Drawing

NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE
AUTOMOTIVE DEPARTMENT
ABSTRACT
Engineering Drawing: Lecture Notes for Craft Certificate in Heavy

Equipment Engineering
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Basic Tools ................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Using the Equipment .................................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Printing .......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.0 PRINCIPLES OF DRAWING ....................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Paper sizes .................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 The Title Block ............................................................................................................................ 6
2.3 Boarderlines ................................................................................................................................. 7
2.4 Lines ............................................................................................................................................. 8
2.5: Dimensioning............................................................................................................................. 9
2.5.1 Where to Put Dimensions .................................................................................................... 10
3.0 STANDARD ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................ 14
4.0 CONSTRUCTION OF GEOMETRIC FIGURES FROM GIVEN DATA............................. 16
4.2 THE TRIANGLE ..................................................................................................................... 19
5.0 TANGENTS .................................................................................................................................. 34
6.0 TANGENTIAL ARCS .................................................................................................................. 41
7.0 ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING .................................................................................................. 48
9.0 REFENCES ................................................................................................................................... 66
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Basic Tools
A draftsperson needs some basic tools to draw. These should include the following:
 A range of pencils
 Ruler
 Set squares
 Rubber
 Compasses
 Dividers
 Drawing board
 T-square
 Clips or tape
 Emery board or fine sandpaper
PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

Pencils: Normally you will need a selection of pencils. A hard leaded pencil (6H) can be used for
light lines, a softer pencil (2H) for the outlines and an even softer pencil (HB) for printing. (More
than one pencil of each grade will save you from frequent re-sharpening.)
Ruler: It is advisable to have a transparent ruler.
Set squares: You will need at least two set squares: a 60 ° and a 45 ° set square. It will be also
useful to have an adjustable set square, which will enable you to set the angle on the set square to
anywhere between 0 ° and 90 °. If you have an adjustable set square you can manage without the
other two.
Figure 1.1: Set Squares
Rubber: Choose a good quality rubber, one that does not smudge.
Compasses: You will need at least two compasses: a small spring bow compass for small circles
and one for larger circles.

Figure 1.2: Compasses
Dividers: A pair of dividers is essential.
Drawing board and T-square: Drawing boards for size A2 paper can be bought with a fitted
horizontal square which slides up and down on rollers. A less expensive board is one that is used
with a separate T-square which slides up and down on the side of the drawing board and has to
be held in place when used.
Clips or tape: The best tape to use to hold paper on the drawing board is masking tape but metal
drawing board clips are easier to use.
Emery board or fine sandpaper: This is used to ensure that the lead in the pencils is kept sharp.
There are other instruments that will help you to draw quickly and accurately.
These include the following:
French curves (for drawing non-circular curves accurately).

Large spring bow compasses.
Trammel (for drawing circles with very large diameters).
Scales (rulers with special markings for drawing items bigger or smaller than they are in
real life).
1.2 Using the Equipment

First fix the paper to your board, using clips or tape. Then sharpen your pencils, either to a point
using a pencil sharpener, or to a chisel shape using the emery board and use this shape for drawing
lines, drawing from the ends of each line to meet in the middle. Use the emery board to sharpen
your compass leads to a chisel point too.
1.3 Printing
Most notes on drawings are done in upper case (capital letters) although this is not always so. Two
alphabets and numbers are shown below. Most draftspersons develop great skills in printing by
hand. If you need to print, try both standard and italic and develop a style that suits you.
Standard Print
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
I234567890

Italic Print
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
I234567890

2.0 PRINCIPLES OF DRAWING
2.1 Paper sizes
Engineering drawings are to be prepared on standard size drawing sheets. The correct shape and
size of the object can be visualised from the understanding of not only the views of it but also
from the various types of lines used, dimensions, notes, scale, etc. To provide the correct
information about the drawings to all the people concerned, the drawings must be prepared,
following certain standard practices. Engineering drawings are prepared on drawing sheets of
standard sizes. The use of standard size sheet, saves paper and facilitates convenient storage of
drawings.
Figure. 2.1: Drawing sheet formats
2.2 The Title Block

The title block should lie within the drawing space such that, the location of it, containing the
identification of the drawing, is at the bottom right-hand corner. This must be followed, both for
sheets positioned horizontally or vertically (Fig. 2.2).
The direction of viewing of the title block should correspond in general with that of the drawing.
The title block can have a maximum length of 170 mm. Figure 2.3 shows a typical title block,
providing the following information:
(i) Title of the drawing

(ii) Sheet number
(iii) Scale
(iv) Symbol, denoting the method of projection
(v) Name of the firm
(vi) Initials of staff drawn, checked and approved.
Figure. 2.2: Title Block Position
Figure 2.3: Title Block Position
2.3 Boarderlines
Borders enclosed by the edges of the trimmed sheet and the frame, limiting the drawing space,
should be provided with all sheet sizes. It is recommended that these borders have a minimum
width of 20 mm for the sizes A0 and A1 and a minimum width of 10 mm for the sizes A2, A3 and
A4 (Fig. 2.4). A filing margin for taking perforations, may be provided on the edge, far left of the
title block.

2.4 Lines
Lines of different types and thicknesses are used for graphical representation of objects. The types
of lines and their applications are shown in Table 2.4
Table 2.1: Lines and their uses.
Line Description General Applications
Continuous thick A1 Visible outlines
Continuous thin B1-Imaginary lines of

(straight or curved) intersection
B2 Dimension lines
B3 Projection lines
B4 Leader lines
B5 Hatching lines
B6 Outlines of revolved
sections in place
B7 Short centre lines
Continuous thin, free- C1 Limits of partial or
hand interrupted views
and sections, if the limit is not
Continuous thin a chain thin
(straight) D1 Line (see Fig. 2.5)
with zigzags
Dashed thick outlines E1 Hidden
Chain thin G1 Centre lines

G2 Lines of symmetry
G3 Trajectories
Chain thin, thick at ends H1 Cutting planes

and changes of direction
Chain thick J1 Indication of lines or

surfaces to which
a special requirement applies
Chain thin, double- K1 Outlines of adjacent parts
dashed K2 Alternative and extreme
positions of
movable parts
K3 Centroidal lines

2.5: Dimensioning
The purpose of dimensioning is to provide a clear and complete description of an object. A
complete set of dimensions will permit only one interpretation needed to construct the part.
Dimensioning should follow these guidelines.
1. Accuracy: correct values must be given.
2. Clearness: dimensions must be placed in appropriate positions.
3. Completeness: nothing must be left out, and nothing duplicated.
4. Readability: the appropriate line quality must be used for legibility.
The Basics: Definitions and Dimensions

The dimension line is a thin line, broken in the middle to allow the placement of the
dimension value, with arrowheads at each end (Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4: Dimensioning

An arrowhead is approximately 3 mm long and 1 mm wide. That is, the length is roughly
three times the width. An extension line extends a line on the object to the dimension line.
The first dimension line should be approximately 12 mm (0.6 in) from the object. Extension
lines begin 1.5 mm from the object and extend 3 mm from the last dimension line.
A leader is a thin line used to connect a dimension with a particular area (figure 24).

A leader may also be used to indicate a note or comment about a specific area. When there is
limited space, a heavy black dot may be substituted for the arrows, as in figure 23. Also in this
drawing, two holes are identical, allowing the "2x" notation to be used and the dimension to point
to only one of the circles.
2.5.1 Where to Put Dimensions

The dimensions should be placed on the face that describes the feature most clearly. Examples
of appropriate and inappropriate placing of dimensions are shown in figure 2.5.
In order to get the feel of what dimensioning is all about, we can start with a simple rectangular
block. With this simple object, only three dimensions are needed to describe it completely
(Figure 2.6). There is little choice on where to put its dimensions.
We have to make some choices when we dimension a block with a notch or cutout (figure 27).
It is usually best to dimension from a common line or surface. This can be called the datum line
of surface. This eliminates the addition of measurement or machining inaccuracies that would
come from "chain" or "series" dimensioning. Notice how the dimensions originate on the
datum surfaces. We chose one datum surface in figure 27, and another in figure 28. As long as
we are consistent, it makes no difference. (We are just showing the top view).

In Figure 2.9 we have shown a hole that we have chosen to dimension on the left side of the
object. The Ø stands for "diameter".
When the left side of the block is "radiuses" as in figure 30, we break our rule that we should not
duplicate dimensions. The total length is known because the radius of the curve on the left side is
given. Then, for clarity, we add the overall length of 60 and we note that it is a reference (REF)
dimension. This means that it is not really required.

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Somewhere on the paper, usually the bottom, there should be placed information on what
measuring system is being used (e.g. inches and millimeters) and also the scale of the drawing.
This drawing is symmetric about the horizontal centerline. Centerlines (chain-dotted) are used for
symmetric objects, and also for the center of circles and holes. We can dimension directly to the
centerline, as in figure 31. In some cases this method can be clearer than just dimensioning between
surfaces.

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3.0 STANDARD ABBREVIATIONS

Standard abbreviations in draughting are recommended as notes to provide a brief and clear
instructions. Table 3.1 provides the draughting abbreviations for general terms and Table 2.10
represents material abbreviations.
Table 3.1: Abbreviations for General Terms
Term Abbreviation Term Abbreviation
Across corners A/C Manufacture MFG
Across flats A/F Material MATL
Approved APPD Maximum max.
Approximate APPROX Metre m
Assembly ASSY Mechanical MECH
Auxiliary AUX Millimetre mm
Bearing BRG. Minimum min
Centimetre Cm Nominal NOM
Centres CRS Not to scale NTS
Centre line CL Number No.
Centre to Centre C/L Opposite OPP
Chamfered CHMED Outside diameter OD
Checked CHD Pitch circle PC
Cheese head CH HD Pitch circle diameter PCD
Circular pitch CP Quantity QTY
Circumference OCE Radius R
Continued CONTD Radius in a note RAD
Counterbore C BORE Reference REF
Countersunk CSK Required REQD
Cylinder CYL Right hand RH
Diameter DIA Round RD
Diametral pitch DP Screw SCR
Dimension DIM. Serial number Sl. No
Drawing DRG Specification SPEC
Equi-spaced EQUI-SP Sphere/Spherical SPHERE
External EXT Spot face SF
Figure FIG. Square SQ
General GNL Standard STD

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Ground level GL Symmetrical SYM

Ground GND Thick THK
Hexagonal HEX Thread THD
Inspection INSP Through THRU
Inside diameter ID Tolerance TOL
Internal INT Typical TYP
Left hand LH Undercut U/C
Machine M/C Weight WT
Table 3.2 Abbreviations for materials
Material Abbreviation
Aluminium AL
Brass BRASS
Bronze BRONZE
Cast iron CI
Cast steel CS
Chromium steel CrS
Copper Cu
Forged steel FS
Galvanised iron GI
Gray iron FG
Gunmetal GM
High carbon steel HCS
High speed steel HSS
High tensile steel HTS
Low carbon steel LCS
Mild steel MS
Nickel steel Ni S
Pearlitic malleable iron PM
Phosphor bronze PHOS.B
Sheet steel Sh S
Spring steel Spring S
Structure steel St
Tungston carbide steel TCS

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Wrought iron WI
White metal WM
4.0 CONSTRUCTION OF GEOMETRIC FIGURES FROM GIVEN DATA

This chapter is concerned with the construction of plane geometric figures. Plane
geometry is the geometry of figures that are two-dimensional, i.e. figures that have
only length and breadth. Solid geometry is the geometry of three-dimensional figures.
There are an endless number of plane figures but we will concern ourselves only
with the more common ones – the triangle, the quadrilateral and the better known
polygons. Before we look at any particular figure, there are a few constructions that must be
revised.
Figure 4.1: To construct a parallel line. Figure 4.2: To bisect a line.
Figure 4.3: To erect a perpendicular from a point on a line.

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Figure 4.4 To erect a perpendicular from a point to a line.
Figure 4.5 To bisect an angle. Figure 4.6 To bisect the angle

formed by two converging lines.

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Figure 4.7 To construct 60 ° .

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Figure 4.12 To divide a line into a number of equal parts (e.g. six).
Figure 4.13: To divide a line proportionally (e.g. 1:2:4).
4.2 THE TRIANGLE

4.2.1 Definitions
The triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight sides. A scalene triangle is a triangle with
three unequal sides and three unequal angles.
 An isosceles triangle is a triangle with two sides, and hence two angles, equal.
 An equilateral triangle is a triangle with all the sides, and hence all the angles, equal.
 A right-angled triangle is a triangle containing one right angle. The side opposite the right
angle is called the ‘hypotenuse’.

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4.3. CONSTRUCTIONS
4.3.1 To construct an equilateral triangle, given one of the sides ( Fig. 4.14 ).
Draw a line AB, equal to the length of the side.
With compass point on A and radius AB, draw an arc as shown.
With compass point on B, and with the same radius, draw another arc to cut the first arc at C.
Triangle ABC is equilateral.
Figure 4.14
4.3.2To construct an isosceles triangle given the perimeter and the altitude (Fig. 4.15).
1. Draw line AB equal to half the perimeter.
2. From B erect a perpendicular and make BC equal to the altitude.
3. Join AC and bisect it to cut AB in D.
4. Produce DB so that BE _ BD. CDE is the required triangle.
Figure 4.15

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4.3.3 To construct a triangle, given the base angles and the altitude (Fig. 4.16 ).
1. Draw a line AB.
2. Construct CD parallel to AB so that the distance between them is equal to the altitude.
3. From any point E, on CD, draw C Ê F and D Ê G so that they cut AB in F and G, respectively.
Figure 4.16
4.3.4 To construct a triangle given the base, the altitude and the vertical angle (Fig.:4.17).

Engineering Drawing
Figure 4.17
1. Draw the base AB.
2. Construct B Â C equal to the vertical angle.
3. Erect AD perpendicular to AC.
4. Bisect AB to meet AD in O.
5. With centre O and radius OA (_ OB), draw a circle.
6. Construct EF parallel to AB so that the distance between them is equal to the altitude.
Let EF intersect the circle in G. ABG is the required triangle.
4.3.5 To construct a triangle given the perimeter and the ratio of the sides (Fig. 4.18).
1. Draw the line AB equal in length to the perimeter.
2. Divide AB into the required ratio (e.g. 4:3:6).
3. With centre C and radius CA, draw an arc.
4. With centre D and radius DB, draw an arc to intersect the first arc in E.
ECD is the required triangle.

Engineering Drawing
Figure 4.18
4.4 The Quadrilateral
4.4.1 Definitions
The quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides.
A square is a quadrilateral with all four sides of equal length and one of its angles (and hence the
other three) a right angle.
A rectangle is a quadrilateral with its opposite sides of equal length and one of its angles (and hence
the other three) a right angle.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides equal and therefore parallel.
A rhombus is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal.
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel.
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with all four sides and angles unequal.

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4.5 Polygons
4.5.1 Definitions
A polygon is a plane figure bounded by more than four straight sides. Polygons that are frequently
referred to have particular names. Some of these are listed below.
 A pentagon is a plane figure bounded by five sides.

 A hexagon is a plane figure bounded by six sides.
 A heptagon is a plane figure bounded by seven sides.
 An octagon is a plane figure bounded by eight sides.
 A nonagon is a plane figure bounded by nine sides.
 A decagon is a plane figure bounded by ten sides.
A regular polygon is one that has all its sides equal and therefore all its exterior angles equal and
all its interior angles equal.
It is possible to construct a circle within a regular polygon so that all the sides of the polygon are
tangential to that circle. The diameter of that circle is called the ‘diameter of the polygon’. If the
polygon has an even number of sides, the diameter is the distance between two diametrically
opposed faces. This dimension is often called the ‘across-flats’ dimension.
The diagonal of a polygon is the distance from one corner to the corner furthest away from it. If
the polygon has an even number of sides, then this distance is the dimension between two
diametrically opposed corners.
4.5.1 Constructions
4.5.1.1 To construct a regular hexagon given the length of the sides (Fig. 4.19).
1. Draw a circle, radius equal to the length of the side.
2. From any point on the circumference, step the radius around the circle six times. If your
construction is accurate, you will finish at exactly the same place that you started.
3. Connect the six points to form a regular hexagon.

Engineering Drawing
Figure 2.19
4.5.1.2 To construct a regular hexagon given the diameter (Fig. 2.20).
This construction, using compasses and straight edge only, is quite feasible but is relatively
unimportant. What is important is to recognise that a hexagon can be constructed, given the
diameter or across-flats dimension, by drawing tangents to the circle with a 60 ° set square. This
is very important when drawing hexagonal-headed nuts and bolts.
Figure 2.20

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4.5.1.3 To construct a regular octagon given the diagonal, i.e. within a given circle (Fig.2.21
).
1. Draw the circle and insert a diameter AE.
2. Construct another diagonal CG, perpendicular to the first diagonal.
3. Bisect the four quadrants thus produced to cut the circle in B, D, F and H.
ABCDEFGH is the required octagon.
Figure 2.21
4.5.1.4 To construct a regular octagon given the diameter, i.e. within a given square (Fig.
2.22).
1. Construct a square PQRS, length of side equal to the diameter.
2. Draw the diagonals SQ and PR to intersect in T.
3. With centres P, Q, R and S draw four arcs, radius PT (=QT = RT = ST) to cut the square in A,
B, C, D, E, F, G and H.

Engineering Drawing
Figure 2.22
4.5.1.5 To construct a regular polygon given a diagonal, i.e. within a given circle (Fig. 2.23).
1. Draw the given circle and insert a diameter AM.
2. Divide the diameter into the same number of divisions as the polygon has sides.
3. With centre M draw an arc, radius MA. With centre A draw another arc of the same radius
to intersect the first arc in N.
4. Draw N 2 and produce to intersect the circle in B (for any polygon).
5. AB is the first side of the polygon. Step out the other sides BC, CD, etc.
ABCDE is the required polygon.

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Figure 4.23

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4.6.The Ellipse
Figure Figure 4.24 shows an ellipse with the important features labelled.
Figure 4.24
Definition
An ellipse is the locus of a point that moves so that its distance from a fixed point (called the
focus) bears a constant ratio, always less than 1, to its perpendicular distance from a straight line
(called the directrix). An ellipse has two foci and two directrices.
To construct an ellipse by concentric circles.
We now come to the first of three simple methods of constructing an ellipse. All three methods
need only two pieces of information for the construction – the lengths of the major and minor
axes.
Stage 1. Draw two concentric circles, radii equal to 1/2 major and 1/2 minor axes.

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Stage 2. Divide the circle into a number of sectors. If the ellipse is not too large, 12 will suffice as
shown in Figure 4.25
Stage 3. Where the sector lines cross the smaller circle, draw horizontal lines towards the larger
circle. Where the sector lines cross the larger circle, draw vertical lines to meet the horizontal lines.
Stage 4. Draw a neat curve through the intersections.
Figure 4.25
To construct an ellipse in a rectangle.

Stage 1. Draw a rectangle, length and breadth equal to the major and minor axes.
Stage 2. Divide the two shorter sides of the rectangle into the same even number of equal parts.
Divide the major axis into the same number of equal parts.
Stage 3. From the points where the minor axis crosses the edge of the rectangle, draw intersecting
lines as shown in Figure 4.26
Stage 4. Draw a neat curve through the intersections.

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Figure 4.26

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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Construct an equilateral triangle with sides 60 mm long.
2. Construct an isosceles triangle that has a perimeter of 135 mm and an altitude of 55 mm.
3. Construct a triangle with base angles 60 ° and 45 ° and an altitude of 76 mm.
4. Construct a triangle with a base of 55 mm, an altitude of 62 mm and a vertical angle of 37 12°.
5. Construct a triangle with a perimeter measuring 160 mm and sides in the ratio 3:5:6.
6. Construct a triangle with a perimeter of 170 mm and sides in the ratio 7:3:5.
7. Construct a triangle given that the perimeter is 115 mm, the altitude is 40 mm and the vertical
angle is 45 ° .
8. Construct a triangle with a base measuring 62 mm, an altitude of 50 mm and a vertical angle of
60°. Now draw a similar triangle with a perimeter of 250 mm.
9. Construct a triangle with a perimeter of 125 mm, whose sides are in the ratio 2:4:5. Now draw
a similar triangle whose perimeter is 170 mm.
10. Construct a square of side 50 mm. Find the mid-point of each side by construction and join
up the points with straight lines to produce a second square.
11. Construct a square whose diagonal is 68 mm.
12. Construct a square whose diagonal is 85 mm.
13. Construct a parallelogram given two sides 42 mm and 90 mm long, and the angle between
them 67 ° .
14. Construct a rectangle that has a diagonal 55 mm long and one side 35 mm long.
15. Construct a rhombus if the diagonal is 75 mm long and one side is 44 mm long.
16. Construct a trapezium given that the parallel sides are 50 mm and 80 mm long and are 45 mm
apart.
17. Construct a regular hexagon, 45 mm side.
18. Construct a regular hexagon if the diameter is 75 mm.
19. Construct a regular hexagon within an 80 mm diameter circle. The corners of the hexagon
must all lie on the circumference of the circle.

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20. Construct a square, side 100 mm. Within the square, construct a regular octagon. Four alternate
sides of the octagon must lie on the sides of the square.
21. Construct the following regular polygons:
 a pentagon, side 65 mm;

 a heptagon, side 55 mm;
 a nonagon, side 45 mm;
 a decagon, side 35 mm.

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5.0 TANGENTS
5.1 Definition
A tangent to a circle is a straight line that touches the circle at one point. Every curve ever drawn
could have tangents drawn to it, but this chapter is concerned only with tangents to circles. These
have wide applications in engineering drawing since the outlines of most engineering details are
made up of straight lines and arcs. Wherever a straight line meets an arc, a tangent meets a circle.
5.2 Constructions
5.2.1To draw a tangent to a circle from any point on the circumference (Fig. 5.1).
Figure 5.1
1. Draw the radius of the circle.

2. At any point on the circumference of a circle, the tangent and the radius are perpendicular to
each other. Thus, the tangent is found by constructing an angle of 90 ° from the point where the
radius crosses the circumference.
5.2.2 A basic geometric theorem is that the angle in a semi-circle is a right angle (Fig.5.2).

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Figure 5.2
5.2.3. To construct a tangent from a point P to a circle, centre O ( Fig. 5.3 ).
Figure 5.3
1. Join OP.
2. Erect a semi-circle on OP to cut the circle in A.
PA produced is the required tangent (OA is the radius and is perpendicular to PA since it is the
angle in a semi-circle). There are, of course, two tangents to the circle from P but only one has
been shown for clarity.

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5.2.4 To construct a common tangent to two equal circles ( Fig. 5.4 ).
Figure 5.4
1. Join the centres of the two circles.
2. From each centre, construct lines at 90 ° to the centre line. The intersection of these
perpendiculars with the circles gives the points of tangency. This tangent is often described as the
common exterior tangent.
5.2.5 To construct the common interior (or transverse or cross) tangent to two equal
circles, centres O and O 1 (Fig. 5.5 ).
Figure 5.5

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1. Join the centres OO 1 .
2. Bisect OO 1 in A.
3. Bisect OA in B and draw a semi-circle, radius BA to cut the circle in C.
4. With centre A and radius AC, draw an arc to cut the second circle in D.
CO is the required tangent.
5.2.6 To construct the common tangent between two unequal circles, centres O and O 1
and radii R and r , respectively ( Fig. 5.6 ).
Figure 5.6
1. Join the centres OO 1 .
2. Bisect OO 1 in A and draw a semi-circle, radius AO.
3. Draw a circle, centre O, radius R _ r , to cut the semi-circle in B.
4. Join OB and produce to cut the larger circle in C.
5. Draw O 1 D parallel to OC.

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CD is the required tangent.
5.2.7 To construct the common internal tangent between two unequal circles, centres O
and O 1 and radii R and r, respectively (Fig. 5.7).
Figure 5.7
1. Join the centres OO 1.
2. Bisect OO 1 in A and draw a semi-circle, radius OA.
3. Draw a circle, centre O, radius R _ r, to cut the semi-circle in B.
4. Join OB. This cuts the larger circle in C.
5. Draw O 1 D parallel to OB.
CD is the required tangent.

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Exercise 5
1. A former in a jig for bending metal is shown in Fig. 1 .
(a) Draw the former, full size, showing in full the construction for obtaining the tangent joining
the two arcs.
(b) Determine, without calculation, the centres of the four equally spaced holes to be bored in the
positions indicated in the figure.
Figure 1.
1. Figure 2 shows a centre finder, or centre square in position on a 75 mm diameter bar.
Figure 2

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2. Figure 3 shows the outlines of three pulley wheels connected by a taut belt. Draw the
figure, full size, showing clearly the constructions for obtaining the points of contact of
the belt and pulleys.
Figure 3
3. Figure 4 shows the outline of a metal blank. Draw the blank, full size, showing clearly the
constructions for finding exact positions of the tangents joining the arcs.
Figure 4

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6.0 TANGENTIAL ARCS

A tangent is, by definition, a straight line. However, we do often talk of radii or curves meeting
each other tangentially. We mean, of course, that the curves meet smoothly and with no change
of shape or bumps.
Blending is a topic that students often have difficulty in understanding and yet there are only a few
ways in which lines and curves can be blended. When constructing an outline that contains curves
blending, do not worry about the point of contact of the curves; rather, be concerned with the
positions of the centres of the curves. A curve will not blend properly with another curve or line
unless the centre of the curve is correctly found. If the centre is found exactly, the curve is bound
to blend exactly.
To find the centre of an arc, radius r, which blends with two straight lines meeting at right
angles (Fig. 6.1).
Figure 6.1 To find the centre of an arc which blends with two straight lines at right angles.
With centre A, radius r , draw arcs to cut the lines of the angle in B and C.
With centres B and C, radius r, draw two arcs to intersect in O.
O is the required centre.
This construction applies only if the angle is a right angle. If the lines meet at any angle other than
90 °, use the construction shown in Fig. 6.2.

Engineering Drawing
To find the centre of an arc, radius r, which blends with two straight lines meeting at any
angle (Fig. 6.2).
Construct lines, parallel with the lines of the angle and distance r away, to intersect in O.
Figure 6.2 To find the centre of an arc which blends with two straight lines at any angle.
To find the centre of an arc, radius r, which passes through a point P and blends with a
straight line (Fig. 6.3).
Construct a line, parallel with the given line, distance r away. The centre must lie somewhere along
this line.
With centre P, radius r, draw an arc to cut the parallel line in O.
Figure 6.3

Engineering Drawing
The alternative construction is:

Construct a line, parallel with the given line, distance R away. The centre must lie somewhere along
this line.
With centre B, radius R - r, draw an arc to intersect the parallel line in O.
Figure 6.4
Figure 6.5
The alternative construction is:
Construct a line, parallel with the given line, distance R away. The centre must lie somewhere along
this line.

Engineering Drawing
With centre B, radius R - r, draw an arc to intersect the parallel line in O.
To find the centre of an arc, radius R, which blends with two circles, centres A and B, radii
r 1 and r 2, respectively.
There are two possible centres, shown in Figs. 6.6 and 6.7.
If an arc, radius R, is to blend with a circle, radius r, the centre of the arc must be distance R from
the circumference and hence R + r (Fig. 8.6) or R - r (Fig. 6.7) from the centre of the circle.
With centre A, radius R + r 1, draw an arc.
With centre B, radius R + r 2, draw an arc to intersect the first arc in O.
Figure 6.6

Engineering Drawing
Figure 6.7

Engineering Drawing
Revision Exercise

Engineering Drawing

Engineering Drawing
7.0 ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING

7.1 Introduction
One of the best ways to communicate one's ideas is through some form of picture or drawing.
This is especially true for the engineer. The purpose of this guide is to give you the basics of
engineering sketching and drawing.
We will treat "sketching" and "drawing" as one. "Sketching" generally means freehand drawing.
"Drawing" usually means using drawing instruments, from compasses to computers to bring
precision to the drawings.
This is just an introduction. Don't worry about understanding every detail right now - just get a
general feel for the language of graphics.
I hope you like the object in figure 7.1, because you'll be seeing a lot of it. Before we get started
on any technical drawings, let's get a good look at this strange block from several angles.
Figure 7.1:
Isometric Drawing
The representation of the object in figure 7.2 is called an isometric drawing. This is one of a family
of three-dimensional views called pictorial drawings. In an isometric drawing, the object's vertical
lines are drawn vertically, and the horizontal lines in the width and depth planes are shown at 30
degrees to the horizontal. When drawn under these guidelines, the lines parallel to these three axes
are at their true (scale) lengths. Lines that are not parallel to these axes will not be of their true
length.

Engineering Drawing
To produce isometric circles, use the boxes below
Figure 7.2:
Any engineering drawing should show everything: a complete understanding of the object should
be possible from the drawing. If the isometric drawing can show all details and all dimensions on
one drawing, it is ideal.
However, if the object in figure 7.2 had a hole on the back side, it would not be visible using a
single isometric drawing. In order to get a more complete view of the object, an orthographic
projection may be used.

Engineering Drawing
Orthographic or Multi-view Drawing
Imagine that you have an object suspended by transparent threads inside a glass box, as in figure
7.3.
Figure 7.3:
Then draw the object on each of three faces as seen from that direction. Unfold the box (figure
8.4) and you have the three views. We call this an "orthographic" or "multiview" drawing.
Figure 7.4 shows how the three views appear on a piece of paper after unfolding the box.

Engineering Drawing
Figure 7.5:

Engineering Drawing
FIRST ANGLE - ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Orthographic Projection is a way of drawing a 3D object from different directions. Usually a front,
side and plan view are drawn so that a person looking at the drawing can see all the important
sides. Orthographic drawings are useful especially when a design has been developed to a stage
whereby it is almost ready to manufacture.
IMPORTANT: There are two ways of drawing in orthographic - First Angle and Third Angle.
They differ only in the position of the plan, front and side views. Below is an example of First
Angle projection. Opposite is a simple L-shape, drawn in three dimensions.
The front, side and plan views have drawn around the 3D shape. However this is not the correct
way of drawing them as they are not in the right positions.

Engineering Drawing
The correct method of presenting the three views, in first angle orthographic projection is shown
below. The drawing is composed of a front, side and plan view of the L-shaped object. The first
drawing is the front view (drawn looking straight at the front of the L-shape), the second is a
drawing of the L-shape seen from the side (known as side view) and last of all a drawing from
above known as a plan view. The red lines are faint guidelines and they are drawn to help keep
each view in line, level and the same size.
Please Note! This is an example of first angle orthographic projection (as used mainly in
Europe). There is another type called third angle which is used by countries such as the USA. The
front, side and plan views are in different positions

Engineering Drawing
These views are generated as shown below.
THE SIDE VIEW: Imagine standing directly at the side of the L shape.
THE FRONT VIEW: Now imagine standing directly in front of the L-shape, the drawing opposite
shows exactly what you would see.

Engineering Drawing
THE top VIEW: The plan view is a view seen directly from above. Some people call this a bird’s
eye view.
The final arrangement of the views are shown in the drawing below. Notice how the symbol for
first angle orthographic projection has been added and the paper has a title block and borderline.

Engineering Drawing

Engineering Drawing
When two views of an object are given, the third view may be developed by the use of a mitre
line.

Engineering Drawing
Construction (Fig. 3.15)

1. Draw the views from the front and above.
2. Draw the projection lines to the right of the view from above.
3. Decide the distance, D from the view from the front at which, the side view is to be drawn.
4. Construct a mitre line at 45°.
5. From the points of intersection between the mitre line and the projection lines, draw vertical
projection lines.
6. Draw the horizontal projection lines from the view from the front to intersect the above lines.
The figure obtained by joining the points of intersection in the order is the required view.
Figure 3.16 shows the steps to be followed in constructing the view from above of an object,
from the given views from the front and left.
NOTE These exercises are aimed at improving the practice in reading and developing the
imagination of the student.
Which views should one choose for a multi-view drawing? The views that reveal every detail about
the object. Three views are not always necessary; we need only as many views as are required to
describe the object fully. For example, some objects need only two views, while others need four.
The circular object in figure 7.6 requires only two views.

Engineering Drawing
Figure 7.6:
Examples
NOTE: For all the examples given, the following may be noted: Figure a-Isometric projection
and Figure b-orthographic views. Arrow indicates the direction to obtain the view from the
front.
3.1 Figures 3.17 to 3.21 show the isometric views of machine components and their view from
the front, the view from above and the view from the right.
3.2 Figure 3.22 shows how to obtain the view from the front, the view from above and the view
from the left from the given isometric view of a machine component.

Engineering Drawing

Engineering Drawing

Engineering Drawing

Engineering Drawing
7.2 Dimensioning
Figure 7.7:
We have "dimensioned" the object in the isometric drawing in figure 7.7. As a general guideline to
dimensioning, try to think that you would make an object and dimension it in the most useful way.
Put in exactly as many dimensions as are necessary for the craftsperson to make it -no more, no
less. Do not put in redundant dimensions. Not only will these clutter the drawing, but if
"tolerances" or accuracy levels have been included, the redundant dimensions often lead to
conflicts when the tolerance allowances can be added in different ways.
Repeatedly measuring from one point to another will lead to inaccuracies. It is often better to
measure from one end to various points. This gives the dimensions a reference standard. It is
helpful to choose the placement of the dimension in the order in which a machinist would create
the part. This convention may take some experience.
7.3 Sectioning
There are many times when the interior details of an object cannot be seen from the outside (figure
7.8).

Engineering Drawing
Figure 7.9:
We can get around this by pretending to cut the object on a plane and showing the "sectional
view". The sectional view is applicable to objects like engine blocks, where the interior details are
intricate and would be very difficult to understand through the use of "hidden" lines (hidden lines
are, by convention, dotted) on an orthographic or isometric drawing.
Imagine slicing the object in the middle (figure 7.9)
Figure 7.10:

Engineering Drawing
Figure 7.11:
Take away the front half (figure 7.10) and what you have is a full section view (figure 7.11).
Note that we do not section the webs cut longitudinally, bolts, nuts and spindles
Example
After the cutting planes being applied on the drawing on the left we obtain the drawings on the
right.

Engineering Drawing
9.0 REFENCES
Morling K., (2010). Geometric and Engineering Drawing. New Yoke: Butterworth Heinemann
Kannaiah, P, Narayana K.L. and Venkata R. K. (2009).Engineering Drawing. New Delhi: New
Age International (P) Limited Publishers
Shah B., Rana C. (2009).Engineering Drawing. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley

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NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

Engineering Drawing: Lecture Notes for Craft Certificate in Heavy

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

Ruler: It is advisable to have a transparent ruler.

Figure 1.1: Set Squares

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

Dividers: A pair of dividers is essential.

These include the following:

French curves (for drawing non-circular curves accurately).

1.2 Using the Equipment

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

Figure. 2.1: Drawing sheet formats

2.2 The Title Block

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

Figure. 2.2: Title Block Position

Figure 2.3: Title Block Position

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

Continuous thin B1-Imaginary lines of

Chain thin G1 Centre lines

Chain thin, thick at ends H1 Cutting planes

Chain thick J1 Indication of lines or

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

The Basics: Definitions and Dimensions

Figure 2.4: Dimensioning

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

2.5.1 Where to Put Dimensions

Figure 2.4: Dimensioning

Figure 2.7: Dimensioning

Figure 2.8: Dimensioning

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

Figure 2.9: Dimensioning

Figure 2.10: Dimensioning

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

Figure 2.11: Dimensioning

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

3.0 STANDARD ABBREVIATIONS

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

Ground level GL Symmetrical SYM

Table 3.2 Abbreviations for materials

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

4.0 CONSTRUCTION OF GEOMETRIC FIGURES FROM GIVEN DATA

Figure 4.1: To construct a parallel line. Figure 4.2: To bisect a line.

Figure 4.3: To erect a perpendicular from a point on a line.

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

Figure 4.4 To erect a perpendicular from a point to a line.

Figure 4.5 To bisect an angle. Figure 4.6 To bisect the angle

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

Figure 4.7 To construct 60 ° .

Figure 4.8 To construct 30 ° .

Figure 4.9 To construct 90 ° .

Figure 4.10 To construct 45 ° .

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

Figure 4.13: To divide a line proportionally (e.g. 1:2:4).

4.2 THE TRIANGLE

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

1. Draw line AB equal to half the perimeter.

2. From B erect a perpendicular and make BC equal to the altitude.

3. Join AC and bisect it to cut AB in D.

4. Produce DB so that BE _ BD. CDE is the required triangle.

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

1. Draw a line AB.

PREPARED BY MR. MUSUKUMA BENARD

1. Draw the base AB.