Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Thermal analysis of lithium-ion battery of electric vehicle using different

cooling medium
Niroj Adhikari 1, Ramesh Bhandari 1, *, Prajwol Joshi 1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Bagmati, 45210, Nepal

H I G H L I G H T S

• Cooling effectiveness increases with lower concentration.

• Indirect cooling outperforms direct methods.
• Higher coolant flowrate enhances heat extraction but requires more energy.
• A 50% ethylene glycol solution is suitable for most weather conditions.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This comprehensive study delves deeply into the realm of electric vehicle (EV) battery temperature management,
Battery pack with a central focus on optimizing cooling systems using ethylene glycol solutions. The research rigorously
Cooling system design examines the interplay between ethylene glycol concentrations and cooling methods on EV battery performance.
Rapid battery discharge
ANSYS and MATLAB along with analytical methods were used for this project. Key findings reveal a consistent
Mineral oil cooling
Superior heat extraction capacity
inverse relationship between ethylene glycol concentration and cooling efficiency, favoring lower concentra­
tions. Indirect cooling, achieved with a 30% ethylene glycol solution, emerges as the most effective method,
while direct cooling proves less efficient. Notably, mineral oil cooling at 0.04 m/s outperforms air cooling, albeit
with higher energy consumption. Consequently, air cooling is recommended for smaller battery packs due to its
lower power demand. The study also underscores the importance of selecting ethylene glycol concentrations
based on environmental conditions, advocating lower concentrations for warmer climates and higher concen­
trations for colder regions. In summary, this research significantly advances EV technology by advocating for
customized cooling system designs that consider environmental factors, battery specifications, and practical
implementation. It provides a critical roadmap for enhancing EV thermal management systems’ efficiency and
sustainability. Further research is needed to explore the long-term effects of diverse cooling methodologies on
battery longevity and performance within the practical constraints of EV integration.

1. Introduction
1.1. Background
The world is currently moving away from ICE (internal combustion
engine) automobiles and toward electric vehicles (EV). In 2021, global
sales of electric vehicles will more than quadruple over the year, hitting
6.6 million, up from a mere three million in 2020 [1]. The car manu­
facturers are taking various approaches to electrify their vehicle fleet.
Some are already pushing full electric vehicles whereas some are
focusing on hybrid technologies combining electric powertrain with ICE
powertrain.
The trend of shifting to an electric vehicle is rising among consumers
which has forced manufacturers, both old and new, to focus on the

Abbreviations: BEV, Battery Electric Vehicle; BMS, Battery Management System; BTMS, Battery Thermal Management System; COP, Coefficient of Performance;
DRC, Direct Refrigerant Cooling; EMF, Electro Motive Force; EV, Electric Vehicle; ICE, Internal Combustion Engine; KW, Kilowatt; Li-Po, Lithium-Polymer; PCM,
Phase Change Materials; SST, Shear Stress Transport; UV, Ultra-Violet.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: nirojadh17@gmail.com (N. Adhikari), bhandariramesh2056@gmail.com (R. Bhandari), prajwoljoshi11@gmail.com (P. Joshi).
1
Equal contribution

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.122781
Received 15 July 2023; Received in revised form 2 November 2023; Accepted 29 January 2024
Available online 9 February 2024
0306-2619/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Adhikari et al.
electric powertrain. Different manufacturers have experimented with
different technologies to go electric, but the battery-electric technology
has seen rapid development and implementation in the whole automo­
bile industry.
As the use of battery electric vehicles is rising day by day the chal­
lenge to make the vehicles practical is also getting tough due to the high
charging time and the less range as compared to their ICE counterparts.
To make this disparity level, many types of research are being done. For
this, the recharging time plays a vital role in using a battery electric
vehicle (BEV) for all kinds of purposes that an ICE vehicle is used for.
The faster a vehicle charges the more usable it becomes for long journeys
if the road network is accompanied by a proper charging network.
C-rate is the measurement of the charge and discharge of current
with respect to its nominal capacity. The fast charging of a BEV is limited
by various factors such as battery composition, charger capacity, vehicle
electric architecture, etc. One of the main limiting factors is the battery
itself as heat is generated during charging and discharging. When a
battery charges at a faster rate, more heat is generated which decreases
the lifespan of battery. So, maintaining battery at ideal conditions is
necessary to prevent battery from deterioration. The ideal working
condition for li-po batteries temperature ranges from 25 ◦ C to 40 ◦ C and
should not exceed 50 ◦ C as it harms the lifespan of the batteries [2].
Several cooling systems are implemented in current EVs to keep the
battery at optimal operating temperature. (See Fig. 1)
1.2. Literature review
The deterioration of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) reduces their elec­
trical efficiency, lifespan, and ability to store energy reduced with time
while also raising the danger of safety problems. Temperature has a
substantial impact on the deterioration of LIBs. For starters, greater
temperatures hasten the deterioration of efficiency and power via a
variety of ways. The breakdown of binders and the occurrence of lithium
plating are commonly observed at the edge of the anode, referred to as
the seclusion effect. Conversely, lower temperatures accelerate the
degradation caused by lithium plating. Furthermore, inside a single LIB
cell, a non-uniform distribution of temperatures develops spontane­
ously. [4].
Fig. 1. Battery heating hazard stages [3].
2
Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781
In the paper titled “Analysis of Thermal Modeling and Thermal
Management in Battery Electric Vehicles” presented by Ahmadou
Samba, it is stated that temperature plays a crucial role in influencing
battery performance and lifespan in various ways. To optimize battery
performance, two key approaches are emphasized. The first approach
focuses on improving cell design to minimize temperature differences,
while the second approach involves integrating a dedicated battery
thermal management system to maintain safe cell temperatures. The
study highlights the advantages of pouch cells, which offer design
flexibility, easier manufacturing, and lower costs. The research thor­
oughly investigates the effects of temperature and indicates that the best
normal temperature span for lithium-ion batteries lies between twenty-
five to forty degrees Celsius, whereas the vehicle’s working range is
between − 30 C and 60 C. At temperatures below 0 C, the battery ca­
◦ ◦ ◦
pacity decreases and internal resistance increases. Conversely, temper­
atures exceeding 40 C lead to reduced internal resistance, accelerated
◦
battery aging, higher self-discharge, and a shorter lifespan. When it
comes to cooling methods, the paper mentions the use of dielectric
coolant in direct cooling to prevent cell short circuits and facilitate
efficient heat transfer. However, one drawback of dielectric coolant is its
high viscosity, which requires more energy for pumping and increases
overall heat. Additionally, natural convection cooling is deemed inad­
equate due to its low heat transfer coefficient. Finally, in terms of
thermal management, the study concludes that liquid and phase change
material (PCM) cooling methods are more suitable for battery electric
vehicle (BEV) applications [5].
Jian Xu’s paper titled “Thermal Management of High-Power
Lithium-ion Battery Using Mini-channel Aluminum Tubes” discusses
how cell size plays a crucial role in the thermal behavior of batteries due
to variations in the heat transfer area per unit volume. The study ex­
amines the effects of mini-channel cooling pipes and concludes that
liquid cooling can be more effective than air and PCM cooling methods,
as it facilitates better heat transfer through different channel designs.
When comparing the S-type cold plate structure, developed by Zhang
et al. to prevent heat concentration and increase heat transfer area, the
mini-channel cooling pipe proves more effective, especially when the
number of channels is increased. The paper also highlights that the flow
rate and flow direction significantly impact the cooling efficiency of
N. Adhikari et al.
each channel. Optimal performance is achieved when all flow inlets
align along one side of the battery, rather than having varying inlets and
outlets [6].
The paper entitled “Thermal management system with nanofluids for
electric vehicle battery cooling modules” examines the state of thermal
management research in EV battery packs, highlighting prior in­
vestigations into cooling methods like air, liquid, and phase change
materials. Notably, it addresses the gap in nanofluid utilization within
EV battery thermal management by studying their application in
corrugated mini channels. Emphasizing efficient heat transfer between
coolant and battery surface, the authors propose nanofluids to enhance
this exchange, considering factors such as flow direction and cooling
capacity. Through computational analysis, the paper provides insights
into temperature distribution and pressure drop with nanofluids as
coolants, revealing reduced maximum temperatures but increased
pressure drop compared to conventional methods. Practical implications
encompass enhanced EV battery energy storage, durability, life cycle,
and efficiency, underscoring the importance of variable consideration in
cooling optimization. Additionally, novel cooling module models are
introduced, showing substantial temperature reductions. Proposed cor­
relations enrich the research’s utility [7].
The paper entitled “Thermal cooling characteristics of Li-ion battery
pack with thermoelectric ferrofluid cooling module” under review
concentrates on the thermal cooling characteristics of a Li-ion battery
pack featuring a thermoelectric ferrofluid cooling module. Employing
experimental apparatus, the study investigates temperature distribu­
tions within the battery pack while considering the impact of various
parameters, including hot and cold side flow rates, thermoelectric-
supplied voltage, coolant types, and ferrofluid concentrations on the
cooling performance. The findings reveal that the thermoelectric cooling
system exerts a substantial influence, effectively lowering battery tem­
peratures to levels below 30 ◦ C. Furthermore, higher cold and hot side
flow rates yield temperature reductions ranging from 3 ◦ C to 5 ◦ C,
achieving an impressively uniform temperature distribution with de­
viations below 3 ◦ C. Notably, ferrofluid concentration demonstrates a
marked decrease in the average battery cell temperature when
compared to deionized water. The proposed cooling system showcases
the advantages of employing a thermal cooling system for electric
vehicle battery packs, significantly outperforming the original setup
across various coolant flow rates and heat generation rates. This study’s
innovation lies in the newly designed battery thermal management
system, which ensures a temperature distribution within 5 ◦ C. Addi­
tionally, the use of water as a coolant proves effective in reducing
maximum temperatures and enhancing temperature uniformity. It’s
worth noting that previous research has explored liquid cooling
methods, such as double cold plates and microchannel cold plates, to
enhance the thermal performance of lithium-ion battery cells, with
temperature trends aligning with those presented in this study. The
experimental methods employed in this research encompass tempera­
ture measurements, calibration of voltage and current, and meticulous
recording of various parameters, all contributing to the comprehensive
evaluation of the battery cooling system’s performance [8].
The paper titled “Water/nanofluid pulsating flow in thermoelectric
module for cooling electric vehicle battery systems” explores the cooling
performance of pulsating water/nanofluids within a thermoelectric
cooling module tailored for electric vehicle battery systems. The inves­
tigation systematically examines the impact of parameters such as water
block configuration, flow rates, power input, and coolant types on the
cooling efficiency. The measured outcomes demonstrate that the
incorporation of the thermoelectric system leads to notably lower inlet
coolant temperatures compared to scenarios devoid of this technology.
Significantly, the study identifies the maximum coefficient of perfor­
mance (COP) of the thermoelectric cooling module, reaching 1.10 for
water and 1.30 for nanofluids when employed as coolants on the hot
side. These findings offer substantial potential for optimizing battery
cooling techniques, promising improvements in energy storage,
3
Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781
durability, lifecycles, and overall efficiency of electric vehicle battery
systems. Additionally, the research delves into the effects of various
factors, including water block configurations, coolant flow rates, and
power input, on the hot side heat transfer coefficient and COP of the
thermoelectric cooling module, shedding light on critical considerations
for enhancing battery cooling systems [9].
The paper entitled “Flow direction effects on temperature distribu­
tion of li-ion cylindrical battery module with water/ferrofluid as cool­
ants” at hand delves into an in-depth analysis of the flow and heat
transfer behavior of nanofluids within Li-ion battery modules utilized in
electric vehicles. Employing a 3D Eulerian model, the study seeks to
discern the thermal dynamics of the battery modules under varying
coolant flow directions within the battery pack jacket. The computa­
tional domain encompasses sixty cylindrical Li-ion cells, each subjected
to constant power input conditions, and impressively, the predicted
results align closely with experimental findings, showcasing a mere
1.28% average error. The research underscores the substantial impact of
optimized coolant flow direction and thermophysical properties on
mitigating maximum operating temperatures and temperature gradients
across individual cells. The highest recorded temperatures for the bat­
tery module span between 29.49 ◦ C to 30.06 ◦ C across different models,
thereby shedding light on the efficacy of distinct flow arrangements. The
study’s significance extends to its implications for designing highly
efficient cooling systems tailored to Li-ion battery modules in electric
vehicles. Through meticulous application of the 3D Eulerian model, the
paper not only elucidates the intricate interplay of coolant flow direction
and thermophysical properties but also provides valuable insights into
the temperature distribution of coolant within the battery pack jacket
[10].
In the paper “Optimization of liquid cooling and heat dissipation
system of lithium-ion battery packs of automobile” authored by Huan­
wei Xu, it is demonstrated that different pipe designs can improve the
effectiveness of liquid cooling in battery packs. The paper conducts a
comparative analysis between the serpentine model and the U-shaped
model. Results from this study, conducted under identical conditions,
reveal that the serpentine model exhibits a higher heat dissipation rate,
indicating superior cooling capabilities compared to the U-shaped tube.
Additionally, the paper introduces a surrogate method for optimizing
the cooling process of any model. This surrogate method is a mathe­
matical model that can approximate the real function accurately using
only a small number of samples. When employing the surrogate method
for optimization, several influencing factors need to be determined be­
forehand, including coolant temperature, inlet velocity of the coolant,
thickness of the cooling plate, cooling wall thickness, and type of coolant
[11]. The paper analyzes the surrogate method for optimizing the
serpentine model and presents the tabulated results below. (See Table 1)
This optimization has reduced the maximum temperature difference
and maximum temperature of lithium-ion battery of the serpentine
model has been reduced by 7.49% and 0.04% respectively. [12]
Below are the different types of BTMS (Building Thermal Manage­
ment Systems):
1.2.1. Air cooling
In BTMS utilizing air cooling, air is the main source of cooling. The
heat generated by battery dissipates into the air and battery is cooled
due to the behavior of heat flow characteristics. Surface design plays a
major role in dissipating the amount of heat. The heat generated by
battery can be used for heating purposes inside the cabin which de­
creases the energy consumption by the car. [13]. (See Fig. 2)
Table 1
Plate specification on the literature.
Cooling plate thickness 2-3 mm
Cooling wall thickness 0.60–1.20 mm
Coolant inlet temperature 298.15–303.15 K
N. Adhikari et al.
Fig. 2. Air cooling system [13]
1.2.2. Liquid cooling
It is a cooling mechanism where a liquid is circulated through battery
packs to control the temperature of the battery system. The battery can
be cooled by having the liquid directly encounter the battery cell or by
having the liquid indirectly interact with the battery cells.
In the case of direct cooling, typically mineral oil is utilized as a
coolant, submerging the battery cells in the liquid. However, since this
direct contact poses certain safety concerns, battery pack manufacturers
generally opt for indirect liquid cooling.
For the indirect-contact liquid cooling method, there are several
possible arrangements. Some of them are designing a protective layer
through which liquid can be circulated around the battery by removing
the risk of contact between battery and liquid and that liquid brings heat
and dissipate to the surrounding which enhances the performance. [13]
(See Fig. 3)
1.2.3. Direct refrigerant cooling (DRC)
DRC is like liquid cooling. DRC uses refrigerant as a cooling material
accompanied by cooling plates. The refrigerant is circulated through the
battery packs taking the heat out and cooling the system. (See Fig. 4)
1.2.4. Phase change material cooling
In this method, the cooling material absorbs heat from the battery by
changing its liquid phase to the vapor phase. The latent heat principle is
used to absorb heat and dissipate to the cooler side while getting back to
its liquid form. PCM cooling is generally accompanied by another
cooling system to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the BTMS.
(See Fig. 5)
1.2.5. Thermoelectric cooling
Thermoelectric cooling, also known as Peltier cooling, is a promising
Fig. 3. Battery Pack with liquid cooling pipes [14]
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Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781
Fig. 4. DRC cooling system [14].
technology employed in battery systems for efficient temperature
management. This cooling technique utilizes the thermoelectric effect,
which is the conversion of a temperature gradient into an electric
voltage and vice versa. In battery applications, thermoelectric cooling
modules are integrated to actively regulate the temperature of the bat­
tery cells. By utilizing the Peltier effect, these modules can either absorb
or dissipate heat based on the direction of the electric current flow. This
enables precise temperature control, preventing excessive heat buildup
and maintaining optimal operating conditions for the battery. Thermo­
electric cooling offers several advantages for battery systems, including
compact size, solid-state operation, precise temperature control, and the
absence of moving parts, making it a promising solution for efficient and
reliable battery thermal management. [15]. (See Fig. 6)
1.2.6. Heat pipe cooling
Heat pipe cooling is a highly effective technique employed in the
cooling of batteries. As batteries generate heat during their operation,
efficient thermal management becomes crucial to ensure their optimal
performance, lifespan, and safety. Heat pipes, known for their excep­
tional thermal conductivity, offer an ideal solution for dissipating heat
from batteries. By utilizing the principles of phase change and heat
transfer, heat pipes efficiently transfer heat away from the battery cells
to the surrounding environment. This passive cooling system enables
rapid heat dissipation, preventing excessive temperature rise and
maintaining the battery’s operating temperature within safe limits. The
use of heat pipes in battery cooling not only enhances the overall per­
formance and reliability of batteries but also contributes to extending
their service life and reducing the risk of thermal-related issues, thereby
promoting the advancement and adoption of battery-powered technol­
ogies [16]. (See Fig. 7)
1.2.7. Plate cooling
There are different ways of cooling the plate to perform the works
smoothly like air cooling and liquid cooling. We are more focused on
liquid cooling where a cold liquid flows in snaking or concentric chan­
nels in a cooling plate, and the heat generated by the cell is absorbed by
convection. Cooling plates are a low-cost method for liquid cooling. One
disadvantage of cooling plates is that they add weight to the pack.
Another feature is that cooling plates are frequently placed beneath the
cells. This is not the most efficient method of heat dissipation because
the cell is hotter near to the tabs at the top due to the increased current
density there. (See Fig. 8)
1.2.8. Coolant
Coolant is the fluid that runs through the engine to absorb the heat
and protect the engine from overheating. It is also known as the anti­
freeze. Early in the days researcher developed methyl ethanol (also
known as methanol) as antifreeze to minimize heat generated from the
engine where it could be combined with the water to lower its freezing
point. This antifreeze decreased the boiling points of water which cre­
ates the problem. The engine can easily boil the water at operating
temperature, so methanol antifreeze was unacceptable. In the late
N. Adhikari et al.
Cell Temperature
Melting point
Temperature remains constant during melting.
Fig. 5. The working mechanism of PCM on battery cells [13].
Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of the used single unit of TEC system for
BTMS [15].
Fig. 7. Embedded Heat pipe Battery module case [17].
1800s, Methyl and wood alcohols are used to prevent automobiles from
the vehicles and researchers found that the use of it make metal com­
ponents highly corrosive and can damage the parts of the engine so the
use of it in the vehicles was avoided. Coming to the early 1900s Glycerol
was widely used as the antifreeze but price was high, so researchers are
busy in finding its alternative. [18] In 1926 ethylene glycol was devel­
oped as antifreeze. This coolant came into use in most vehicles at present
because it helps to keep car engine from freezing in winter and helps to
minimize overheating in summer. Another newer antifreeze alternative
for vehicles is propylene glycol. This glycol lacks the ability transfer
ability than that of ethylene glycol [19]. There are three main
5
Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781
Heating without PCM
Heating with PCM
Time
Fig. 8. Plate cooling System.
components to coolants that are water, glycol, and additives.
1.3. Types of coolant
Many automobiles’ engines require coolants to maintain vehicles
cooling system. There are different kinds of engine coolant that are
being practiced in market but mostly there are mainly three coolants
used in vehicles which are mentioned below:
1.3.1. Inorganic additive technology
This is the old coolant mostly used in early Nineties vehicles. These
types of coolant have green color.it should be changed frequently. This
type of coolant works by creating a little protective layer so that metal
can be protected. The advantage of using this coolant is it works quickly,
and the disadvantage is the chemical effect wears off in a relatively short
period of time.
1.3.2. Organic acid technology
This type of coolant is glycol based with organic inhibitors which use
carboxylate to protect from corrosion which can expand the life of
coolant. These types of coolant do not utilize inorganic additives and
require less maintenance. These types of coolant are mostly used in light
duty vehicles.
1.3.3. Hybrid organic acid technology
It is coolant that keeps the heat in control and saves the engine from
an explosion. This type of coolant is yellow in color. This type of coolant
contains added silicates that offer additional protection against
N. Adhikari et al. Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781

corrosion. Modern cars use this coolant. Table 3

Most automakers are transitioning to electric vehicles. The battery is Module Configuration.
the power source for electric cars. A battery may become warm during S. N Particulars Values
use, which needs to be managed for maximum effectiveness when
1. Configuration 11p39s
powering cars. So, there are different types of coolant used in electric 2. Nominal voltage 124.8 V
vehicles to maintain the temperature like water, air (electric fan) by 3 Peak Voltage 144.3 V
putting the tube between the battery cells. Recently most of the electric
vehicles use ethylene glycol to maintain temperature for an optimum
efficiency. Ethylene glycol is most often used in antifreeze composition. CoO2 + Li + + e− →LiCoO2 (1)
It can disrupt the bonds of hydrogen in water and make it harder for
water molecules to connect. Ethylene glycol is formulated from a three- Oxidation takes place at the anode. There, the graphite intercalation
part mixture of mono- ethylene, water, and a small quantity of water compound LiC6 forms graphite (C6) and lithium ions. The half-reaction
glycol. In most electric vehicles ethylene glycol is used to maintain the is:
temperature. It is mostly used because of the following character is LiC6 →C6 + Li + + e− (2)
possess.
The full reaction is given by (left to right = discharging, right to left
• Ethylene glycol increases the boiling point and decreases the melting = charging):
point temperature of coolant. LiC6 + CoO2 ⇄C6 + LiCoO2 (3)
• The melting point of water decreases by addition of ethylene glycol.
• It maintains its liquid condition over a wide temperature range. ( )
1.4.4. Heat of reaction ΔHor
It is required to find out the heat of the reaction that takes place
inside a lithium-ion battery in order to find out the total heat generated
1.4. Components specification
while operating a li-ion battery. So, the heat of reaction was calculated
as:
1.4.1. Battery cell specification
The battery cell for this study was taken as Li-ion 18,650 battery cell KJ
ΔHf (LiC6 ) = − 16.4 (4)
which is the most utilized battery cell in application for EV vehicles. (See mol
Table 2)
KJ
ΔHf (LiC6 ) = − 16.4 (5)
1.4.2. Module configuration mol
A battery pack has different modules that are combined to make a KJ
battery with proper current and voltage ratings. A custom battery ΔHf (LiC6 ) = − 16.4 (6)
mol
module with peak voltage of 144 V was configured for this project. The
144 V was selected as many motors as possible with 144 V architecture Now,
( )
are available in the market which are suitable for small EV that are ΔHro = ΔHf (Product) − ΔHf (reactant) (7)
suitable for Nepalese roads. The module can be configured as per the car
manufacturer’s need. The module that was adapted for this project had KJ
the following characteristics. = − 377.1
mol
The calculations were made considering a battery pack consisting of
three of these modules in parallel combination working on a vehicle
with 144 V architecture. (See Table 3) 1.5. Battery heating calculation

1.4.3. Battery chemistry The heating rate of the battery must be determined before the
The battery cell chosen for the simulation and modeling purpose was simulation. The electrochemical process that occurs within the battery
18,650 Li-ion cells. The chemical reaction that occurs in the cell during while charging and discharging causes heat production. Internal heat
the discharge process is given by [21]: production is mostly generated by electrochemical cells and batteries
Inside a lithium-ion battery, oxidation, and reduction (Redox) re­ [22].
actions take place.
Reduction takes place at the cathode. There, cobalt oxide combines • Heat from the electrochemical reactions
with lithium ions to form lithium‑cobalt oxide (LiCoO2). The half- • Heat from polarization
reaction is:
Depending on whether an electrochemical reaction in a cell is
Table 2 exothermic or endothermic, heat can either be produced or absorbed.
Battery Specification [20]. The entropy change that takes place during the reaction is what causes
S.N. Particulars Value
this heat. The following equation can be used to compute the amount
and rate of heat evolution/absorption using thermodynamic principles.
1. Cell Capacity 13 Wh
The free energy generated by the electrochemical process in a
2. Nominal Cell Voltage 3.2 V
3. Max Cell Voltage 3.7 V reversible EMF corresponds to the highest electrical activity that a cell
4. Temperature Under Load* 50 ◦ C can perform. The following equation, known as Gibbs Helmholtz
5. Specific Heat capacity of Cell 1200 J/kg◦ C equation, yields the free energy.
6. Mass 0.0475 kg
7. Thermal Conductivity (radial) 0.2 W/mK ΔGor = ΔHro − TΔSro (8)
8. Thermal Conductivity (axial) 37.6 W/mK
9. Internal Resistance 0.04 Ω TΔSor
is a unit of measurement for the energy that cannot be con­
10 Cathode Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) verted into electrical work but instead manifests as heat, depending on
11 Anode Graphite the direction and thermodynamics of the electro-chemical reaction at
12 Electrolyte Lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6)
hand. Entropic or reaction heat are common names for this heat.

6
N. Adhikari et al. Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781

The Entropic heat evolved or absorbed per mole of the cell reactant battery cell which results in voltage drop eventually resulting to heat.
(s) at the reversible EMF is: The heat generation due to polarization can be calculated as [24]:
Qr = TΔSro = ΔHro − ΔGor (9) η = (Eo − EL ) (21)
o
The reversible EMF (E ) of an electrochemical cell is related to its The total heat generated by polarization (QPt) over the time (t) at
free energy by: current (I) is given by:

ΔGor (J/mol) = − nFEo (10) QPt (J) = − It(Eo –EL ) (22)

The fact that (Gor )

is negative for spontaneous reactions, such as the QPt (cal) = − 0.239It(E o –EL ) (23)
discharge of an electrochemical cell, is reflected by the negative sign in
Eq. 10. Total Heat Generation (QTt) during electrochemical reaction is given
Differentiating Eq. (8) with respect to (T) yields: by:
( ) [ ( o) ]
dΔGor dE
= − ΔSro (11) QTt (J) = − It (Eo − EL ) − T (24)
dT P dT P

Differentiating Eq. (10) with respect to (T) yields: In case of multi cell operation, such as in battery pack, the total heat
( ) ( o) during discharge is given by.
dΔGor dE
= − nF (12) [ ( o) ]
dE
dT P dT P QTt (J) = − ItN (Eo − EL ) − T (25)
dT P
Equating (4) and (5) gives
( o) ( ) [ ( o) ]
J dE
◦
ΔSro (J/mol. K) = nF
dE
(13) qTt = − IN (Eo − EL ) − T (26)
dT p s dT P
( o)
Now, substituting ΔSor in Eq. (13) gives, The value of dEdT P
is vital for the calculation of entropic heat. Hence
( o) Thermodynamic principles of chemical reaction is considered for the
( o)
ΔHro = − nFEo + nFT
dE
(14) calculation of dE
dT P .
dT P As we have,
From Eq. (14), Total Entropic Heat (Qr) is given by, ΔGor = ΔHro –TΔSro (27)
( o)
dE
Qr (J/mol) = nFT (15) (
dΔGor
)
dT P = − ΔSro (28)
dT P
Expressing above equation in terms of calories per mole,
( o) ΔGor (J/mol) = − nFEo (29)
dE
Qr (cal/mol) = 0.239nFT (16)
dT P ( ) ( o)
dΔGor dE
= − nF (30)
The time and current can now be used to calculate the quantity (Qrt) dT P dT P
and rate (qrt) of entropic heat generation/absorption from the electro­ ( ) ( )
chemical reaction over the course of operation (note: by convention, the ΔSro
J
= nF
dEo
(31)
current is positive for the discharge reaction (spontaneous process) and mol oK dT P
negative for charging (non-spontaneous process). This convention ( / ( )
maintains (ΔGro) negative for the spontaneous discharge process). dEo
ΔHro J mol = − nFEo + nFT (32)
First, (n) is defined as the function of current and time [23]: dT p

n=
It
(17) Solving Eq. (31) for (dEo/dT) p yields
F [ o ]
( o)
dE ΔHr + nFEo
Now, substituting n, we get: = (33)
( o) dT p nFT
dE
Qrt (cal) = 0.239ItT (18) ( ) ( )[ ]
dT P dEo 1 ΔH o ( )
= Eo + r ΔHro in joules (34)
Where, dT p T nF
Qrt = Total Entropic heat generated or absorbed by cell over a course Taking the value of T as 323 K which is optimal operating temper­
of time (t) at current (I) (Cal or J). ature under load of battery cell, ΔHor from heat of reaction calculation
Differentiating Qrt by time (t), the rate of heat generation or ab­ and Eo from product data sheet we get the calculation as − 0.0006451.
sorption (qrt) is obtained, which is given by:
( o) 1.6. Current
dE
qrt (J/sec) = IT (19)
dT P
The current was taken from an EV model provided by MATLAB in
Since during discharging the heat generation the charging and dis­ which FTP-752474 cycle was used. The current data was extracted as
charging heat can be determined by changing the sign of the equation to excel file from the model given and was uploaded to our model to
negative. i.e. generate a model of heat generation rate. As the cooling simulation was
( o)
dE done for a module rather than whole battery pack, the current was
Qrt (J) = − ItT (20) divided equally among three identical battery modules connected in
dT P
parallel. Six such modules were used in our custom battery pack. After
Along with the entropic heat, Heat is generated in a cell due to po­ averaging the current throughout the cycle, the current output from
larization. Polarization heat is due to the internal resistance of the each module was obtained as: (See Fig. 9) (See Fig. 10)

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N. Adhikari et al. Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781

Fig. 11. Battery cell and battery holder.

Table 4
Basic properties of battery and its specification.
Fig. 9. Heat Generation Output from each module. Properties Specifications Remark

Component type Battery Power supply

Battery type Li-ion Technology
Size/dimension 18*65 mm Standard
Voltage 3.7 V Nominal (standard)
Capacity 1200-3600mAh Per cell
Operating voltage 2.5–4.2 V Range(standard)
Cutoff voltage 2–2.5 V
Weight 30 g to 55 g
Charge density (energy per cell) 1.5–11.5 Wh Energy
Charge Discharge Cycle 250–2000 In number
Optimum charging time 2.5 h. to 3.5 h. Per cell
Shelf life 36+ months

Fig. 10. Heat Generation analysis.

1.7. Heat generation rate

Utilizing the current data from the driving cycle and dividing it
among the module, the heat generation data was calculated using
SIMULINK which is shown in figure below. Then the data was extracted,
and the average was taken to get the heat generation rate of the module.
Since the module was designed in such a way that every cell discharges
equally, the heat generation from each cell was considered identical
which was used to calculate the heat generation rate of individual cell.
The output form Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 suggests that current was taken from
an EV model that was generated from MATLAB where FTP- 752474
cycle were used and current were divided equally using SIMULINK
where average heat generation of module was found to be 373.23 W and
average heat generation of each cell was 0.87 W.
Fig. 12. Cooling channel.
1.8. CAD model
1.9. Cooling channel
Two types of CAD model were constructed for the 11p39s configu­
ration of battery module. The size for the battery was taken from the
The cooling channel was a specially designed wraparound model,
standards for 18,650 type battery cells. The spacing between cells is
designed specifically for maximizing the contact area between
done in such a way that it gives space for aluminum tubing or liquid or
aluminum flow channel and battery surface. This leads to maximum
air to flow through it. One system was Tube cooled whereas another was
heat transfer than traditional design of cooling channels prevailing
immersed system whose performance was compared through simulation
currently. The channel was made up of 1 mm thick aluminum and the
over identical conditions. (See Fig. 11)
flow channel had an inlet area of 1092 mm2. Each inlet of channel is
The properties of battery used during for research purposes is given
connected to a common rail so that the cells can be cooled evenly. One
in Table 4.
channel had contact with half of eleven cells in each side touching 22
cells in total and effective wraparound of 11 cells. This ensured
maximum heat transfer from battery cell to the coolant. The inside of the

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N. Adhikari et al. Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781

Fig. 14. General schematic of heat exchanger.

Fig. 13. Full Assembly of Battery Module 11p39s.
channel wall was filleted to reduce the pressure loss inside the channel.
(See Fig. 12) (See Fig. 13 )
1.10. Cooling system
Heating is the major problem that is encountered on battery powered
vehicles. A lot of research activities have been conducted and are
ongoing regarding the cooling system of electric vehicles. At present air-
cooling and liquid cooling is present. Air cooling is economical and
simple but one of the major problems encountered is the uniformity in
cooling. Uniformity cooling is not achieved in case of air cooling. So, a
proposed solution to that is liquid cooling. The study compares two
types of liquid cooling system and one air cooled system i.e., liquid
channel cooling system and immersed cooling system along with air
cooling for immersed model.
1.11. Design of a liquid cooling system
It is important that the cooling system can cool the heat generated
uniformly. If the cooling is not uniform due to electrochemical reaction
inside the battery, it leads to incomplete energy utilization. So as a part
of our cooling a uniform cooling design with maximum contact area was
constructed. As the heat transfer mode from battery to the coolant is via.
Fluid-solid interaction(conduction) and convective heat transfer, a
wraparound design for battery cooling channels was designed with
maximum contact area with the heated battery surface. The design of
the cooling channel was based on the battery walls such that the battery
walls were wrapped from all sides. Altogether, 38 cooling channels were
placed in a module passing through the gap between cells which are in
series. Each channel was connected to a common rail to provide the inlet
coolant and it moved across the module cooling half side of the 22 cells
along the way. Using a common rail and multiple independent cooling
channel helped the cooling system to cool the batteries near and away
from inlet more uniformly. Along with this the performances of the
cooling system were visualized in ANSYS. As a part of our CFD analysis,
we shall be analyzing the average temperature, power consumption and
the cooling effectiveness of our cooling system. (See Fig. 14
Est = energy of the system, Ein = Inlet energy, Eout = Outlet Energy,
Eg = Energy Generation Rate.
When fluid at temperature Ti and velocity w⋅ enters the shell, q⋅
amount of heat is transferred to the liquid flowing through the pipe via
conduction and convection approach. The fluid leaving the shell will
have a final temperature of To and velocity.)
( )
dTo
mcp = m. Cp (Ti − To ) + q. (36)
dt
1.13. Computational domain
The cooling modules of the numerical study used in present study are
present in Fig. 15, and its details are show in Table 4. Continuity, mo­
mentum, and energy equations are employed for different types of
cooling medium while the pressure was kept same for all. Based on the
assumptions, The Eulerian two-phased approach model is applied to
analyze the problem.
1.14. Simulation setup of cooling system
The designed cooling system was simulated for cooling via direct and
indirect cooling method using ANSYS. The ANSYS model was modeled
by setting the parameters for heat flux and heat generation rate which
was obtained by using the data from MATLAB simulation. The simula­
tion was run considering only two cooling lines due to the limitation of
the computer system for heavy simulation. The time of the simulation
was also set to 600 s with max time step of 1 s and 1 iteration per second.
The heat flux through the aluminum tubing was calculated along
with the volumetric heat generation rate of the cell. The heat flux
through contact surface of aluminum cooling channel is 559.45 W/m2
and volumetric heat generation rate was 52,598.214 W/m3.

1.12. Working principle

The cooling system works on the principle of heat exchanger. The

amount of heat generated in the battery is exchanged to the working
fluid that is at different temperatures. In a heat exchanger the energy
balance equation under controlled volume is given as [25]:
dEst
= Ein − Eout + Eg (35)
dt
Fig. 15. Computational domain.

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N. Adhikari et al. Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781

Table 5
Properties of Ethylene glycol at different concentrations [26–28].
Concentration Density(kg/ Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg. Dynamic Viscosity (kg/ Thermal Conductivity (W/m. Volumetric Flow Rate Reynold
m3) K) m.s) K) (m3 /hr) Number

30% 1046 3828 0.00259 0.487 1 6,009,457.74

50% 1079 3413 0.00391 0.385 1 6,199,042.47
60% 1095 3284 0.00536 0.3285 1 6,290,965

Table 6
Properties of Mineral Oil [29].
Properties Specification

Density 924 kg/m3

Specific Heat Capacity 1900 (J/kg. K)
Dynamic Viscosity 0.05 (Pa.s)
Thermal Conductivity 0.13 (W/m.K)

Table 7
Properties of Air.
Properties Specification

Specific Heat Capacity (Cp)= 1006.43 (J/Kg.K) Fig. 16. Meshing pattern of simulation model.
Density 1.225 kg/m3
Viscosity 1.7894 × 10− 5 kg/(m.s)
Thermal Conductivity 0.0242 W/ (m.K)
Inlet Velocity 8 m/s Table 8
Reynold number 1,018,665.47 Mesh Quality.
Aspect Ratio 1.1659

1.15. Coolant properties Y+ 2

Grids 780,000
skewness 0.2982
The coolant mostly used in EVs is aqueous solution of ethylene gly­
Orthogonal Quality 0.70032
col. Ethylene glycol has a lower freezing point than water, making it
effective at preventing coolant from freezing in cold temperatures.
Additionally, it has a higher boiling point than water, which helps 1.17. Numerical procedure
prevent overheating in hot temperatures. This study compared the
performance of different concentrations of aq. Ethylene glycol in EV The energy equation was turned on to analyze the momentum, mass
battery cooling application. The properties of different concentration and energy associated with the flow of the system. K-omega-SST model
were obtained from literature and some data at inlet conditions had to to capture the effect of turbulent flow conditions k-omega model was
be interpolated as exact data was not available. The properties of the taken. This model can solve turbulent models very close to the wall. As
coolant at different concentration are tabulated below. in the model it is required to observe the surface temperature of the
For direct cooling system application ethylene glycol was replaced battery during its interaction with the moving fluid through the cooling
with dielectric mineral oil as it is non-conductive and does not damage channel, hence the SST model was selected as it makes the inner parts of
battery after coming in direct contact with it. The volumetric flow rate the boundary layer directly useable all the way down to the wall. For the
was kept identical to that of aqueous solution of ethylene glycol for simulation, the model used to get information in the turbulent flow re­
comparison purpose. The properties of mineral oil are tabulated below. gions is the SST K-Omega Turbulence model which falls under the Two
(See Table 5) (See Table 6) equation models. The equations are as follows [14].
Along with the liquid cooling system, an air-cooling system was also The mass conservation equation is given as [14]:
visualized considering the car speed as 40 kmph and head wind of 2 m/s,
∂ρ
as average of Dhulikhel. Considering the losses as it enters the battery + ∇.(ρv) = Sm (37)
pack while driving the air velocity was set to 8 m/s at inlet of battery
∂t
module with default air properties of ANSYS database. The properties of The momentum conservation equation is given by [14]:
inlet air are tabulated below. (See Table 7)
∇(ρu) + ∇(ρu⋅u) = − ∇P + ∇⋅τ + ρg (38)

1.16. Meshing Turbulence Kinetic Energy [14].

[ ]
∂k ∂k ∂ ∂k
The model was meshed using tetrahedron geometry with the element + Uj = Pk − β × kw + (v + σk vT ) (39)
∂t dxj dxj ∂xj
size of 1 mm. In- order to accurately capture the boundary layer region
for wall bounded turbulent flows inflation layer was added to the battery Specific Dissipation Rate
surfaces.in the inlet and outlet section of the coolant flow section, face [ ]
∂w ∂w ∂ω 1 ∂k ∂ω
meshing was done. After the addition of these features the total number + Uj (v + σω VT ) + 2(1 − F1 )σ ω2 (40)
of nodes obtained was 1,369,559 and the number of elements obtained
∂t ∂xj ∂xj ω ∂xi ∂xi
was 5,309,287. (See Fig. 16)(See Table 8) Kinematic Eddy Viscosity [14].
a1 k
VT = (41)
max(a1 ω, SF2 )

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N. Adhikari et al. Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781

Table 9 know the effectiveness of cooling system. The results obtained after
Fluent Solver Properties. simulating the system after 10 min are shown in the next section. The
Model Settings fluent solver properties used during the process is represented in
Table 9.
Space 3D
Time Transient
Viscous SST k-ω turbulence model 1.18.1. Ethylene glycol solution at 30% concentration
Heat Transfer Enabled Initially the simulation was done on the ethylene glycol solution at
30% concentration. The initial temperature of battery cells and the inlet
coolant was set to 293 K.The average temperature of battery surface was
The Reynolds number is given by [7].
observed as about 293.7K after 600 s of operation and steady heat
V×D generation and flux, resulting in ΔT2 = 0.7K which is significantly less
Re = (42)
μ than that of when there was no heat release from battery cell. After the
cooling system was introduced, the total heat lost by the battery can be
If Re < 2300, The flow is laminar and if Re > 4000, the flow devel­
calculated as 481.65 J in 600 s which is 0.80275 W per cell.
oped inside the pipe was turbulent.
The same heat lost value is the rate of heat gained by the coolant and
The boundary conditions used during simulation is represented in
hence the heat extracted from the system. From this value we can
Table 9.
calculate the heat transfer rate from each cooling channel since each
Boundary conditions used during simulation
cooling channel maintains the average surface temperature of each cell
to 293.7 K.
Outer wall Adiabatic Heat extraction rate of cooling channel (per 11 cells) = 0.80275 × 11
Inlet temperature 293 K = 8.83W
Inlet T = Tin, V = Vin
Inlet Uniform velocity and uniform inlet temperature
Battery cell Q = Qin (See Fig. 17) (See Fig. 18)
Outlet pressure 0 kPa
Wall No slip condition 1.18.2. Ethylene glycol solution at 50% concentration
Initially the simulation was done on the ethylene glycol solution at
30% concentration. The initial temperature of battery cells and the inlet
coolant was set to 293 K.The average temperature of battery surface was
1.18. Simulation output of indirect cooling system observed as about 293.72K after 600 s of operation and steady heat
generation and flux, resulting in ΔT2 = 0.72K which is significantly less
In an indirect cooling system, three different concentrations of than that of when there was no heat release from battery cell. After the
ethylene glycol were passed through the cooling channel at same ve­ cooling system was introduced, the total heat lost by the battery was
locity and the average battery temperature was observed after running calculated as 480.51 J in 600 s which is 0.80085 W per cell. (See Fig. 19)
the simulation for 600 s. Had there not been a cooling system and zero The same heat lost value is the rate of heat gained by the coolant and
heat transfer of battery with the surroundings, with the heat generation hence the heat extracted from the system. From this value we can
rate of 0.87 W per cell, the temperature after 600 s would be calculated calculate the heat transfer rate from each cooling channel since each
using the heat transfer equation which is 9.15 K. After 600 s the outer cooling channel maintains the average surface temperature of each cell
surface of the battery walls would have increased by 9.15 ◦ C without to 293.7 K.
cooling system. This temperature difference was compared with the
average temperature difference after simulation of cooling system to

Fig. 17. Static Temperature contours after flowing 30% aq. solution of ethylene.

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N. Adhikari et al. Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781

Fig. 18. Average Battery Surface temperature after flowing 30% aq. solution of ethylene glycol.

Heat extraction rate of cooling channel (per 11 cells) = 0.80085 × 11

= 8.81W

(See Fig. 20)

1.18.3. Ethylene glycol solution at 60% concentration

The initial temperature of battery cells and the inlet coolant was set
to 293 K.The average temperature of battery surface was observed as
about 293.97K after 600 s, resulting in ΔT4 = 0.97K which is signifi­
cantly less than that of when there was no heat release from battery cell.
After the cooling system was introduced, the total heat lost by the bat­
tery was found to be 466.26 J in 600 s which is 0.7771 W per cell.
From this value we can calculate the heat transfer rate from each
cooling channel since each cooling channel maintains the average sur­
face temperature of each cell to 293.7 ◦ C.
Fig. 19. Static Temperature contours after flowing 50% aq. solution of
ethylene glycol.

Fig. 20. Average Battery Surface temperature after flowing 50% aq. solution of ethylene glycol.

12
N. Adhikari et al.
Fig. 21. Static Temperature contours after flowing 60% aq. solution of
ethylene glycol.
Heat extraction rate of cooling channel (i.e.per 11 cells) = 0.7771 × 11
= 8.548W
(See Fig. 21) (See Fig. 22)
1.18.4. Simulation output of direct cooling system
In direct cooling method a model was simulated such that the min­
eral oil would flow at same volume flow rate through the inlet as
ethylene glycol at 50% concentration. The simulation was run for 600 s,
and the average battery surface temperature was plotted. The graph
reaches equilibrium condition when the average temperature of the
battery cells reaches around 300.5 K giving the value of ΔT5 = 7.5K.
This value can be utilized to calculate the heat extraction rate of the
system for this configuration. The heat loss was 94.05 J in 600 s which is
1.724 W per cell. The Renolds number was found to be: (See Fig. 23)
(See Fig. 24)
The effect of cooling was very low in this system, so the inlet velocity
was matched with the aq. ethylene glycol solution of 50% concentration
to get another set of results. The average temperature got in equilibrium
Fig. 22. Average Battery Surface temperature after flowing 60% aq. solution of ethylene glycol.
13
Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781
Fig. 23. Temperature profile after cooling the battery for 10 min with mineral
oil at inlet velocity of 0.008 m/s.
at around 296.25 K with the value of ΔT6 = 3.25K.
Heat lost per cell = 336.3J
rate of losing heat by battery = 0.56W per cell
rate of heat gain by coolant through 11 cells = 6.16 W per 11 cells
From energy balance, this is the rate of heat gain by mineral oil while
cooling 11 cells at once. 11 cells were taken since single channel was
responsible for cooling 11 number of cells. (See Fig. 25) (See Fig. 26)
1.18.5. Air cooling system
The same simulation was performed for air as working fluid. The
velocity was determined using the general vehicle speed and wind ve­
locity of Dhulikhel from literature available. In this system the average
system temperature was observed to get steady around 297 K with
temperature difference of 4 K. So, the cooling effect can be calculated as
Heat lost per cell = 293.55J
rate of losing heat by battery = 0.49W per cell
N. Adhikari et al. Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781

Fig. 24. Average battery surface temperature when cooled with mineral oil at 0.008 m/s for 10 min.

Fig. 25. Temperature contour when inlet velocity of mineral oil is 0.04 m/s.

Fig. 26. Average temperature of battery surface when inlet velocity is 0.04 m/s.

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N. Adhikari et al. Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781

Fig. 27. Temperature profile after air cooling for 10 min.

Fig. 28. Average battery cell surface temperature after 110 min of cooling.

rate of heat gain by cooolant by 11 cells = 5.39W per 11 cells Table 10

Results from simulation and calculations.
The heat lost by battery is equal to the heat gained by the air which is
released to the environment. (See Fig. 27) (See Fig. 28) Method and coolant Heat Min Temperature Max Temperature
used Extraction of system (K) of system(K)
Rate (W)
1.19. Validation
Ethylene glycol
solution of 30% 8.83 293 295
The verification of the anticipated findings will be the main topic of Concentration
this section. Six different methods of the battery pack cooling system’s Ethylene glycol
heat transfer behavior have been considered numerically, with ethylene solution of 50% 8.81 293 295
glycol solution used as the solvent at various concentrations. There were Concentration
Ethylene glycol
no experimental findings that can be utilized to contrast the outcomes
solution of 60% 8.54 293 296
with those expected. However comprehensive evaluation as well as Concentration
MATLAB Simulink were used. The results were tally with result that is Liquid cooling with
obtained from the 50% of concentration of ethylene glycol and the result mineral oil flowing 1.724 293 314
of the MATLAB Simulink which we obtained was 0.8 W per cell and 8.81 at 0.008 m/s
Liquid cooling with
W per 11 cells and so on. mineral oil flowing 6.16 293 302
at 0.04 m/s
2. Results and observations Air cooling 5.39 293 310

The results from the simulated data and calculations are tabulated in
minimal.
Table 10.
The direct cooling system was not as effective as indirect cooling. The
From the results obtained it can be concluded that the cooling effect
heat extraction rate in direct cooling system was significantly low as
of ethyl glycol solution increases as the concentration decreases. The
compared to indirect cooling. Air cooling was observed better than
most effective cooling effect was obtained from an indirect cooling
mineral oil cooling with inlet velocity of 0.008 m/s. However, the
method with aq. solution of ethylene glycol of 30% concentration.
mineral oil cooling with inlet velocity of 0.04 m/s was better in cooling
However, the difference between 30% and 50% concentration is very

15
N. Adhikari et al.
application with heat extraction capacity of 6.16 W from 11 cells as
compared to 5.39 of air-cooling system. This shows that the heat
extraction capacity increases with the increase in the flowrate of
coolant. This has a downside as to make mineral oil move at that ve­
locity, high amount of energy is required to pump the viscous fluid
through the battery pack. This leads to rapid discharge of battery as the
pump needs to be powered by the battery itself. So, if air cooling and
mineral cooling were compared, air cooling is preferable in small battery
application as it requires little to no external power source for cooling
purposes.
As it is observed that indirect cooling approach is better in heat
extraction, aqueous ethylene glycol with different concentration has
different cooling capacity. Since, ethylene glycol is used as antifreeze, in
hot conditions lower concentration of ethylene glycol coolant can be
used to cool the batteries since it would be more effective in cooling
application as well as economically cheap to add less amount of chem­
ical to water. However, in cold conditions, the cooling required is
comparatively less than that of hot regions but coolant not freezing in
very cold conditions is a must. So, higher concentration of ethylene
glycol solution is preferred. From the results, the difference between
30% and 50% concentration of ethylene glycol was comparable and
properties of 50% concentration of ethylene glycol were suitable for
most of the weather conditions. Hence, most of the manufacturers sug­
gest a 50% concentration of ethylene glycol solution to be used in the
electric vehicles.
3. Conclusion
In conclusion, the results derived from the comprehensive investi­
gation of various cooling methods and coolant concentrations provide
valuable insights into the thermal management of lithium-ion batteries
in electric vehicles. The key findings, based on the actual numerical
values, can be summarized as follows:
• Coolant Concentration Impact: The cooling effect of ethylene glycol
solution exhibits a discernible trend where its efficiency increases as
the concentration decreases. Specifically, a 30% concentration of
ethylene glycol proves to be the most effective coolant in terms of
heat extraction rate. However, it is noteworthy that the difference in
cooling effectiveness between 30% and 50% concentration is
minimal.
• Cooling Method Effectiveness: The study unequivocally establishes
the superiority of indirect cooling over direct cooling methods. In­
direct cooling, employing aqueous ethylene glycol at 30% concen­
tration, achieves the highest heat extraction rate. In contrast, direct
cooling lags significantly in heat extraction capacity. Furthermore,
air cooling surpasses mineral oil cooling when the inlet velocity is set
at 0.008 m/s. However, mineral oil cooling with an inlet velocity of
0.04 m/s emerges as the most efficient cooling method, with a heat
extraction capacity of 6.16 W, outperforming air cooling.
• Flowrate Influence: Notably, the research reveals that heat extraction
capacity is directly proportional to the flowrate of the coolant. While
higher flow rates enhance cooling efficiency, it necessitates a sub­
stantial amount of energy to pump viscous fluid through the battery
pack, potentially leading to a rapid discharge of the battery. In this
regard, air cooling proves advantageous for smaller battery appli­
cations, as it requires minimal external power for cooling.
• Coolant Concentration Considerations: The choice of ethylene glycol
coolant concentration is contingent on environmental conditions. In
warmer climates, lower concentrations are more effective and cost-
efficient. Conversely, in cold regions, higher concentrations are
preferred to prevent freezing while maintaining effective cooling.
Based on the results, a 50% concentration of ethylene glycol emerges
as a suitable choice for most weather conditions, aligning with in­
dustry recommendations for electric vehicles.
16
Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781
In anticipation of future advancements in electric vehicle technol­
ogy, characterized by higher power demands and spatial constraints, the
development of a highly efficient, lightweight, and space-efficient bat­
tery cooling system is imperative. These findings serve as a foundational
guide for optimizing battery thermal management, facilitating the sus­
tainable evolution of electric vehicles.
3.1. Terminologies
Terminology Definition
Battery Electric Vehicle A Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) is a type of electric
vehicle that relies solely on rechargeable batteries to
power an electric motor, emitting no tailpipe emissions.
Electro Motive Force Electromotive Force (EMF) is a fundamental concept in
electromagnetism and electrical circuits, representing
the electrical voltage or potential difference that drives
the flow of electric current in a circuit or conductor,
typically measured in volts (V).
Electric Vehicle An Electric Vehicle (EV) is a mode of transportation
powered by electricity, typically stored in rechargeable
batteries, which drives an electric motor to propel the
vehicle, thereby eliminating tailpipe emissions and
reliance on internal combustion engines.
Internal Combustion An Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is a mechanical
Engine device used for propelling vehicles and generating
power, which operates by igniting a fuel-air mixture
within a confined combustion chamber to produce
controlled explosions that drive a piston or turbine,
ultimately converting chemical energy from fossil fuels
into mechanical work and exhaust gases.
Lithium-Polymer Lithium-Polymer (LiPo) is a type of rechargeable
battery technology that uses a solid or gel-like
electrolyte composed of lithium salts, which is
sandwiched between two electrodes, offering high
energy density and flexibility in cell shape, commonly
utilized in various electronic devices and electric
vehicles for its lightweight and efficient energy storage
properties.
Lithium-ion Battery A Lithium-ion Battery (Li-ion) is a rechargeable
electrochemical energy storage device that relies on
lithium ions moving between a positive electrode
(cathode) and a negative electrode (anode) within an
electrolyte to store and release electrical energy, widely
used in electronic devices, electric vehicles, and
renewable energy systems due to its high energy
density and long cycle life.
Phase Change Materials Phase Change Materials (PCMs) are substances with the
capability to absorb or release large amounts of thermal
energy when they undergo a phase transition, such as
changing from a solid to a liquid or vice versa, making
them valuable in thermal energy storage applications
for temperature regulation and energy efficiency.
Battery Thermal A Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) is an
Management System integrated system designed to regulate and maintain
the temperature of batteries, typically used in electric
vehicles and energy storage systems, in order to
optimize their performance, safety, and longevity by
actively managing heat generated during charging and
discharging processes, thus ensuring efficient and
reliable operation.
Battery Management A Battery Management System (BMS) is a sophisticated
System electronic control system designed to monitor, regulate,
and protect rechargeable batteries, commonly used in
various applications, including electric vehicles and
energy storage systems, to ensure safe and efficient
battery operation by managing parameters such as
voltage, current, temperature, and state of charge,
while also preventing overcharging, over discharging,
and other potential hazards.
Hybrid Electric Vehicle A Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) is a transportation
mode that combines an internal combustion engine
with an electric motor to enhance fuel efficiency and
reduce emissions while maintaining the capability for
conventional driving.
Open-Circuit Voltage Open-Circuit Voltage (OCV) refers to the voltage across
the terminals of a battery or electrical device when no
(continued on next page)
N. Adhikari et al. Applied Energy 360 (2024) 122781

(continued ) Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptu­

Terminology Definition
current is flowing, representing the electromotive force
or potential difference without any load.
State of Charge State of Charge (SOC) denotes the proportion of the
total capacity of a rechargeable battery that is currently
available or utilized, typically expressed as a
percentage, indicating how much energy remains in the
battery relative to its full capacity.
alization, Project administration, Resources, Validation. Prajwol Joshi:
Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Re­
sources, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation,
Conceptualization, Software, Validation.
Declaration of competing interest
None.

Data availability
Nomenclature
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Hf Enthalpy of Formation
Sor Standard entropy change [J/mol oK] References
Hro KJ
Heat reaction [mol ]
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