are easily compressed . increases as you decrease volume
.
·
Random particles 3 Particles more quickly.
Particles Collide with each other 3 the
·
Gases 8 Kinetic theory
.
sides of the container (this is how Pressure
Gaseous particles are in constant random motion
.
is created). creates inside a closed container is
pressure that gas produced

by gas hitting the walls of container

state changes.
.

An increase in kinetic
energy increases if temperature
increases. With increase in kinetic energy particles
Melting. Evaporation
. ,

·
solid >
-

Liquid temperature. more faster and collide with walls more

frequently.
heat kinectic liquid ->
gas at
any
energy >
increase in pressure .
-

Decrease in volume
·

energy and
melting only occurs at evaporation happens at the surface only
specific melting energy particles escape surface at
temp known as

point.
·

high
any temperature
.

Boiling. ·
larger the surface area the
the , more
Liquid to gas
quickly a liquid evaporates
·

·
heat needed to form .

bubbles of gas below the

surface of liquid allowing ,
condensation.
liquid to escape from surface
· occurs at
boiling point (b P) .
.
gas - liquid at range of temperatures.

Freezing. when a
gas is cooled , particles lose energy
each
·

Liquid >
-
Solid 3 When they bump
into
o they they don't

of melting occurs at
,
enough energy to bounce away instead
reverse
have
·

,
same temperature
requires lot of temp decrease they group together and form a liquid .

extra notes
diffusion T
:

diffusion is the movement of particles from area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration and
eventually
concentration of particles will be even as they spread out
to occupy all the space. diffusion happens on its own
3 doesn't
require energy but it happens faster at
higher temperatures
Diffusion occurs faster in gases compared to liquids.
at same temperature, gases dont diffuse at same rate.
this is due to difference in molecular masses ,
lighter
particles travel faster therefore they diffuse faster
, .

this can be demonstrated in the reaction between ammonia

(NH3) and hydrogen Chloride gas (HCI) inside glass tube.
where the two meet , white smoke of ammonium
gasses
Chloride (NH (e) is formed
. +

However , they don't meet in the middle of the tube instead

they Meet closer to the end where hydrogen Chloride (Mr =

36 5)
.

is this is because ammonia

,
(Mr 17)'s molecules
=
are lighter
so they travel faster than HCl .
· This chapter was written while
travelling ,
excuse the handwriting XD
.

Chapter 2 : Atoms Elements and , compounds

cons conic
Dot 3 Cross diagrams
bonds
.

of the outer-shell electrons in ionic or covalent

diagrams that show the arrangement
-

&
compound or element.
formed by
group of loss or
·
ion is an
electrically charged atom or atoms
eg Nab : Cl-non-metal
of electrons- stabilize.
gain -this is done by atom to
metal
of electrons is done to
gain full outer shell of electrons
the loss/gain
-

XX
of electrons
-

which is a more stable arrangement ·

·
t
XX
X
metals can lose electrons
sodium atom sodium ion Metal : all
and become positively charged
Na ·***
⑧

XO
t ions known as cations ⑧
**
** Non-metal non-metals
: can
gain Nation

Ox from other atoms to

Ce-ion
electrons
XX
become negatively charged ions Lattice structure of ionic compounds
.

anions

on compounhavagantlatticstructuredrepeatingfashionternating
00 known as .
- there is more protons
there is space than electrons now that

for 7 electrons so it electron

sodium lost an .

is easier to lose the

therefore it is positively 3 negative cons.
Positive
instead of
existing electron .
charged
gaining 7 .
Properties of ionic compounds .

usually solid at rep

points because of strong electrostatic
high melting ? Boiling
-

>
-

When metals react with non-metals , ionic compounds are made to break bonds
forces , a lot of energy will be needed
.
.

metals lose their outer electrons which the non-metals atom .

gain of electricity in molten or in solution
-

conductors .
ions are held -good a charged b freely
forces of
positive
3 negative together by strong electrostatic
this isbecausethepartie oringred
-

state because they are

attraction between opposite charges .

positions within the lattice

attraction is known as ionic bond
.

the force of .

simple molecules giant covalent

and covalent bonds
veda

structures
ritha

.
·

~-(
g
Ef
·
covalent compounds are formed when pairs of electrons are shared

between atoms
.
Diamond Graphite
.
allotropes of carbon with giant
covalent structures , due +o
Only non-metal elements participate in covalent
bonding.
·
·

difference in bond arrangement they

are
physically different
when two or more atoms bond covalently , described
they are as
·

in diamonds , carbon atoms bond with 4

other carbons
forming
molecules . a tetrahedron .

*
Dot' Cross diagrams can be used to snow covalent bonds eg :
all bonds are identical , strong 3 have no intermolecular forces ·

H2 H20 NH3-ammonia carbon atoms bond to 3 other forming layers

⑳ ⑧⑧
in graphite ,

free electron per carbon to become

hexagons
of ,
leaving one

* · O
X N X
H H H
·
H delocalized .

but the layers

⑧
X the covalent bonds within layers are
very strong
weak intermolecular forces
·
attract to each other with
H -

H H
H
H 0
PROPERTIES OF : Graphite
- -

Single
·

has free delocalized electrons

bond
-

So it can conduct electricity

.
N2 H N H diamond
NEW
- -

Layersare connectedby
y

it free electrons
Triple bond
-
insulator -

no slide

C 0 CO2 over each other so graphite is

0
=

high mp3bD-strong
=
-
bonds smooth
a Slippery .

↳ double bond
hard dense high melting 3 boiling point
-

less dense than

XX diamond
.
used in jewellery i

N
-
-

used in pencils 3 lubricants

cutting tos1s used to make inert electrodes
-

Silicon (IV) Oxide .

properties of simple molecular compounds. ↳ macromolecular b

compound occurs sand
which
naturally as

quartz
·
small compound molecules are covalently bonded. they have low melting boiling -
each oxygen atom covalent bonds with 2 silicon atoms 3 each
or gases at room temperature.
points so they are usually liquids Silicon atom bonds with 4 Oxygen atoms
melting 3 boiling
.

·
As molecule size increases, so does point .

tetrahedron is formed
small molecules are poor electricity conductors.
.

·
there is weak intermolecular forces so
they have low
melting boiling point .

comparing 3 Silicon
diamond
·
intermolecular forces are weak so most small molecules are liquid/gas water
high melting point , insoluble
in
·
side is hard
3 has a
·
as molecule increases in size the intermolecular forces also increase
doesn't conduct electricity
&
.

this causes
melting boiling point to increases .

as it's naturally available

used in making
Siz is cheap
compounds there's no free ions to
·

* Most molecular are poor conductors as

of furnaces
.
most covalent compounds insulators in solid state line the insides
Carry charge so are .

sandpaper and to
•The steeper the curve, the faster the rate of
the reaction
•The curve is steepest initially so the rate is
quickest at the beginning of the reaction
•As the reaction progresses, the concentration
of the reactants decreases and the rate
decreases shown by the curve becoming less
steep
•When one of the reactants is used up, the
reaction stops, the rate becomes zero and the
curve levels off to a horizontal line
•The amount of product formed in a reaction is
determined by the limiting reactant:
◦If the amount of limiting reactant increases,
the amount of product formed increases
◦If the amount of the reactant in excess
increases, the amount of product remains the
same
•Drawing a tangent to the slope allows you to
show the gradient at any point on the curve
•The steeper the slope, the quicker the rate of
reaction