F.

CW
NOTES
By Fakhriy A.
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Phrases and Clauses

1. Noun Phrase
A noun phrase is a group of words that have a noun or pronoun. It is used to modify the noun. In
other words, it can be said that a noun phrase can function as a subject, an object or a complement
in a sentence.
For example:

• My brother’s friend had come to visit him. (Used as a subject)

• Scented candles are my favourite. (Used as a subject)
• The students were asked to find the buried treasure. (Used as an object)

2. Adjective Phrase
An adjective phrase or an adjectival phrase is a group of words that consists of an adjective. It can
be used to complement it. It provides more information about the noun or pronoun in a sentence.
In other words, it can be said that it functions just like an adjective in a sentence.
For example:

• Annu has silky, smooth hair.

• People, living in large cities, often find it difficult to reach in time.
• The team that made it to the final was congratulated in front of the whole school.

3. Adverb Phrase
An adverb phrase or an adverbial phrase is a group of words that includes an adverb and other
modifiers. It performs all the functions of an adverb. It can be placed in any part of the sentence,
with respect to the part of speech they modify.
For example:

• We are planning to finish our group project by the end of May.

• Later this evening, my cousins and I have planned to go to the park.
• They saw some abandoned puppies at the corner of the street.

4. Prepositional Phrase
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and an object. It works just like an adjective or an
adverb. It relates the subject and the verb in a sentence. It is used to modify the nouns and verbs
in a particular sentence.
For example:

• It was too hard for me to concentrate with the kids jumping around.
• The jewellery boxes were kept inside the cupboard.
• On the way to New York, we caught sight of the famous Niagara falls.
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5. Infinitive Clause
Infinitive Clauses

Unlike a finite clause that contains a finite verb, an "infinitive clause" contains an infinitive. An
infinitive consists of the word to followed by the basic form of the verb: to go, to prepare, to
procrastinate, etc. In the following sentence, the infinitive to repair comes after the finite verb
tried.

The technical support specialist tried to repair the computer.

Although an infinitive always occurs in a sentence that contains, additionally, a finite verb,
because the infinitive is a type of verb, it can have its own object. The object of to repair is the
computer, and the sequence to repair the computer is the infinitive clause in the above
sentence.

6. Participial Clause

Present Participle Clause otherwise known as ‘-ing clauses’, this type of clause contains a
verb ending with -ing. For example:

She was very lucky being the only one to win a prize.

He was proud of himself solving the problem they were set.

Past Participle Clause In this type of non-finite clause, the past participle of a verb is used.
These often end in -ed, but there are a few exceptions to this rule. For example:

His application, if approved, would be a really important achievement.

When notified, she would leave the house immediately.

By the end of the day, although exhausted, Mark did not feel quite as tired as he had in the
past.

7. Main/ Independent clause

8. Subordinate/ Dependent Clause
An independent clause is a clause that can stand alone as a sentence.
A dependent clauses (or subordinate clause) is one that cannot stand alone as a complete
sentence (i.e., it does not express a complete thought).
The argument started when she took my book.
("The argument started" is an independent clause because it could stand alone as a sentence.
"When she took my book" is a dependent clause because it could not stand alone as a
sentence.)
9. Noun Clause (answer what?)
A noun clause is a dependent clause that takes the place of any noun in the sentence,
whether they are subjects, objects, or subject complements.
For example:
• She was saddened by what she had read.
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10. Adverb Clause

An adverb clause is a group of words that is used to change or qualify the meaning of
an adjective, a verb, a clause, another adverb, or any other type of word or phrase with the
exception of determiners and adjectives that directly modify nouns
Adverb clauses always meet three requirements:
• First, an adverb clause always contains a subject and a verb.
• Second, adverb clauses contain subordinate conjunctions that prevent them from
containing complete thoughts and becoming full sentences.
• Third, all adverb clauses answer one of the classic “adverb questions:” When? Why?
How? Where?
Example

• Jennifer scrubbed the bathtub until her arms ached. (This adverb clause describes how

Jennifer scrubbed.)

• The dogs started chasing my car once they saw it turn the corner. (This adverb clause

describes when the dogs started chasing my car.)

• After having my wisdom teeth out, I had a milkshake for dinner because I couldn’t chew

anything. (This adverb clause describes why I had a milkshake for dinner.)

Type Function Example

Manner Explain how something He ran as fast as he

happens could.

Place Explain where something I bring my phone

happens wherever I go.

Purpose Explain why something Vera bought Tom this gift

happens because she thought he

would like it.

Time Explain when something After they set up the

happens tent, they built a fire.

Condition Introduce possible David will be here at two

outcomes o’clock if he gets the

next train.

Comparison Compare or contrast Patrick can speak French

as well as I can.
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11. Relative Clause

We use relative pronouns to introduce relative clauses. Relative clauses tell us more about people

and things

The relative pronouns are:

Subject Object Possessive

who who/whom whose

which which whose

that that -

Lord Thompson, who is 76, has just retired.

This is the house which Jack built.
Marie Curie is the woman that discovered radium.
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Sentence pattern
12. Subject-Verb
• I / laughed.
• She / slept.
13. Subject-Verb-Object
• The little girl / is eating / a vanilla ice-cream.
• Those refugees / looked / for leftovers in the dustbin.
14. Subject-Verb-Adverbial
• She / walks / slowly along the beach.
• The ministers / speak / fluently in Spanish.
15. Subject-Verb-Complement
• Our frontliners / are / heroes.
• The poor / feels / hungry.
• Afrina / appears / slim and slender.
16. Subject-Verb-Indirect Object-Direct Object
• Loud music / gives / my grandma / a headache.
• The man / sings / the lady / a ballad song.
17. Subject-Verb-Object-Complement
• Rizal / painted / his bedroom / yellow.
• She / finds / the novel / intriguing.
• They / elected / Mariam / the captain of the netball team.
18. Subject-Verb-Object-Adverbial
• I / enjoyed / the book / greatly.
• Elsa / placed / the stones / in the aquarium.
• The mother / kisses / her baby / in the bedroom.
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Direct Speech & Reported Speech

19. Statement
When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:
▪ pronouns
▪ present tense verbs (3rd person singular)
▪ place and time expressions
▪ tenses (backshift)
Type Type Example
direct speech “I speak English.”
reported speech (no backshift) He says that he speaks English.
reported speech (backshift) He said that he spoke English.
20. Questions
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:
▪ pronouns
▪ present tense verbs (3rd person singular)
▪ place and time expressions
▪ tenses (backshift)
Also note that you have to:
▪ transform the question into an indirect question
▪ use the interrogative or if / whether

21. Requests
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:
● pronouns
● place and time expressions

For pronouns and place / time expressions see statements in reported speech.
Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use ‚to’+ infinite verb.
Example:
She said, “Say hello to your mum.” – She asked me to say hello to my mum.

For negative requests, use ‚not to’+ infinite verb.

Example:
He said, “Don’t give up, Bob.” – He advised Bob not to give up.
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22. Suggestion
Suggestions are most often reported using the verbs suggest, insist, recommend,
demand, request, and propose followed by a that clause. 'That' and 'should' are
optional in these clauses.

She said, "Why don't you get a
mechanic to look at the car?"
She suggested that I should get a mechanic to look at the
car. OR
She suggested I should get a mechanic to look at the car. OR
She suggested that I get a mechanic to look at the car.OR
She suggested I get a mechanic to look at the car.

"It would be a good idea to see My mother suggested I see the dentist.
the dentist", said my mother.

23. Advice
when we transfer an advice sentence we use:
… advise + to + infinitive verb + …
“You guys should not study in dim light” said our teacher.
Our school teacher advised us not to study in dim light.

24. Intentions
When we report an intention, hope or promise, we use an appropriate reporting verb
followed by a that-clause or a to-infinitive:
"Give me the keys to the safe or I'll shoot you!"
• He threatened to shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe.
• He threatened that he would shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe