Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Thermal performance assessment for an array of cylindrical Lithium-Ion

battery cells using an Air-Cooling system
Husam Abdulrasool Hasan a, b, *, Hussein Togun c, *, Azher M Abed d, Nirmalendu Biswas e,
Hayder I. Mohammed f
a
Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research, Department of Studies, Planning & Follow-up Baghdad 10011, Iraq
b
Electromechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology,10066, Baghdad, Iraq
c
Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering University of Thi-Qar, Thi-Qar 64001, Iraq
d
Air conditioning and Refrigeration Techniques Engineering Department, Al-Mustaqbal University College, Babylon 51001, Iraq
e
Department of Power Engineering, Jadavpur University, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700106, India
f
Department of Physics, College of Education, University of Garmian, Kalar 46021, Iraq

H I G H L I G H T S

• A novel design of an efficient air-cooling system for improving the performance of lithium-ion batteries.
• It is revealed that the average Nusselt numbers (Nu) are an increasing function of Reynolds numbers (Re).
• The cells, which receive fresh cold external flow cause a substantial reduction in the cell surface temperature.
• Increasing Re also reduces the cooling pack outlet temperature, which leads to the improved life of the batteries.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Modern society depends on energy storage systems like Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. Li-ion battery cells are
Energy storage delicate to changes in temperature. Extreme environmental conditions affect their life cycle and performance.
Lithium-ion battery Therefore, effective cell temperature management is a must for secure and dependable battery operation.
Battery thermal management
Additionally, the high production costs of electric cars must be countered by the adaptability of the battery pack
Air-cooling system
design for modern electric vehicles. As the chemical reactions generate more heat and raise the battery’s tem­
Thermal performance
perature, it may cause the battery to explode and cause fires in the workplace. To address this issue, the present
work attempts to numerically study a novel design of an efficient air-cooling system for improving the perfor­
mance of lithium-ion batteries by reducing the operational temperatures under a different coolant flow rate. The
main output of the presented study is the analysis of a novel design of an efficient air-cooling system for lithium-
ion batteries. The study aims to reduce the operational temperatures of the batteries under different coolant flow
rates to improve their performance and service life. The numerical simulations are carried out using a finite
volume-based computing tool with the K-epsilon (k-ε) turbulence model. The analysis is performed for various
pertinent parametric ranges, including the spacing between the batteries, Reynolds numbers, and average
Nusselt numbers. The results indicate that increasing air inlet velocity (Re) substantially reduces the average air
temperature of the cooling pack and temperature difference (ΔT) of the battery cells, and the cooling pack’s
average heat transfer rate (Nu) increases monotonically as the Re increases.

fossil fuels are non-renewable, their overuse and exploitation signifi­

1. Introduction cantly adversely affect the environment [1]. The worldwide community
has recognized that new energy vehicle development and the gradual
Using fossil fuels like coal, natural gas, and oil leads to the reduction of traditional fuel vehicle use are the best ways to address the
modernization and rapid growth of the global economy. However, as energy crisis and environmental issues [2]. The primary component of

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: hussam2003hussam@yahoo.com (H.A. Hasan), htokan_2004@yahoo.com (H. Togun), azhermuhson@mustaqbal-college.edu.iq (A.M. Abed),
biswas.nirmalendu@gmail.com (N. Biswas), hayder.i.mohammad@garmian.edu.krd (H.I. Mohammed).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121354
Received 16 March 2023; Received in revised form 15 May 2023; Accepted 25 May 2023
Available online 8 June 2023
0306-2619/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H.A. Hasan et al. Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354

List of abbreviations μ Dynamic viscosity,Ns/m2

ε Turbulent dissipation rate, m2/s3
Cp Specific heat, kJ/kg. K
D Hydraulic diameter, m Subscript
Cf Skin friction coefficient,Cf = 2L
ΔPD av Average value
ρu2
2 BTMS Battery Thermal Management Systems
h Average heat transfer coefficient, W/m ·K
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
k Thermal conductivity, W/m·K
CLIB Cylindrical Li-Ion Batteries
keff Effective thermal conductivity,W/m.K
eff Effective
L Length of battery, m
HEVs Hybrid Electric Vehicles
M molecular weight (kg/mol)
ECM equivalent circuit model
Nu Nusselt number, Nu = h D/K
EVs Electric Vehicles
N Avogadro number (N = 6.02214179 × 1023 mol− 1)
Li-ion Lithium-Ion
P Pressure, N/m2
LIB Lithium-Ion Battery
P Prandtl number, Pr =μ Cp /k
FVM Finite volume method
q′′ Heat flux rate per unit tube length, W/m
f Fluid
Re Reynolds number, Re =ρ u D/μ
PCM phase change material
S Pitch distance, m
OCV Open-circuit Voltage
T Temperature, K
RBF Radial Basis Function
u Flow velocity in × direction, m/s
SOC State of charge
v Flow velocity in y direction, m/s
TMS Thermal Management Systems
Greek symbols w wall
ρ Density of fluid, kg/m3

an electric car is the power battery. Due to their high energy and power and performance (see Table 1). Several researchers have numerically
density, high discharge voltage, extended service life, and low self- and experimentally carried out investigations on the cooling process of
discharge rate, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have emerged as the ideal the batteries. To lower the operating temperature of lithium-ion battery
energy storage device for electric cars. Heat is produced by LIBs while (LIB) cells, several passive and active heat transfer strategies with
charging and discharging due to electrochemical processes. various cooling fluids, such as air, water, nanofluids, and phase change
On the other hand, the operating temperature considerably in­ materials PCM (Hasan, Togun, et al., 2023).
fluences lithium-ion battery performance and life. Too high or too low The present literature survey is carried out in view of the above
an operating temperature can damage the battery’s cycle life, efficiency, keywords. In this regard, mathematically and experimentally, the forced
dependability, and safety and cause substantial degradation of its charge air cooling system for Lithium-ion battery packs was investigated by Xie
and discharge performance (Hasan, Togun, et al., 2023). When a et al. [3]. In this study, the impact of the air/inlet angle, the air/outlet
lithium-ion battery’s working temperature is raised from 25 to 50 ◦ C, the angle, and the width of the airflow channel between battery cells on the
capacity loss increases by 100% after 300 cycles of operation. Lithium- heat dissipation of a Lithium-ion battery pack was investigated. The
ion (Li-ion) batteries, a vital component of electric vehicles (EVs), have airflow channels’ layout was determined to impact the maximum tem­
gotten much attention in recent years due to severe explosion incidents. perature and temperature difference substantially. Furthermore, a 2.5◦
Compared to other rechargeable battery types, Li-ion batteries are air-inlet angle, 2.5◦ air-outlet angle, and equal channel width were
regarded as the ideal energy storage technology in EVs due to various determined to provide the best cooling performance during the
characteristics such as high energy and power density, extended cycle discharge process. The impact of five different types of fluorocarbon-
life, and minimal self-discharge capability. However, one of the most based coolants on the thermal safety of lithium-ion batteries was
essential and problematic concerns with Li-ion batteries is the rise in tested by (X. [4],The battery discharge/charge cycle analysis findings
temperature caused by heat created throughout the charging and dis­ showed that the direct liquid cooling approach performed better than
charging process. In fact, the Li-ion battery cells are susceptible to the natural air-cooling method independent of the cooling effect or
temperature changes; environmental extremes impact their cycle life battery health.
Additionally, single-phase cooling for higher boiling coolants is less
effective in controlling the temperature than two-phase (liquid/vapour)
Table 1 cooling with low boiling point coolants. Both coolants demonstrated
Summary of Li-ion battery cell temperature and their cause and effects. excellent battery compatibility. To enhance the thermal efficiency of the
Battery Cause Effect Impact lithium-ion battery at an extreme temperature of 40 ◦ C and a significant
temperature flow rate of 5 ◦ C, [5] evaluated the impact of using a hybrid cooling
High (>40 ◦ C) Decomposition of Loss of lithium, Weakening of system composed of composite phase change material. They have con­
electrolyte and binder, Increase in capacity and ducted a numerical study to investigate the effects of various variables,
Decrease in access to the impedance, power
including composite phase changing different material thickness, flow
anode surface for Li-ion Loss of
interaction mechanical directions based on carbon mass fractions, coolant flow velocity, and
stability coolant ambient temperature on the maximum temperature and tem­
Moderate (25 – Maximized cycle of operation perature uniformity of the battery module. Their findings indicated that
40 ◦ C) 12% is the ideal ratio for the weight fractions of enlarged graphite.
Moderate (15 – Good for energy storage
[6]conducted an experimental investigation to determine the effec­
24 ◦ C)
Low (<15 ◦ C) Lithium plating, Loss of lithium Weakening of tiveness of a unique two dendritic tubes liquid cooling system for
Decomposition of and electrolyte capacity and lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles. The analysis revealed that
electrolyte power the improved design might lower maximum temperatures from 52.59 ◦ C

2
H.A. Hasan et al.
to 39.3 ◦ C and surface temperature standard deviations from 5.31 ◦ C to
1.96 ◦ C. The cooling of an 18,650-cylinder lithium-ion battery was
studied by [7] considering phase change material (PCM) along with fins.
The findings of this study show that the surface temperature of the
cylinder lithium-ion battery can be lowered by adding fins and using
phase change material. For protection, efficiency, price, and lifetime, it
is essential to predict how lithium-ion batteries operate accurately.
Because of the positive responses between heat generation and power
flow, estimating the core temperature of battery units is particularly
crucial for this function. (S. [8] designed a thorough electro-thermal
model for a cylinder lithium-ion cell. They validated it with an experi­
mental study of 2170 cylindrical cells through the measured actual core
temperature. They analyzed the impact of various cooling strategies and
cell shapes on the core temperature of the cell. They found that the in­
ternal temperature difference was reduced to 25.41% when more tabs
connected the jellyroll to the can’s base.
A unique dual helix cooling geometry of 18,650 lithium batteries was
investigated by [9] who analyzed the impacts of the fluid volume flow
rate, helix grooves width, and stream diameter on the thermal effi­
ciency. The findings show that, inside a region of flow rate, raising the
mass flow rate can significantly decrease the battery’s highest temper­
ature and temperature differential. When the mass flow rate is 1.94 103
kg/s, the pitch is 100 mm, and the diameter is 0.4 mm, the best cooling
efficiency may be attained. The proper cooling for 45 lithium-ion battery
cells within the battery pack was investigated by [10] using a laminar
coolant flow and air as the working fluid (for Re = 500 to 2000) for three
various shapes (a lozenge, a rectangle, and a triangle) of the battery
cells. The outcomes demonstrated that raising Re lowers the peak and
average temperatures of the battery cells for all three of the investigated
models.
Furthermore, as the Re has been raised for the three layout variants,
the quantity of pressure drop has gone up. The highest and average
temperatures of the battery cells are lower when the batteries are ar­
ranged in a triangle than in other designs. In contrast, the lozenge layout
has the reverse influence. The temperature profile of two 100Ah lithium-
ion batteries along their height was examined by [11] utilizing roll bond
liquid cooling plates. The serpentine channel’s integrated hollow and rib
features are contrasted with the straight channel. They have observed
that the cell temperature could be regulated by a modest flow rate (12L/
h) and that a cavity construction with a significant heat exchange area
predominates while charging and discharging.
Experimental and numerical research on the impact of a unique
liquid cooling plate (fastening PCM) on the thermal characteristics of a
battery system was conducted by [12] and found that for low currents,
only passive cooling is sufficient for the module temperature within the
specified range. [13] quantitatively examined the effects of airflow be­
tween cylindrical lithium-ion battery cells wrapping with PCM. The
findings of this study demonstrate that the Tmaxb of the LIIB first in­
creases and subsequently declines with time at high speeds. The study
also revealed that PCM could supply up to 22% of the energy needed to
heat the building on a cold day. The efficiency of a unique direct two-
phase refrigerant cooler over a traditional liquid cooling for propul­
sion batteries of electric vehicles was examined by [14]. The study re­
ported that the two-phase refrigerant cooling maintains the 45 ◦ C
maximum cell temperature limit even when exposed to extreme external
conditions. [6] numerically examined a unique direct liquid battery
cooling model based on a hydrofluoroether (HFE-6120). The analysis
revealed that the mass-energy density could be enhanced up to 20.3%,
and the power consumption can be decreased by 95.3% when designed
with a partial height channel and managed with the proper coolant
velocity.
The effects of the size and number of secondary outputs and baffles
on a battery thermal management system were examined by (F. [15].
The results showed that, compared to the baseline Z-type BTMS, the
highest temperature and the maximum temperature differential were
reduced by 1.84 ◦ C (4.20%) and 3.66 ◦ C (75%) after enhancement,
3
Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354
respectively. [16] studied the overall temperature distribution and
cooling capacity of the battery thermal management system utilizing a
novel liquid cooling system comprising stair and wavy channels (using
alumina nanofluid with copper sheath). They observed that the
discharge process’s peak temperature and temperature differential were
reduced by 1.2 ◦ C and 0.4 ◦ C while utilizing a 2% volume fraction
nanofluid. They also observed that a decrease in the highest temperature
and temperature difference could be achieved by increasing the coolant
inlet velocity.
[17] developed a low-cost lumped model for modelling a Li-ion
battery pack including thermal management processes (TMS) with
constant charging/discharging cycles considering nine aluminium tubes
(for liquid coolant circulation), 24 conventional Li-ion batteries with
phase change material (PCM). They found that combining PCM and
liquid cooling for battery thermal management reduces the maximum
battery temperature by roughly 38 ◦ C and 4 ◦ C, respectively, compared
to passive PCM thermal management and natural convection modes. A
graphene nanoparticle (NP)-containing organic PCM-filled chambers
(inside) of various forms was studied by [18] to analyze the influence of
PCM on the thermal control of cylindrical Li-ion batteries subjected to an
air-cooling system. They observed that the lozenge chamber had the
lowest heat transfer coefficient (HTC), and the CLIB within a triangular
chamber had the maximum HTC (63% greater heat transmission). The
HTC was increased by 65% at 5000 s by adding graphene NPs to the PCM
at a volume percentage of 4%.
[19] Many researchers have studied the effect of cooling using
different types of working fluids to reduce the operational temperature
of lithium-ion battery cells in various engineering applications. These
working fluids can be liquids or gases, and they are circulated through
the cooling system to absorb the heat generated by the batteries and
dissipate it into the surroundings. The choice of working fluid depends
on various factors, including the thermal properties of the fluid, its
availability, cost, environmental impact, and compatibility with the
battery system. Some common working fluids used for battery cooling
applications include air, water, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, and
refrigerants such as R134a and R1234yf. The cooling performance of
these fluids can be evaluated by measuring parameters such as tem­
perature distribution, heat transfer rate, pressure drop, and fluid flow
rate [20,21] (Hasan, Togun, et al., 2023)and [22].An internal cooling
channel conveying water through the battery cells was integrated into
each battery cell (a 53Ah lithium-ion battery) in the new battery thermal
management system tested by [23]. They observed that utilizing the
ideal channel size, channel placement, and inlet velocity lowered the
peak temperature by 26% and 20% for discharge rates of 3C and 5C,
respectively. As a result, with a 3C discharge rate and a 5C discharge
rate, respectively, the average cell temperature is decreased by 24% and
15%. Utilizing Phase change material (PCM) and a liquid cooling pro­
cess, (J. [15] studied a unique hybrid battery thermal management
system. They found that combining PCM and liquid thermal manage­
ment systems can satisfy the demand for heat dissipation under difficult
operating conditions and has strong heat dissipation capabilities that
can prevent thermal runaway. [24] numerically analyzed lithium-ion
battery thermal management systems undergoing liquid immersion
cooling with different dielectric fluids. Their study reports 76.43% less
power consumption with engineered fluids at a mass flow rate of 0.05
kg/s. [25] conducted a study representing the energy consumption of
traditional fan coil units. Five desiccant cooling system models were
analyzed for use in a single seminar room in a hot and humid environ­
ment. Apart from the above, several researchers have conducted several
studies based on numerical, experimental, and mathematical modelling
to show the impact of various cooling systems (using various cooling
fluids) on the electrical and thermal performance of numerous engi­
neering systems [26,27,28,2,29,30,31,32,2633,34,35,36,37,38].
The novelty of this work resides in bridging the knowledge gap that
exists regarding the conception and use of a cost-effective and effective
air-cooling system for lithium-ion batteries. The specific focus on a
H.A. Hasan et al.
revolutionary air-cooling system design involving severe turbulence
intensity to increase battery performance is unique, despite the signifi­
cant study on lithium-ion battery thermal management. The numerical
analysis of the system’s performance at various coolant flow rates en­
hances originality by helping to comprehend how coolant flow rate af­
fects the thermal performance of the battery cells. This study closes a
knowledge gap and offers insightful information for the development of
lithium-ion battery air-cooling systems. This research examines the
impact of a unique air-cooling pack design on the thermal management
system for 52 lithium-ion battery cells. To dissipate the heat from 30
cylindrical battery cells and lower the operating temperatures of
lithium-ion batteries, the air-cooling pack was designed and solved
using the ANSYS Fluent solver for parametric analysis, design optimi­
zation, and process optimization. As the Li-ion battery cells are sus­
ceptible to temperature changes, environmental extremes impact their
cycle life and performance. Therefore, proper cell temperature regula­
tion is essential for safe and trustworthy battery operation. Additionally,
the adaptability of the battery pack design must be used to offset the
high production costs of electric vehicles (EVs). The space between the
batteries was simulated by employing air as a cooling fluid to remove the
heat from lithium-ion batteries by moving air inside the cooling pack (S
= 2 mm). In the current analysis, the Reynolds numbers range from Re
= 15,000 to 30,000.
2. Physical descriptions and mathematical treatment
2.1. Physical model
The physical model of a typical airflow arrangement in a cooling
pack of the cylindrical lithium-ion battery module is presented in Fig. 1.
The air coolant flows through the inlet port of the battery pack at a
uniform velocity. Thirty lithium-ion battery cells are placed in five rows
along a cooling pack, and the distance between each cell is S = 2 mm. In
order to improve the performance of lithium-ion batteries and increase
their operation life, generated heat in the cells is taken away by coolant
air flowing through the spacing between battery cells. The cooling pack
is utilized to reduce the temperature of lithium-ion batteries. The hot air
from the cooling pack leaves through the exit port. The same inlet and
outlet port diameters (d = 10 mm) are examined. The computational
domains, along with the specified boundary conditions, are illustrated in
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of an air-cooling system for electric vehicles describing the lithium-ion battery cells unit.
4
Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354
detail in Fig. 1. Fig. 2 depicts an enlarged view of two batteries and their
physical dimensions having battery length L = 65 mm, hydraulic
diameter D = 18 mm, and pitch distance S = 2 mm. The study is con­
ducted for varying Reynolds numbers of Re = 15000, 17500, 20000,
22500, 25000, 27500, and 30000. The physical model displays a novel
cooling system for lithium-ion battery modules, with uniform temper­
ature applied directly from the surface of the lithium-ion battery. The
rate of turbulence at the intake was kept at 1%. Air enters the inlet port
of the fully evolved stage at a constant temperature of 300 K and con­
stant velocity. The channel walls are insulated, and the no-slip boundary
condition is assumed. The air eventually departs the tunnel at an abso­
lute pressure of 101,325 Pa.
Efficient cooling of the individual battery cell is essential for the
designer. Temperature rise beyond the specified operational range may
lead to thermal runaway, which is undesirable from a safety point of
view. In this context, a lithium-ion battery performs best between 20 ◦ C
and 40 ◦ C, providing good life cycles (see Fig. 3). The impact of tem­
perature on the Li-ion battery capacity is shown in Fig. 4.
2.2. Parameters of a typical Lithium-Ion battery (LIB)
Lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion batteries) are rechargeable batteries
that are commonly used in a wide range of portable electronic devices,
electric vehicles, and renewable energy storage systems. Here are some
of the key parameters of a typical lithium-ion battery:
a) Nominal voltage: The nominal voltage of a lithium-ion battery is
typically 3.6 to 3.7 V per cell.
b) Capacity: The capacity of a lithium-ion battery is the amount of
electrical energy that it can store and deliver. It is measured in
ampere-hours (Ah) or milliampere-hours (mAh) and can range from
a few hundred mAh for small electronic devices to several hundred
Ah for electric vehicles or stationary energy storage systems.
c) Energy density: The energy density of a lithium-ion battery is the
amount of energy that it can store per unit volume or weight. It is
typically measured in watt-hours per liter (Wh/L) or watt-hours per
kilogram (Wh/kg) and can range from 100 to 300 Wh/kg for
consumer-grade batteries to over 500 Wh/kg for high-end electric
vehicle batteries.
H.A. Hasan et al. Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354

Cap Cathode cover over-discharge protection, and thermal management are built into
the battery packs to minimize the risk of accidents.

Anode and Cathode Foils

The C-rate is the ratio of the charging or discharging current to a
lithium-ion battery’s capacity in ampere-hours. It impacts performance,
safety, and lifespan, as charging or discharging at a high C-rate can
Case generate heat, reduce capacity, and cause damage. Different types of
lithium-ion batteries have different recommended C-rates. Adhering to
the manufacturer’s instructions for charging and discharging is crucial
Insulation plate
to ensure optimal battery performance, safety, and lifespan.
Nominal voltage: 3.6 V.
Nominal capacity: 3000-4800mAh.
Plastic Sleeve Diameter: 21 mm.
Height: 70 mm.
Lithium-ion battery Lithium-ion or Li-ion batteries store energy by reversibly reducing
lithium ions. Typically, the anode (negative electrode) is made of carbon
graphite, while the cathode (positive electrode) is a metal oxide in a
jelly roll Anode conventional lithium-ion cell. An organic solvent containing a lithium
Center pin
Cathode salt usually makes up the electrolyte.
Separator
Charging batteries using a constant current is a straightforward
(a) method where the current is set at around 10% of the maximum battery
rating. This approach has the disadvantage of long charge times and the
risk of overheating and premature battery replacement if the battery is
D = 18mm overcharged. It is suitable for Ni-MH batteries, and once charged, the
S = 2mm
battery must be disconnected or a timer function used.
A combination of constant voltage and constant current (CVCC)
charging is a more advanced approach. In this method, the charger
limits the amount of current to a predetermined level until the battery
reaches a pre-set voltage level. As the battery becomes fully charged, the
Cooling air
current gradually decreases. This system enables faster charging without
the risk of overcharging and is ideal for Li-ion and other types of
L= 65mm
batteries.

2.3. Fluid motion governing equations

(b)
The governing equations (continuity, momentum, and energy) are
first determined to assess the overall thermal performance of the battery
Fig. 2. (a)Schematic of typical Li-ion battery cells, (b) arrangement of lithium- pack. The steady two-dimensional coordinate system is considered. The
ion battery cells. Navier-Stokes equations, incompressible, and the energy equation
determine the nature of the transport processes. The Navier-Stokes
d) Power density: The power density of a lithium-ion battery is the equations numerically describe the momentum and mass conservation
amount of power that it can deliver per unit volume or weight. It is of Newtonian fluids. A state equation including pressure, temperature,
typically measured in watts per liter (W/L) or watts per kilogram (W/ and density may accompany them on occasion. As follows are the
kg) and is important for applications that require high power output, derived governing equations [39]:
such as electric vehicles or power tools. ∂
e) Cycle life: The cycle life of a lithium-ion battery is the number of (ρui ) = 0 (1)
∂xi
charge–discharge cycles that it can undergo before its capacity or
[ ( )]
performance deteriorates significantly. It is affected by various fac­ ∂(ρui uj ) ∂p ∂ ∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂uk
tors such as temperature, charge and discharge rates, and depth of = − + μ + − μ δij (2)
∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xk
discharge, and can range from a few hundred cycles to several
( ) [ ( ) ]
thousand cycles. ∂ ∂T ∂p ∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂uk
f) Self-discharge rate: The self-discharge rate of a lithium-ion battery is ρuj Cp T − k = uj + μ + − μ δij (3)
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xk
the rate at which it loses its charge when not in use. It is typically
measured in percent per month and can range from 1 to 2% per here, the symbol δ is the Kronecker delta (where δ = 1, when i = j and
month for high-quality batteries to 10% or more per month for else δ = 0).
lower-quality batteries. In the present study, k − ε RNG turbulence model is used as follows:
g) Operating temperature range: The operating temperature range of a ∂ ∂
[( ) ]
u ∂k
lithium-ion battery is the range of temperatures at which it can (ρkui ) = μ+ t + Gk − ρε (4)
∂xi ∂xj σ k ∂xj
operate safely and efficiently. It is typically between − 20 ◦ C to 60 ◦ C
for consumer-grade batteries and can be wider for high-end batteries. Similarly the dissipation rate of TKE,ε is given by the following
h) Safety: Lithium-ion batteries are known for their high energy density equation:
and the potential risk of thermal runaway or explosion if not handled ∂ ∂
[( ) ]
u ∂ε ε ε2
properly. Therefore, safety features such as overcharge protection, (ρεui ) = μ+ t + C1s Gk − C2ε ρ (5)
∂xi ∂xj σ k ∂xj k k

WhereGk is the rate of generation of the TkE while ρε is the

5
H.A. Hasan et al. Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354

1400

Cycle life(Cycles)
1300

1200

1100
Temperature Range with
1000 Maximum Cycle life

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
o
cell operating temperature ( C)

Fig. 3. Influencing battery temperature during the life cycle according to the study, the temperature range between 20 ◦ C and 40 ◦ C is the most optimal for the
lithium-ion battery, giving it long life cycles. [4243,44].

120
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
Lifetime Capacity

80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
o
Temperature ( C)
Fig. 4. Effect of temperature on Li-ion battery capacity [45].

destruction rate. Here knf is the thermal conductivity of nanofluids and Dh is the hy­
Gk Is written as: draulic diameter of the channel, which may be computed as follows:
( Ấ Ấ ) ∂uj 4AC
Gk = − ρui uj (6) Dh = (8)
∂xi P

Following is a formula for calculating the average Nusselt number Here, the flow’s wetted perimeter and cross-section area are denoted
[28]: by P and Ac. Furthermore, the Reynolds number (Re) can be determined.
ρuDh
Nuav =
hav Dh
(7) Re = (9)
knf μ
Here ρnf is the density of the nanofluid, u denotes the velocity, L

6
H.A. Hasan et al.
denotes the length of the channel, and Δp denotes the differential
pressure drop at the test module.
The turbulent flow channel Dittus-Boelter equation [40]:
NuDh = 0.023Re0.8
Dh Pr
0.4
(10)
Where, Dh is the hydraulic diameter, Re is the Reynolds number, Pr is
the Prandtl number, and Nu is the Nusselt number.
2.4. Boundary conditions
The boundary conditions for the current problem, as determined by
the computational domain, are given here and are depicted in Figs. 1-2.
The innovative Li-ion battery (LIB) air cooling system model is depicted
in these figures for 52 cylindrical Li-ion battery cells. The lithium-ion
wall battery (LIB) is kept at a constant temperature of 360 K. The left
side, however, is subject to pressure outflow while the right side is
subject to velocity inlet. The battery has a total length of 65 mm, a
diameter of 18 mm, and a thickness of 2 mm for each battery cell. To
enhance the performance and lengthen the life of lithium-ion batteries,
heat created in cells is removed by air coolant flowing through the space
between battery cells. The cooling method suggested in this study uses
an effective air-cooling technique to cool the battery surface, remove
heat, and enhance performance at various Reynolds numbers (Re =
15000, 17500, 20000, 22500, 25000, 27500, and 30000). In order to
accommodate the flow behavior of any application, the turbulence
model is crucial. To achieve precise prediction in the circular tube, the
Renormalized Group (RNG) k- ε turbulence model and the standard k-
turbulence model were chosen. The time-independent, incompressible
Navier-Stokes equations as well as the study of the turbulence model
were solved using the finite volume approach. To assess the pressure
field, the pressure–velocity coupling algorithm SIMPLE (Semi Implicit
Method for Pressure-Linked Equations) was chosen. A completely
developed velocity profile was enforced at the inlet. At the inlet, the
turbulence intensity was maintained at 1%. When all of the normalized
residual values for each variable approach 10-5, the solutions are
deemed to have converged.
2.5. Numerical techniques
The governing equations for the air-cooling pack are solved numer­
ically using the finite volume-based ANSYS-Fluent solver. The K-epsilon
(k-ε) turbulence model with the RNG technique was considered in the
present simulation. The SIMPLE pressure–velocity coupling algorithm
was chosen to evaluate the pressure field. The computational domain is
discretized following the Green Gauss cell-based technique. For the
momentum conservations, a second-order upwind scheme is applied.
For the turbulent kinetic energy part, the second order upwind scheme;
for turbulent dissipation rates first, the order upwind scheme; for the
energy part, the second order upwind is employed. At the intake, the
turbulence intensity was controlled at 1%. To achieve the converged
solution, a minimum convergence criterion of 106 is chosen for the
simulation. Finally, the converged solutions are stored, from which local
and global thermal performance for the cooling pack is analyzed.
triangular/tetrahedral meshes were used in current study. Triangular
and tetrahedral meshes are widely used in ANSYS Fluent for simulating
complex fluid flow and heat transfer problems. Here are some reasons
why we use these types of meshes in ANSYS Fluent:
1. Flexibility: Triangular and tetrahedral meshes are flexible and can be
used to model complex geometries and boundary conditions. They
can accurately capture the geometry and topology of the problem,
which is important for accurate simulation results.
2. High-Resolution: Triangular and tetrahedral meshes can provide
high-resolution solutions, especially in areas of high gradients or
7
Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354
turbulence. This is important for accurately modeling flow features
such as eddies and vortices.
3. Adaptability: Triangular and tetrahedral meshes can be adapted or
refined to suit the requirements of the simulation. This can be done
using mesh adaptation techniques, which can refine the mesh in
areas of high interest or coarsen the mesh in areas of low interest.
4. Robustness: Triangular and tetrahedral meshes are robust and can
handle problems with irregular geometries and complex boundary
conditions. They can also handle problems with moving boundaries
and deformable geometries.
The enhanced wall functions (EWF) feature is used with several
turbulence models in ANSYS Fluent, including:k-epsilon models with
used RNG k-epsilon model with Y+ = 27.
2.6. Grid independence test
The grid-independent test was run on the physical model to deter­
mine the optimal mesh face size. This research considers eight mesh
faces, which are 916, 21416, 41416, 52516, 63616, 74716, 85,816 and
96,916 at Re = 30,000 with the spacing distance of (S = 2 mm). All eight
mesh faces are used to plot the average Nusselt number Nuav at the wall
of the cylindrical lithium-ion battery on the same XY plot. The dis­
cretization grid is unstructured and non-uniform, as shown in Fig. 5. All
four mesh faces have similar results of the average Nusselt number (Nu),
as shown in Fig. 6. Hence, for these four cases, any number of mesh faces
can be utilized. In this case, mesh faces with 85,816 are used as it’s the
best in terms of accuracy and computational time. In effect, additional
nodes on a larger grid could have produced findings with a higher de­
gree of accuracy, but increasing the cell density would increase the
computation time.
2.7. Code validation
To check the numerical accuracy, a validation study is significant for
any numerical work with other previous works. It is essential to get high
accuracy of any numerical code meditations. To validate the numerical
model, the results of experimental study of [41] studied the heat transfer
and flow in a rectangular channel equipped with a pin–fin array that had
twisted tapes. The effects of the geometrical parameters on heat transfer
and fluid flow were also examined using air as a test fluid. The com­
parison of the numerical results of the Nusselt number with the Reynolds
number with the experimental results of [41] is presented in Fig. 7. The
average Nusselt number of the CFD numerical study of Nu = 98 and the
results of the experimental study of [41] of Nu = 107 For at Re = 5000.
The average Nusselt number of CFD numerical study is Nu = 207 and Nu
= 212 as the results of the experimental study of [41] At Re = 15000. In
this figure, the results of the numerical results reasonably agree well
with the results of the experimental study [41]. This comparison in­
dicates the accuracy and capability of the present computing tool.
3. Results and discussion
The present work numerically studies a novel design of an efficient
air-cooling system for improving the performance of lithium-ion batte­
ries by reducing the operational temperatures under a different flow rate
of coolant. This research examines the impact of a unique air-cooling
pack design on the thermal management system for 52 lithium-ion
battery cells. The space between the batteries was simulated by
employing air as a cooling fluid to remove the heat from lithium-ion
batteries by moving air inside the cooling pack (S = 2 mm). In the
current analysis, the Reynolds numbers range from Re = 15,000 to
30,000.
Due to their high energy density, LIBs generate heat during their
regular operation (charging/ discharging process), affecting battery
performance and life. To understand this fact, Fig. 8 depicts the velocity
H.A. Hasan et al. Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354

Fig. 5. Schematics of the Air -cooling pack grid system for lithium-ion battery cells.

70

60
NuAvg

50

40

30

20
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
Number of faces of Mesh
Fig. 6. Grid independence test through average Nu for Re = 30,000, S = 2 mm.

vector distribution for the battery cells with air velocity Re = 30000 for pack due to increment and decrement in the flow passage area,
the fixed pitch distance S = 2 mm. From the velocity contours, it is respectively. However, after entry to the battery cells area, the flow
observed that the high-velocity of air exists on both ends of the cooling route is diverted due to the placement of the batteries, and the flow route

8
H.A. Hasan et al. Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354

220

Experimental Data (Chang et al. 2021)

CFD Simulation Results
200

180
Avg

160
Nu

140

120

100

5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000
Reynolds Number
Fig. 7. Comparing the experimental findings of [41] with the numerical results of Reynolds number (Re) and Nusselt number (Nu) (2021).

Fig. 8. Vectors of velocity contour for Air-cooling pack for lithium-ion battery cells at Re = 30000.

is determined by how the cells are arranged in the cooling pack.
Therefore, the battery cells’ pitch distance (S) determines the airflow
passage. Due to the sudden obstruction by the battery cells (resulting in
higher greater ΔP) in the cooling pack, airflow tends to pass in-between
cells 1 and 2, and there exists high velocity. The remaining air flows over
the cells and passes in between the cooling pack and cells.
On the other hand, due to the flow area divergence, one pair of flow
recirculation is formed above and below the main flow stream. After
that, the primary airflow impinges on the second column of the cells (3,
4, and 5) and is further diverted by the cells. In this way, there is a
continuous change in the flow direction, and air passes over most cells.
Finally, the airflow passage is converged and left through the exit port of
the cooling pack. As the airflow continually faces obstruction by the cells
and flows through the narrow gaps (in-between the cells), air velocity
decreases gradually when it leaves the cooling pack. This could be easily
observed from the colour-magnitude of the velocity vectors.
Fig. 9 depicts the velocity contours and Fig. 10 illustrates the tem­
perature contours for the battery cells for the different air velocities Re
= 15000, 22500, and 30,000 for the fixed pitch distance S = 2 mm. Off
course, the most high-velocity air is between the two battery cells, as
observed from the higher velocity magnitude of the velocity contours.
Depending on the battery’s shape and the distance between the two
batteries, part of the cooling air is forced to follow the clearance between
the cells and walls. As a result, there is a continuous airflow surrounding
the cells. Due to the flow obstruction, only low-velocity air flow exists at
the opposite side of a cell (against the flow direction). As a result, the
front side (along the flow direction) is an area of high pressure, whereas
the backside of the cell is a low-pressure area. Thus, the front side of the

9
H.A. Hasan et al. Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354

Fig. 9. Velocity contour for battery cells at various Reynolds numbers.

Fig. 10. Temperature contour for battery cells at various Reynolds numbers.

first battery cell in a cooling pack faces higher pressure, which is grad­
ually reduced as air moves toward the exit port. This has a significant
impact on the thermal behaviour of the cells, which could be realized
from the static temperature distribution (as in Fig. 10) at Re = 15000.
Fig. 10 depicts that there is a continuous change in the temperature of
the flowing air. At the inlet port of the cooling pack, batteries have lower
temperatures compared to the outlet port of the cooling pack. This is due
to the interaction of fresh cold external airflow with the heated batteries
at the first column of batteries (1 and 2). As the batteries generate heat
continuously, fresh air takes the heat, and that heated air again passes
over the other heated batteries. This leads to an increase in the flow of
air temperature.
When the inlet cooling air velocity increases from Re = 15000 to
22,500 (as in Fig. 9), the flow distribution surrounding the battery cells
changes markedly. An increase in Re causes an increase in the airflow
velocity in the battery pack. This leads to more heat removal from the
battery surface (as in the isotherm contours, Fig. 10), and thus the
temperature of the cooling pack decreases in general.
Further increase in Re from 22,500 to 30,000 (as in Fig. 9) leads to a
substantial increase in the flow velocity surrounding the batteries. This

10
H.A. Hasan et al.
causes a further reduction in the cooling pack outlet temperature due to
efficient heat removal from the battery cells (as in the isotherm con­
tours). More cells show lower temperatures. Thus, there is a substantial
reduction in the average temperature of the cooling pack.
Fig. 11 depicts the variation of temperature (K) for the cases with
varying Re. Without any air-cooling arrangement, the temperature of
the batteries is maximum (360 K), which is substantially reduced to 241
K (when Re = 15000) with adopting the air cooling pack. The average
temperature of the cooling pack is further reduced to 334 K at higher air
inlet velocity (Re = 30000). This is due to the higher heat removal rate
from the cell’s surface. The air outlet temperature of the cooling pack is
reduced substantially, especially at higher air inlet velocity. In general,
the average temperature of the battery pack is reduced by ~ 5.6 to 7.8%
compared to the no-cooling arrangement. Higher velocity always pro­
vides superior cooling of the battery cells due to the higher heat transfer
rate from the cell surfaces. Thus, the inlet air velocity plays a critical role
in controlling the thermal behaviour of the LIBs. It is also observed that
the cooling pack output temperature is much less with the higher inlet
air velocity.
Similarly, Fig. 12 illustrates the variation of average temperatures
(K) of different battery cells with and without cooling at different Rey­
nolds numbers (Re). The cells (C4) nearer to the air inlet port show
substantially lower temperatures, whereas the cells (C49) nearer to the
outlet port of the cooling pack show comparatively higher temperatures.
This is due to the continual increment in air temperature of the flowing
air through the cooling pack. However, the last cell surface temperature
is lower than the no-cooling effect. Furthermore, from the temperature
plot, it is observed that after 50% of the battery cells (C19) in the cooling
pack, the reduction in the average temperature of the individual cells is
comparatively less. However, the average temperature of the cells is a
decreasing function of Re.
The variation of temperature difference (ΔT) for the different battery
cells at different Reynolds numbers (Re) are depicted in Fig. 13. For the
increasing Re. Of course, as inlet air velocity increases, individual bell
surface temperature decreases, and the decrement is less towards the
outlet port of the cooling pack. Therefore, the temperature difference of
cells (like C4) nearer the cooling pack inlet port is much more compared
to the cells (like C49) nearer the cooling pack outlet port. This is due to
390
385
380
375
370
365
360
Temperature (K)
355
350
345
340
335
330
325
320
315
310
305
300
295
14000 16000 18000
Fig. 11. Variation of different temperatures (K) at different Reynolds numbers (Re).
Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354
the gradual increase in the cooling air temperature as it traverses toward
the cooling pack outlet port. The flowing air temperature increases due
to the continual addition of heat from the cell surface.
Furthermore, the temperature difference of cells is an increasing
function of the increasing Re due to more cooling effect of the increased
air velocity. The cells placed nearer to the inlet of the cooling pack show
a superior cooling effect compared to those placed nearer to the outlet of
the cooling pack, depicted by Fig. 14 for the different Re. Higher air
velocity always offers a better cooling effect for the LIBs. Increasing Re
also reduces the cooling pack outlet temperature, leading to the bat­
tery’s improved life and hence superior battery thermal management.
Finally, the variation of the average Nusselt number (Nu) and tem­
perature of the different battery cells with the increasing Re are plotted
in Fig. 15. It is obvious that the cells (for instance: C4), which receive
fresh cold external flow cause substantial reduction in the cell surface
temperature compared to the cells (say 49) nearer to the outlet port.
However, the average Nu of the cooling pack increases monotonically as
the Re increases. This is due to the increase in air velocity surrounding
the cells, leading to higher heat transfer.
4. Conclusion
The main findings of the study show that the novel design of the air-
cooling system has the potential to improve the performance of lithium-
ion batteries by reducing operational temperatures under varying flow
rates of coolant. The key outcomes of the study are:
• Flow of cold fluid substantially reduces the cell surface temperature
of lithium-ion batteries, resulting in an average temperature reduc­
tion of 5.6% to 7.8%.
• Increasing air inlet velocity (Re) reduces the average air temperature
and temperature difference (ΔT) of the battery cells, leading to
improved battery life and superior thermal management.
• Increasing Re also reduces the cooling pack outlet temperature,
resulting in better battery performance.
• The cooling pack’s average heat transfer rate (Nu) increases with
increasing Re.
Temperature of Battery cell without cooling
Outlet Air Temperature
Average Temperature Bttery pack
Average Temperature of Battery cell C4
Inlet Air Temperature
20000 22000 24000 26000 28000 30000
Reynolds Number
11
H.A. Hasan et al. Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354

365
360
355
350
345

Average Temperature (K)

340
335
330
325
320
315
310
All Battery cells without cooling
305 Battery cell C49
Battery cell C44
300 Battery cell C39
Battery cell C34
295 Battery cell C29
Battery cell C24
290 Battery cell C19
Battery cell C14
285 Battery cell C9
Battery cell C4
280
15000 18000 21000 24000 27000 30000
Reynolds Number
Fig. 12. Variation of average temperatures (K) for different battery cells with and without cooling at different Reynolds numbers (Re).

Fig. 13. Variation of difference temperatures (ΔT) for different battery cells at different Reynolds numbers (Re).

Overall, the novel air-cooling system design provides a better un­
derstanding of how batteries operate in this field, and offers several
benefits such as increased battery life and heat transfer rate. The pro­
posed future work includes experimental validation, analysis of long-
term impacts, investigation of advanced methodologies, and evalua­
tion of economic viability.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Husam Abdulrasool Hasan: Methodology, Project administration.
Hussein Togun: Supervision, Writing – original draft. Azher M Abed:
Funding acquisition. Nirmalendu Biswas: Formal analysis, Investiga­
tion. Hayder I. Mohammed: Writing – original draft, Writing – review
& editing.

12
H.A. Hasan et al. Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354

360
Re=15000
355
Re=22500
Re=30000
350

345

Avarage Temperature(K) 340

335

330

325

320

315

310

305

300
Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell
No.4 No.9 No.14 No.19 No.24 No.29 No.34 No.39 No.44 No.49

Fig. 14. Shows average temperatures for some battery cells at different Reynolds numbers.

80 380
Average Nusselt Number
375
Temperature of Battery cell C49
75 Temperature of Battery cell C29 370
Temperature of Battery cell C4
70 365
360
Average Nusselt Number

65 355

Temperature (K)
350
60
345
55 340
335
50
330

45 325
320
40 315
310
35
305
30 300
15000 18000 21000 24000 27000 30000
Reynolds Number
Fig. 15. Variation of average the Nusselt number (Nu) and temperature of different battery cells with different Reynolds numbers (Re).

Declaration of Competing Interest Data availability

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial No data was used for the research described in the article.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper. References

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Further reading
[46] Hasan HA, Togun H, Abed AM, Qasem NAA, Mohammed HI, Abderrahmane A,
et al. SS symmetry efficient cooling system for lithium-ion battery cells by using
H.A. Hasan et al.
different concentrations of nanoparticles of SiO 2 -water. A Numerical
Investigation 2023;15(640):17.
[47] Husam Abdulrasool Hasan, Jenan S. Sherzaa, Lammiaa Abdulrudah Abd, Kayser
Aziz Ameena, Azher M. Abed, Ali Arif hatem, K. S. (2022). STUDY THE EFFECT OF
FLOW WATER / AL 2 O 3 NANOFLUID INSIDE MINI-CHANNEL FOR COOLING
CONCENTRATED MULTI-JUNCTION. 45. https://doi.org/10.5098/hmt.18.45.
15
Applied Energy 346 (2023) 121354
[48] Zhang F, Liu P, He Y, Li S. Cooling performance optimization of air cooling lithium-
ion battery thermal management system based on multiple secondary outlets and
baffle. J Storage Mater 2022;52:104678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
est.2022.104678.