Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

A hybrid battery thermal management system using ionic wind and phase
change material
Rishav Kumar , Pradipta Kumar Panigrahi *
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh 208016, India

H I G H L I G H T S

• A novel hybrid battery thermal management system is proposed.

• Combined phase change material and ionic wind are used.
• The isothermal plateau period during melting of PCM is extended by the ionic wind.
• The ionic wind increases the convection heat transfer of liquid PCM.
• The hybrid BTS shows 260% higher heat transfer coefficient than natural convection

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The present study reports development and performance study of a ‘hybrid’ thermal management system (TMS)
Battery using phase change material (PCM) and ionic wind. The battery is surrounded by PCM material and air flow
Thermal management around the battery packing is generated by ionic wind. Both experimental and simulation studies have been
Phase change material
carried out. Electrohydrodynamic-based air propulsion (ionic wind) is used for generating forced air convection.
Ionic wind
The heat generation rate of the battery is set at 8.8 W (8C) and 6.6 W (6C). Wire-to-cylinder type arrangement is
used for ionic wind generation and 3 wire electrodes are symmetrically placed around the battery. The exper­
iments are conducted at three actuation voltages (7 kV, 8 kV and 9 kV) for ionic wind generation. Simulation
study has been carried out to study the flow characteristics of the ionic wind and to describe the PCM melting
behaviour. Ionic wind enhances the heat transfer coefficient by 260% as compared to free convection at 9 kV
actuation voltage. Isothermal temperature plateau behaviour of the battery due to PCM contributes to the su­
perior performance of the hybrid TMS which gets extended by 76% because of ionic wind. Fatty acid and Paraffin
based phase change materials are studied to investigate the effect of thermophysical property of PCM. Paraffin
shows superior heat storage performance than fatty acid by reducing the plateau temperature level by 14.5%.
The time duration of isothermal plateau behaviour of paraffin also gets extended by 35% compared to fatty acid.
Overall, the present study demonstrates the superior performance of hybrid thermal management system with
less complexity compared to other existing air based and liquid based TMS.

temperature for LIB is equal to 15–40 ◦ C. The maximum temperature for

1. Introduction
Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) are actively considered as one of the best
available options for energy storage system (ESS) of electric/hybrid
vehicles, portable devices, and smart grids, due to their high energy
density, negligible memory effect and superior life cycle [1]. Battery
temperature is one of the critical factors influencing lifetime and ca­
pacity of batteries. Apart from capacity fading, rising temperature can
also cause thermal runaway of battery cell/pack. The optimum range of
safe operation of battery is equal to 60◦ C and the allowable temperature
uniformity is ±5◦ C [2]. Therefore, a suitable battery thermal manage­
ment system (BTMS) is essential for controlling the rise in cell temper­
ature at high discharge rates. A BTMS should have low-volume, light
weight, low cost with ability to operate in any climatic conditions. A
BTMS can be classified as active, passive and hybrid thermal manage­
ment systems (TMS). Larger cooling capacity can be achieved at the cost
of consumption of energy in active TMS such as air cooling, liquid
cooling [3]. Active TMS consists of heat exchangers, coolants pipes and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: panig@iitk.ac.in (P.K. Panigrahi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.122676
Received 24 October 2023; Received in revised form 14 December 2023; Accepted 14 January 2024
Available online 29 January 2024
0306-2619/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi
Nomenclature
V Voltage (V)
→ s
E Electric field (V/m)
R Electrical resistance (Ω)
Q Heat generation rate (W)
T Temperature (◦ C)
k Thermal conductivity (W/m. K)
q Space charge density (C/m3 )
∈ Dielectric permittivity of air
→ solidus
J Current density (A/m2 )
μi Ion mobility (m2 /Vs)
F Coulomb force (N)
pumps which add complexity, capital, and operational costs. There is an
increase in weight of the system depending upon the type of fluid used
[4]. Micro channels are used for increasing forced convection cooling
heat transfer coefficients. However, there is an increase in the pressure
drop and power consumptions by the pump [5–7]. Temperature control
of battery can be accomplished without any consumption of energy in
passive TMS such as system based on phase change material (PCM) and
heat pipes. Organic PCM such as paraffin wax, fatty acid are used in
BTMS, heat storage and electronic cooling applications [8,9] due to high
latent heat of fusion per weight, conformable phase change temperature,
good thermal cycling, and chemical stability. Enhancing the thermo­
physical properties of PCM leads to better performance in battery
management system [10]. Ling et al. [11] numerically compared the
passive system composed of paraffin/EG composites with natural air
cooling and liquid cooling. They reported that the battery temperature
variation and maximum temperature difference is smaller in PCM
cooling system compared to other cooling systems. The PCM with
thermally conductive materials such as graphite foams can enhance its
thermal performance [12].
There is no universally superior Thermal Management System (TMS)
among air cooling, liquid cooling, and latent heat based PCM cooling.
The choice among these methods depends on temperature range, heat
rate, operating conditions e.g., charge and discharge rates, ambient
temperature etc. Air cooling is effective in moderate ambient tempera­
tures and low charge and discharge rates. Liquid cooling is suitable in
maintaining maximum temperature within acceptable limits even under
extreme conditions. However, it falls short in addressing in-cell thermal
gradients. Several enhancements of both methods have been demon­
strated. However, these methods often have increased weight and costs,
posing challenges, especially in automotive applications. Phase Change
Material systems show promise in achieving proper temperature uni­
formity in Li-Ion cells. Yet, the low thermal conductivity and slow
dissipation rate can result in thermal failures during extreme cycles
when the PCM doesn’t adequately dissipate accumulated heat and re­
turn to its solid state. Combination of liquid cooling and PCM exhibit
potential by mitigating both maximum temperature and in-cell tem­
perature gradients. The optimal choice among these methods involves
trade-offs based on factors like weight, cost, and effectiveness, specif­
ically tailored to the operational conditions and desired battery perfor­
mance. Therefore, secondary additional cooling approach can be helpful
in enhancing the cooling capacity of battery during high discharge rate.
Generally, air and liquid based TMS are incorporated as the sec­
ondary heat dissipation cooling approach which are termed as hybrid
TMS. Ling et al. [13] numerically optimised the hybrid TMS based on
PCM and liquid cooling and reported reduction in maximum tempera­
ture of battery due to active cooling by the liquid flow. Bamdezh and
Molaeimanesh [14] numerically studied the impact of cell arrangement
for hybrid TMS consisting of PCM and air cooling, where each battery is
2
Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676
t* Normalized time
Subscript
Solid
a Ambient
i Ion
house Housing
PCM Phase change material
mush Mushy zone constant
ref Reference
Onset of melting
liquidus Completion of melting
melt Melting
surrounded by PCM, and air is allowed to flow across the battery pack.
Effect of air-cooling reduces in highly compact battery pack. Molaei­
manesh and Zanganeh [15] numerically studied a hybrid TMS consisting
of 8 cooling water channels embedded into composite of PCM and
Alumunium porous structure surrounding cylindrical 18,650 Li-ion
battery at 4.95W heat generation rate. It was observed that augment­
ing the conductivity of aluminium foam in tangential direction enhances
the heat transfer and leads to better acceptable average cell temperature
due to faster PCM solidification process. Lee et al. [16] numerically
studied the solidification of PCM in the hybrid TMS. At higher air ve­
locity, more solidified PCM is observed which leads to lower battery
average temperature. However, at larger thickness of PCM around bat­
tery, effect of active cooling reduces and non-uniform solidification of
PCM takes place. Lv et al. [17] experimentally designed a novel hybrid
cooling technique in which air is allowed to pass through serpentine
shaped PCM composite around batteries in a pack. In hybrid TMS, PCM
melting, and solidification rate is controlled via secondary cooling sys­
tems (air, liquid cooling etc). Combined effect of passive and active
cooling systems can successfully maintain the battery temperature at
permissible limits even at high discharge rates of battery.
Melting rate of PCM is influenced by conduction and convection
modes of heat transfer [18–20]. The battery temperature is maintained
at steady temperature level for longer period due to the latent storage of
heat generated from battery. Zhang et al. [21] proposed a hybrid cooling
technique in which PCM encircles the battery and liquid is allowed to
flow through bottom of battery pack. They showed that in comparison to
the liquid cooling option, the battery maximum temperature of hybrid
cooling is reduced, and isothermal behaviour of PCM is elongated. Few
previous research has also explored different melting stages of PCM in
passive BTMS [22,23]. Yang et al. [23] experimentally and numerically
studied the four melting stages and explored isothermal temperature
plateau behaviour of battery during melting period of PCM. Optimal
fusion of PCM and an active cooling approach can effectively blend the
isothermal potential of PCM with the cooling potential of active TMS
[5,24].
PCM-air hybrid cooling technique is less complex, inexpensive, and
safe as compared to PCM-liquid hybrid cooling TMS. PCM-air hybrid
TMSs require some auxiliary components such as air inlet-outlet vents,
exhaust fans, channels, valves etc. The distribution of air as a coolant
around battery is not uniform leading to temperature difference along
the battery surface. As a result, there is a need to explore the possibility
of replacing the conventional air cooling with an unconventional air-
cooling technique termed as electrohydrodynamic (EHD) based air
propulsion technique. Ionic wind generated by electro-hydrodynamics
has several advantages i.e., noiseless operation without vibration, flex­
ible distribution of developed wind, compact structure, lower energy
consumption, rapid response, and high heat transfer enhancement [25].
Shukla et al. [26] experimentally studied the effect of corona wind on
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi
the evaporation of heavy hydrocarbon from a micro-needle well cavity.
It was reported that evaporation of hydrocarbon is enhanced more than
ten times as compared to natural convection. Corona wind shows
capability to augment heat transfer coefficient and amplification of
forced convective heat transfer [27–29]. Shin et al. [28] implemented
corona wind in heat exchangers for heat recovery from the exhaust of
gas engines. Wang and Yang [30] experimentally and numerically
studied the corona discharge in multi wire to cylinder configuration for
heat transfer augmentation around heated cylinder. Wang et al. [31]
reported simulation study on enhancement of heat transfer using corona
wind of double-wall heated channel. Their results showed that ionic
wind can lead to 166.4% increase in heat transfer for the top wall and a
242.7% increase in heat transfer of the bottom wall compared to no ionic
wind case. Shin et al. [32] reported combined experimental and simu­
lation study on heat transfer of a heat sink exposed to ionic wind. They
observed that the cooling performance is enhanced by 148% due to the
application of ionic wind. Wang et al. [33] proposed an innovative ionic
wind generator integrated with a porous medium block. They reported
superior heat transfer performance due to alteration in heat and mass
transfer within the porous material. Fu et al. [34] utilized wire cylinder
electrostatic precipitator with water cooling system, for study on
convective heat transfer amplified by corona discharge. They reported
271% enhancement in heat transfer.
Above literature review signifies that ionic wind-based technique
shows significant promise due to its small footprint, energy efficiency,
adaptable design, and seamless integration capabilities. Ionic wind-
based technology enables directional movement of airflow and
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic of the experimental set up, (b) schematic of the test section for ionic wind based TMS, (c) schematic of the test section for hybrid TMS (PCM +
Ionic wind) and (d) isometric view of the test section.
3
Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676
enhances localized heat and mass transfer processes. The present study
proposes combination of ionic wind cooling with phase change material
for battery thermal management system. This study aims to develop an
effective hybrid TMS using PCM and ionic wind to maintain battery
temperature within the safe range at high discharge rates of about 6C
and 8C. Extension of isothermal plateau behaviour of battery tempera­
ture is examined. In hybrid TMS, PCM is used as the passive part and
ionic wind is used as the active part. The experiments were conducted at
three different actuation potentials of wire electrode for two discharge
rates (heat generation rates) of battery. Numerical simulation is per­
formed to study the flow characteristics of the ionic wind and the
melting behaviour of PCM on heat transfer. Additionally, the effect of
latent heat of fusion of PCM on battery temperature is studied using two
types of organic PCMs.
2. Experimental details
Fig. 1 (b) and (c) shows the details of experimental arrangement for
ionic wind-based and hybrid cooling TMSs respectively. Experimental
set up consists of battery arrangement, a high voltage DC power supply
(GBS electronics Germany) connected to the wire electrodes in series
with resistance (R = 100MΩ), thermocouples connected to digital
temperature data recorder (NI-DAQ), and an AC power supply con­
nected to cartridge heater. The test battery is surrounded by three
stainless steel wire electrodes symmetrically positioned at 1200 with
respect to each other (see Fig. 1 (c)). Simulation results justifying the
selection of three wires configurations have been provided in the
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676

supplementary material. The wire electrodes are 70-μm diameter and heater was attached to an AC power supply (0-240 V). The ohmic
65mm height. A positive DC high voltage supply is used to apply positive resistance of each heater was 270 ± 0.9Ω. Two heat generation rates of
potentials to a stainless-steel wire electrode. The distance between wire 6.6 W and 8.8 W were studied which correspond to electrical discharge
electrode and grounded surface of the battery outer wall is equal to 10 rates of 6C and 8C respectively [21] (See Table 2). This arrangement
mm (see Fig. 1(b)) for ionic wind based TMS. Same distance is main­ provides superior operability, easier control, and safety compared to
tained between wire electrode and grounded surface of housing outer actual batteries.
wall for hybrid TMS (see Fig. 1(c)). A corona discharge starts when the
electric field intensity reaches a critical (onset) electric field. The electric
field required to ionize the gas near the tip can be obtained using the 2.1. Uncertainty analysis
peeks formula given as:
( / ) The uncertainty of the experimental results are presented in the
Eonset = 3.1* 106 1 + 0.0308 (rc )1/2 (1) following section. The error of voltage and resistance measurements for
ohmic heating is equal to ΔV = ±0.5Vand ΔR = ±0.9Ωrespectively.
The electric field strength depends on the radius of curvature of Hence the uncertainty of heat generation (Q = VI) can be estimated
emission electrode and the potential applied. The voltage required for using the following equation.
the onset of corona discharge (ionic wind) depends on radius of wire / √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( ( / ) )2̅
electrode (radius of curvature of wire electrode) and the distance be­ ΔQ Q = ((2V/R)ΔV )2 + − V 2 R2 ΔR (3)
tween wire electrode and grounded surface of the battery outer wall
given by [26,35]: The maximum uncertainty for heat generation estimation is equal to
Vonset = [Eonset (rc ){ln(4L/rc ) } ]/2 (2) 2.4%.
The calibration of all thermocouples was carried out using a constant
Where, L is the distance between the wire electrode and the battery temperature bath. The resulting temperature measurements exhibit a
enclosure (ground surface) = 10 mm and rc is the radius of wire elec­ maximum absolute error of 0.37 ◦ C. Repeated measurements of battery
trode = 35μm. Sample results on ionic velocity magnitude as a function temperature shows the standard deviation in temperature measurement
of wire electrode diameter have been presented in the supplementary equal to 1%.
material for justification of the electrode geometry. The heat transfer coefficient is calculated using the equation:
The upper and lower end of the battery is covered by Bakelite to
provide both electrical and thermal insulation and are used for fastening h = Q/A(Tw − Ta ) (4)
the wire electrodes. Three calibrated T-type thermocouples are used at Where,Qis the heat generation rate of battery, Tw is the average outer
three locations (see Fig. 1(a)) for temperature measurement of the bat­ wall temperature of battery, Ta is the ambient temperature. The uncer­
tery. For the hybrid TMS, the test battery is surrounded by PCM (see tainty in heat transfer coefficient is calculated using the following
Fig. 1(c)), which is enclosed inside a cylindrical housing made of alu­ expression.
munium. The housing has a height of 65 mm, thickness of 4.5 mm and / √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
inner diameter of 31 mm. When no voltage is applied at wire electrode, ( / )2
Δh h = (ΔQ/(Tw − Ta ) )2 + − Q(ΔTw ) (Tw − Ta )2 (5)
the hybrid TMS acts as passive (PCM based) TMS. Fatty acid and paraffin
based Eicosane are used as phase change material (PCM). Fatty acid The uncertainty of heat transfer coefficient is equal to 1.5%. We have
based on the mixture of lauric acid and stearic acid was acquired from presented the repeatability data of velocity measurement in the
PLUSS technologies. Thermophysical properties of materials used in the
study are mentioned in Table 1. We have adopted the properties of
Table 2
PCM1 from the product supplier PLUSS technologies and the properties Different test cases and corresponding experimental parameters.
of Alumunium and PCM2 are taken from [36,37].
Thermal management Heat generation Applied potentials at wire
Heat is generated predominantly due to two physical phenomena
system rate electrode
during conventional operation of lithium-ion batteries i.e., ohmic heat (TMS) (Discharge rate)
and entropic heat [38–40]. The heat generation at a high discharge
Natural convection 6.6 W (6C) 0 kV
current of 25 A (9.5C) for 26,650 battery cells is equal to 12 W [41]. A (Without PCM1 and without 8.8 W (8C)
commercial 18,650 battery up to 10C (10 times of the nominal current) Ionic wind)
showed an approximate quadratic dependence of heat generation on the Ionic wind 6.6 W (6C) 7 kV,
discharge rate [23]. The test battery used in the present experiment was Only (Active TMS) 8.8 W (8C) 8 kV, 9 kV, 10 kV
PCM1 only 6.6 W (6C) 0 kV
made of an alumunium cylinder having 18 mm in diameter and 65 mm
(Fatty acid) (Passive TMS) 8.8 W (8C)
height. A heater was placed inside a hole of 9.5 mm diameter and 50 mm Hybrid 6.6 W (6C) 7 kV,
depth drilled inside the alumunium cylinder. To provide heat in accor­ (PCM1 (Fatty acid) + Ionic 8.8 W (8C) 8 kV, 9 kV
dance with the high discharge rate of the industrial 18,650 LIB, the wind)

Table 1
Thermophysical properties of material used in the experimental study [36,37].
Material properties PCM1 PCM2 Aluminium Stainless steel Bakelite
(Fatty acid) (Paraffin)

Density (kg/m3 ) 860 770 2719 8030 1320

Specific heat (J/kgK) 2630 2460 871 490 1500
Thermal conductivity (W/mK) 0.13 0.15 202 16 0.2
Latent heat of fusion ( 179 247.6 – – –
kJ/kg)
Dynamic viscosity ( 0.007 0.00385 – – –
Pa.s)
Thermal expansion (1/K) 0.000615 0.0009 – – –
Melting temperature range (◦ C) 36–37 35–37 – – –

4
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676

supplementary material. The uncertainty in velocity measurement is represents the charge distribution, and ∈ denotes the dielectric permit­
equal to 1.5%. →
tivity of the surrounding air. To obtain the values of q and E , an addi­
tional equation, known as the current conservation eq. (8), is derived:
3. Simulation details
→
∇. J = 0 (8)
Simulation studies has been carried out to investigate the velocity
→ → →
fields produced due to ionic wind and the PCM melting behaviour for J = σ E + μi E q + U q − D∇q (9)
different thermal management systems. All the simulation studies have
been carried out at a constant heat generation rate of 8.8 W, which is →
where σ is the electrical conductivity, E is the electric field intensity, μi
equivalent to a 2,536,104.118 W/m3 volumetric heat rate from battery. →
is the ion mobility, U is the air flow velocity, and D is the diffusion
This large constant value, which can happen for higher discharge rates coefficient of ions. The four terms on the right side of Eq. (9) represent
of lithium cells [23], is selected to demonstrate the worst-case scenario. conduction, drift, convection of ion due to air flow, and the diffusion of
The performance for different types of PCM material i.e., fatty acid and ions through air respectively. The conduction term is negligible because
paraffin have been carried out to explain the role of thermophysical of the extremely low electrical conductivity of air (σ =
properties of PCM. Details for different test cases for simulation studies
1.6* 10− 23 Ω− 1 m− 1 ). The ion mobility in air and the mass diffusion co­
are given in Table 3. The details of simulation procedure for ionic wind ( )
efficient are taken equal to 2.1* 10− 4 m2 /Vs and 1.589* 10− 5 respec­
based TMS, PCM based TMS and hybrid TMS are provided in the
following section. tively [30].
Therefore, the current density equation can be simplified as:
→ →
3.1. Ionic wind simulation J = μi E q + U q − D∇q (10)
The flow field behaviour is simulated using the continuity equation
This section presents the details for the simulation of ionic wind.
and Reynolds averaged momentum equation as below.
Ionic wind is generated when high electric potential is applied between
( →)
an electrode with low radius of curvature (sharp electrode) and a ground
∇. ρ U = 0 (11)
electrode with large radius of curvature. The computational domain,
governing equations, and implementation details for simulation of →
corona wind are discussed in the following sections. ∂U → (→) ( ( →) ) ( )
ρ + ρ U .∇ U = − (∇P) + μ ∇2 U + ∇. − ρu’i u’j + F (12)
∂t
3.1.1. Computational domain →
Where, U is the velocity, ρ is the density of air, μ is the dynamic
The variation of ionic wind assumed to be primarily in radial di­
viscosity, μt is the turbulent viscosity, F is the coulomb force (also known
rection and ionic wind simulation is carried out as 2D. Fig. 2(a) shows
as the electric field force or body force in fluid mechanics) induced by
the computational domain for the three wire-to-cylinder corona wind
the electric field.
generation system. Fig. 2(b) shows the boundary conditions corre­
The Reynolds stress term is expressed as:
sponding to Fig. 2 (a). The governing equations for electrostatics, flow
( )
field and heat transfer from the battery are presented in the following ∂ui ∂uj
ρu’i u’j = μt + (13)
sections: ∂xj ∂ui
Were, μt is the turbulent dynamic viscosity which is obtained from
3.1.2. Governing equations for ionic wind simulation
turbulence kinetic energy (k) and turbulence dissipation rate (ε) equa­
The electrostatic equations for the electrohydrodynamic simulation
tion as follows:
are expressed as:
k2
→
E = − ΔV (6) μt = ρ C μ (14)
ε
q ( ̅→ ) [( ) ] ( →)
∇2 V = − (7) ∂k μt
∈ ρ + ρ U. ∇ k = ∇. μ+ ∇k − ρu’i u’j ∇U − ρε (15)
∂t σk
→
The electric field strength, represented as E , is determined as the [( ) ] (
( ̅→ ) ( →)
negative gradient of the electric potential V, as described in eq. (6). The ρ
∂ε
+ ρ U. ∇ ε = ∇. μ+
μt ε
∇ε + C1ε − ρu’i u’j ∇U − C2ε ρ
ε2
electric potential is calculated using Poisson’s eq. (7), where q ∂t σk k k
(16)
Table 3 The model constants in the above equation are as follows:
Different test cases and corresponding values of parameters used for the simu­
lation study. C1ε = 1.44, C2ε = 1.92, Cμ = 0.09, σk = 1, σε = 1.3 (17)
Thermal management system Heat generation Applied potentials at Coulomb force is expressed as,
(TMS) rate wire electrode
(Discharge rate) → →
F = qE (18)
Ionic wind only 8.8 W (8C) 7 kV,
(Active TMS) 8 kV, 9 kV To solve the coupled eqs. (7) and (10), it’s necessary to have the
PCM only PCM1 8.8 W (8C) 0 kV electric potential and charge density distribution at the boundaries.
(Passive TMS) (Fatty However, directly specifying the charge density distribution at the wire
acid) boundary is challenging due to the complex space charge distribution in
PCM2 8.8 W (8C) 0 kV
(Paraffin)
the surrounding area close to the wire electrode. In this region, a corona
Hybrid PCM1 8.8 W (8C) 7 kV, discharge initiation leads to the formation of an intricate charge density
(PCM + Ionic (Fatty 8 kV, 9 kV layer known as the ionization zone [42]. As the diameter of the wire
wind) acid) electrode (W) is significantly smaller than the distance between the
PCM2 8.8 W (8C) 9 kV
grounded battery outer surface and the wire electrode, the ionization
(Paraffin)

5
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676

Fig. 2. (a) 2D planar computational domain and (b) corresponding boundary conditions for ionic wind simulation.

zone’s contribution can be neglected. computational domain. A grid independence study was carried out to
According to Kaptzov’s hypothesis, before the corona discharge demonstrate that the numerical findings i.e., ionic wind velocity profile
(ionic wind), the electric field strength increases in proportion to the is independent of the mesh size (see Fig. 3). Fig. 4 shows the comparison
applied voltage, but it stabilizes and reaches a critical value afterward. between experimental and simulated velocity profile along four radials
The determination of the space charge density on the wire surfaces is r3 directions at three actuation potentials. As shown in Fig. 1(a), glass
achieved using the Peek formula. Initially, an assumed value is assigned pitot tube was used to measure the velocity field. Maximum 3.8% of
to the charge density (q) on the wire electrode’s surface. An iterative deviation in velocity between experimental and simulation is observed
process is then employed, adjusting this assumed value until the electric indicating the validation of simulation procedure adopted in the present
field strength at the wire’s surface aligns with the specified Peek value, study. The deviation observed is within the experimental uncertainty of
as outlined in eq. (19). The critical (onset) value of the electric field on pitot static tube measurements.
the wire electrode’s surface can be expressed as follows [26,31,33]: MUMPS direct technique and implicit backward differentiation for­
( ( / )) mula (BDF) have been employed for time stepping. The time-step is
Eonset = 3.1* 106* 1 + 0.0308 rwire (19)
1/2
nonlinearly controlled. The Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy (CFL) number is
maintained below 0.2 for stability, and the BDF order is set between
The energy conservation equations used for heat transfer study are
maximum of 5 and minimum of 1. The BDF order corresponds to the
expressed as:
degree of the interpolating polynomial utilized in the computational
∂T scheme.
ρheater Cpheater = kheater (∇.(∇T) ) + Q’’’ (Energy equation for heater) (20) Fig. 5 compares the transient variation of battery temperature be­
∂t
( tween simulation and experimental at 8.8 W heat generation for
ρcover Cpcover
∂T
= kcover ∇.(∇T) (Energy equation for cover) (21) different actuation voltage. The steady state temperature from simula­
∂t tion is within 3% of the experimental temperature. This validates the
( ) simulation procedure for heat transfer adopted in the present study. It
∂T ̅→
ρair Cpair + U. ∇(T) = − (∇P)+kair (∇.(∇T))(Energyequationforair)
∂t
(22)
’’’ Q
Were, Q = Q = heat generation rate, ∀ = volume of battery.
∀
,
Here, the subscript, heater and copper correspond to the properties
of heater and cover material respectively.

3.1.3. Implementation details of ionic wind simulation

The coupled governing equations described in previous sections are
solved using the commercial COMSOL software. The electrostatics mode
was utilized to solve Poisson’s eq. (7), and the conservation equation of
charge (10) was constructed by the PDE mode in COMSOL. The RNG k-ε
turbulent model was solved with enhanced wall treatment. The air flow
and heat transfer are solved by the conjugate heat transfer module and
the flow and heat transfer are coupled through a multi-physics module.
The current is calculated by integrating the electric field strength over
wire electrodes as: -
∫[
→]
I= μi q E (23)

An irregular, unstructured grid was used to discretize the Fig. 3. Grid independence study using radial corona wind velocity profile at 7
kV actuation voltage.

6
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676

Fig. 4. Comparison of simulated and experimental ionic wind velocity profile at different actuation voltages and radial locations (A, B, C, & D) from the bat­
tery surface.

3.2. Simulation of PCM based and hybrid TMS

The modelling of the PCM melting and solidification process has

been carried out using enthalpy porosity technique [43]. To model the
PCM melting and solidification using mushy zone concept, a source term
in the form of the Carman-Koseny equation has been introduced to the
momentum equation.

3.2.1. Computational domain

The computational domain for simulation of hybrid TMS consists of
four different zones (see Fig. 6) as below:

(a) Test battery consisting of heater (stainless steel) and cover

aluminium.
(b) Thermal storage media as PCM.
(c) Aluminium as outer housing wall.
(d) Bakelite as top and bottom cover.

Fig. 5. Comparison of transient battery temperature from simulation with

3.2.2. Governing equations for simulation of PCM based TMS
experiment for ionic wind-based cooling system at 8.8 W heat generation of
Two-dimensional axisymmetric model is used for numerical analysis.
battery and different actuation voltages of the ionic wind generation system.
The following assumptions are made in modelling the PCM based TMS: -

may be noted that the enhanced heat transfer coefficient due to ionic
• The thermophysical properties of the materials including PCM are
wind TMS corresponding to steady state temperature obtained at 7 kV, 8
assumed constant.
kV and 9 kV actuation is calculated using eq. (4) experimentally and
• The liquid PCM is assumed as incompressible Newtonian fluid.
numerically as shown in Fig. 11 (b). These values of heat transfer co­
• Boussinesq’s approximation is valid.
efficient are directly utilized as the outer wall boundary condition for
• The effect of radiation heat transfer is negligible.
numerical simulation for PCM based and hybrid TMS.
The Power consumption by the ionic wind generation system has
The governing equations for PCM behaviour study are as follows:
been calculated using the expression for current. Table 4 shows the
Continuity equation,
power consumption of the ionic wind generator as a function of actua­
( →)
tion voltage. It may be observed that the power consumption is very ∂ρPCM
+ ∇. ρPCM U = 0 (24)
small compared to the heat removal rate i.e., 6% of the heat generation ∂t
rate. The cost of the ionic wind generator is very minimal due to the The momentum equation,
simplicity in hardware i.e., the electrode is a stainless-steel wire with
→
very low purchase cost. ∂U (→ )→ ( ( →)) ( )
ρPCM + ρPCM U .∇ U = − ∇P+ μPCM ∇. ∇U + ρPCM βg T − Tref +S
∂t
(25)
Table 4
Power consumption for ionic wind generation as a function of actuation voltage γ)2 Amush →
where, S = (1− U, and Amush = 105 is the mushy zone constant, b =
to cool a battery with heat generation rate of 8.8 W. γ+b
0.001 is a small number of to prevent division by zero.
Actuation Voltage (kV) Current (μA) Power consumption (W)
The energy equation is given as,
7 80 0.56
8 122 0.98 ∂H (→ )
ρPCM + U .∇ H = kPCM (∇.(∇T) ) (26)
9 175 1.57 ∂t

7
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi
Fig. 6. (a) 2D Computational domain, and (b) corresponding boundary conditions of hybrid and PCM based TMS.
→
Here, γ is the PCM liquid fraction, U is the velocity vector, P is the
pressure, μPCM is the dynamic viscosity, β is the thermal expansion co­
efficient, g is the gravity vector, Tref is the reference temperature and S is
the momentum source term. The enthalpy-porosity approach is used to
solve the phase change phenomena. The solid or liquid phase are rep­
resented by the liquid fraction γ, and thus the total enthalpy H is
expressed as,
H = HS + HL = Total enthalpy of PCM (kJ/kg),
Where, the sensible enthalpy (HS ) and latent enthalpy (HL ) are
expressed as:
∫T
HS = href + CpPCM dT = sensible enthalpy, Tref = Tambient = 23.5◦ C
Tef
HL = γL= latent enthalpy, L = latent heat of PCM (kJ/kg), γ = liquid
fraction,
The liquid fraction (γ) is calculated using the following equations:
γ = 0 if T ≺ Tsolidus
γ = 1 if T ≻ Tliquidus
T− Tsolidus
γ = Tliquidus − Tsolidus if Tsolidus ≺ T ≺ Tliquidus
It may be noted that eq. 20 & eq. 21 discussed in the previous section
remain same for modelling heater, cover, and housing of PCM and
hybrid TMS.
Note that γ = 0 represents solid phase, γ = 1 represents liquid phase,
and γ varying between 0 and 1 represents the mushy zone. Here, Tsolidus is
the onset melting temperature and Tliquidus is the peak melting temper­
8
Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676
ature of the PCM.
The boundary conditions used for the solution of heat transfer
problem are elaborated in Fig. 6 (b) The boundary condition for outer
housing wall (BC, CD, DH, HG, GF) of PCM based TMS is convective
boundary condition with natural convection where ’ h’ = 20 W/m2 K
(experimentally and numerically calculated from eq. 4). The boundary
condition for outer housing wall of hybrid TMS are the convective heat
transfer coefficient whose values are obtained from experimentally
conducted ionic wind TMS as explained in Fig. 11 (b).
3.2.3. Implementation details of PCM based and hybrid TMS simulation
The above governing equations are solved using ANSYS software.
The PISO algorithm is used for pressure-velocity coupling. Double pre­
cision mechanism has been adopted with the PRESTO (pressure stag­
gering option) scheme for the pressure correction equations and second
order upwind differencing method is applied for convective terms in 2D
momentum and energy equations. The value of under relaxation factors
are 0.3, 1, 1, 0.7, 0.9 and 1 for pressure, density, body forces, velocity,
liquid fraction, and temperature, respectively. The convergence criteria
are 10− 5 for the momentum equations and 10− 7 for energy equation.
The time step has been set equal to 0.1 s as the liquid fraction is inde­
pendent of time (see Fig. 7 (c)) and the maximum iteration number in
each time step is set equal to 120 with first order implicit time inte­
gration scheme.
The 2D structured mesh was generated by ANSYS MESH to discretize
the computational domain. For grid independence test four grids were
considered see Fig. 7 (a). It may be observed that liquid fraction is in­
dependent of grid resolution. Therefore, the subsequent numerical
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi
Fig. 7. (a) Grid independence results corresponding to PCM melting behaviour for PCM based TMS at 8.8 W heat generation rate, and (b) Validation of present
simulation with that of Yang et al. [23], and (c) transient behaviour of PCM melting for PCM based TMS at 8.8 W heat generation rate.
simulation has used 75,320 number of grids. Fig. 7 (b) compares our
simulation results with that of Yang et al. [23]. The excellent match
between the two further establishes the successful implementation of the
present simulation for PCM based heat transfer.
4. Results and discussions
The present study proposes a hybrid battery thermal management
system. The hybrid TMS is characterized using both experiment and
simulation approach. For comparison, the performance of hybrid TMS is
also compared with ionic wind based and PCM based TMS. In Ionic wind
TMS, ionic wind is used to create the external forced convection around
the battery outer wall, whereas in PCM TMS, PCM is covered around the
battery. Hybrid TMS comprises both PCM as thermal storage media and
ionic wind for forced convection effects. The hydrodynamics of ionic
wind and PCM melting behaviour has been investigated using both
experiment and simulation approach. Effect of thermophysical proper­
ties of PCM on battery thermal management is also investigated. The
results are discussed in the following sequence: Ionic wind based ther­
mal management system, PCM based and hybrid thermal management
system.
9
Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676
4.1. Ionic wind based thermal management system
Fig. 8 shows the temporal variation of battery temperature for
different applied potentials of the ionic wind based TMS at 6.6 W and
8.8 W heat generation rates of battery. Maximum steady state temper­
ature is obtained for natural convection case i.e., in absence of ionic
wind. The steady state temperature of the battery reduces with the
application of ionic wind. At 8.8 W heat generation rate, the steady state
battery temperature is equal to 124◦ C, 71.4 ◦ C, 63.4 ◦ C, and 56◦ C for 0
kV, 7 kV, 8 kV, and 9 kV actuation potentials for ionic wind respectively.
At 6.6 W heat generation rate, the battery temperature is 102◦ C, 59 ◦ C,
53 ◦ C and 46 ◦ C for 0 kV, 7 kV, 8 kV, and 9 kV actuation potential
respectively. The time to reach the steady state conditions also reduces
with increase in applied potentials. The time required to reach steady
state for 8.8 W heat generation rate is equal to 2350 s, 950 s, 785 s and
670 s for 0 kV, 7 kV, 8 kV and 9 kV actuation potentials respectively.
Similarly, at 6.6 W heat generation, the time required to reach steady
state is equal to 2305 s, 915 s, 755 s and 610 s respectively for 0 kV, 7 kV,
8 kV and 9 kV actuation potentials respectively. This indicates that the
forced convection heat transfer is not dependent only on the maximum
velocity of the ionic wind. The nature of flow field around the battery
also influences the heat transfer from the battery. We therefore inves­
tigate the flow field around the battery due to ionic wind.
Fig. 9 shows the velocity field around the battery due to ionic wind.
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi
Fig. 8. Experimentally obtained temporal variation of battery temperature as a function of actuation voltage at two heat generation of battery for ionic wind based
TMS: (a) 8.8 W and (b) 6.6 W.
Fig. 9. (a) Simulation results of absolute velocity field contours superposed on velocity vector field induced by ionic wind at the applied potential of 9 kV and (b)
corresponding zoomed view in the vicinity of the battery. Different primary flow regimes are marked as S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 . The wire electrode is denoted as ‘W’ in
the figure.
The flow pattern shown in Fig. 9 can be classified into four different
regimes: S1 corresponds to EHD driven flow towards the battery surface,
S2 corresponds to stagnation region on the battery surface, S3 corre­
sponds to the wall jet developed due to ionic wind along the battery
surface and S4 is the flow interaction region between two adjacent
corona (ionic) wind sources. The S1 region is developed due to ionic
wind flow from the wire electrode towards the battery outer surface. The
coulomb force extends from the wire to the outside surface of the battery
and due to this coulomb force, a flow of air is produced (for coulomb
force distribution please refer to fig. S1 in supplementary section). The
amplitude of the coulomb force is higher near the wire electrode, which
drives the quiescent air molecules towards the battery.
Fig. 10 shows the spatial variation of ionic wind velocity in different
flow regimes. Velocity profile along I1 I′1 of S1 region in Fig. 10 (a)
initially increases and reaches the maximum value of about 2 m/s, 1.6
m/s and 1.3 m/s at 9 kV, 8 kV, 7 kV applied potentials respectively. The
velocity magnitude reduces to zero in the stagnation region,
S2 developed on the battery surface. After impingement, the wall jet
develops in S3 region on the battery surface. Fig. 10 (b) shows the ve­
locity profile normal to the cylinder surface along I2 I′2 in the S3 region.
The velocity increases from the battery wall surface and drops to the free
stream values subsequently like the wall jet profile. Fig. 10 (c) shows the
velocity profile in the S4 region i.e., the outward wall jet flow from the
battery surface towards the ambient region. Comparison of Fig. 10(a)
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Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676
with Fig. 10 (c) shows the difference in the centreline velocity of the
incoming and outward jet flow. The extent of outward jet flow is higher
than the inward jet flow. Fig. 10 (d) shows the velocity profile in the S1
region i.e., perpendicular to the centreline (I1 I′1 ) of S1 region. As we
move from Y1 to Y4 i.e., farther from the ionic wind generator, the
maxima in ionic wind velocity decreases and spread of the jet increases
due to the entrainment of fluid from the surroundings. This entrainment
can also be compared from Fig. 10 (e), where velocity profile is
compared along I4 I′4 perpendicular to the centrelines in S1 and S4 re­
gions. The entrainment of surrounding air in the S4 region is higher than
the S1 region due to presence of vortices generated by wall jet merging.
The developed velocity fields result in steady state temperature of
battery surface equal to 71 ◦ C, 63 ◦ C, and 56 ◦ C for 7 kV, 8 kV and 9 kV
respectively as shown in Fig. 11 (a). The decrement of steady state
temperature of battery outer wall by 42.7%, 50%, 54.8% at Q = 8.8W
due to ionic wind-based cooling (see Fig. 11 (a)). Similarly, the steady
state temperature decreases by 42.1%, 48%, 55% at Q = 6.6 W for 7 kV,
8 kV and 9 kV respectively as compared to natural convection case. The
convective heat transfer coefficient is augmented maximum three times
as compared to natural convection case (Fig. 12 (b)), due to the con­
vection by ionic wind. The heat transfer coefficient increases with
respect to increase in actuation potential, which may be attributed to
higher velocity at higher actuation voltage. The heat transfer coefficient
is almost invariant with respect to heat generation of battery.
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676

Fig. 10. Spatial Variation of ionic wind velocity between two wire electrodes and battery surface as a function of actuation voltage for different regimes of generated
ionic wind flow patterns (see inset): (a) along I1 I′1 in S1 region at 900 from x-axis, (b) along I2 I′2 in S3 region at 450 from x-axis, (c) along I3 I′3 in S4 region at 300 from
x-axis, (d) along XX′ in S1 region at distance of 7.5 mm (Y1 ), 4.5 mm (Y2 ), 3.5 mm (Y3 ), and 2 mm (Y4 ) from the battery surface, and (e) along I4 I′4 in S1 and S4 region
at a distance of 7.5 mm from the battery surface.

Fig. 11. Experimentally obtained variation of (a) battery wall temperature and (b) heat transfer coefficient as a function of actuation voltage for ionic wind based
TMS at 8.8 W and 6.6 W heat generation.

4.2. PCM based and hybrid thermal management system
4.2.1. Experimental analysis of transient battery temperature
Hybrid TMS includes both PCM and ionic wind-based air propulsion
cooling system. Fig. 12 shows the transient variation of battery tem­
perature with PCM and without PCM at two heat generation rates of
battery. The point A corresponds to the melting temperature of PCM.
The battery temperature without PCM continues to increase till a steady
state temperature of 124 ◦ C and 103◦ C for 8.8 W and 6.6 W heat gen­
eration rates respectively. The rate of increase in battery temperature
reduces for the PCM based cooling after point A, due to the melting of
PCM adjacent to the battery. The battery temperature reaches a constant
temperature (see point B). Point B is observed at 60◦ C and 54 ◦ C for 8.8
W and 6.6 W heat generation rates respectively. The corresponding
temperature without PCM at time corresponding to point B is 102 ◦ C and
92 ◦ C (see point L2 ). The battery temperature increases after complete
melting of the PCM and steady state temperature with PCM is lower than
that without PCM. The reduction in battery temperature for A-B stage is
further elaborated in section 4.2.2.
Fig. 13 compares the battery temperature of hybrid TMS with PCM

11
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676

Fig. 12. Experimental transient variation of battery temperature with and without PCM at different heat generation rates of battery: (a) 8.8 W and (b) 6.6 W. Point
‘A’ corresponds to the melting temperature of PCM and Point ‘B’ corresponds to the initiation of constant temperature plateau of battery.

Fig. 13. Experimental transient variation of battery temperature at different actuation voltage of hybrid TMS at different heat generation of battery: (a) 8.8 W and
(b) 6.6 W. Here, 0 kV represents PCM based TMS.

based TMS. The hybrid TMS shows a lower steady state battery tem­
perature after 6000 s compared to PCM based TMS for both 8.8 W & 6.6
W heat generation of battery. Maximum battery temperature reduces by
54% in hybrid TMS at 9 kV actuation voltage as compared to PCM based
TMS at 0 kV actuation voltage. The steady state temperature of hybrid
TMS reduces with increase in actuation voltage.
Simulation study is carried out to explain the PCM melting behaviour
for PCM based and Hybrid TMSs. Fig. 14 shows the comparison of bat­
tery temperature from simulation with experimental results. The
experimental values of heat transfer coefficients (see Fig. 11 (b)) ob­
tained from ionic wind based forced convection is used as outer wall
surface boundary condition during simulation of melting behaviour of
PCM in hybrid TMS. The close match between simulation and experi­
ment in Fig. 14, confirms the accuracy of simulation procedure adopted
in the present study. The maximum and average error between simu­
lation and experiments is equal to 6.7% and 3.5% respectively. This
difference may be attributed to the uncertainty in property data of PCM
and battery enclosure and the 2D assumption used for ionic wind
simulation. There is also additional experimental error in temperature
measurement and heat generation setting. Overall, the small deviation
between experiment and simulation may be attributed to the combined
effect of experimental error and numerical modelling. The melting

Fig. 14. Comparison of battery temperature from simulation with experiment for PCM based TMS (0 kV) and hybrid (PCM and ionic wind) TMS (9 kV) at (a) 8.8 W
and (b) 6.6 W heat generation rate of battery.

12
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi
behaviour of PCM in hybrid TMS and PCM based TMS are presented in
following sections.
4.2.2. PCM melting behaviour and battery temperature of PCM based TMS
Fig. 15 shows the temperature of battery and liquid fraction of PCM1
(Lauric acid) at 8.8 W heat generation rate of battery. The PCM is in solid
state when the battery temperature is below Point A i.e., the inception
point for the melting of PCM. The PCM adjacent to the battery surface
starts to melt when the battery temperature reaches 36◦ C i.e., melting
temperature of PCM. The liquid fraction value of 0.01 is assumed as
commencement of melting (point A). Liquid fraction greater than 0.99 is
assumed as completion of melting. The battery temperature curve with
PCM descends below the battery temperature curve without PCM after
Point A = 200s because of heat absorption due to latent heat of fusion of
PCM adjacent to battery. Fig. 15 (b) shows the linear increase in liquid
fraction between A-B stage indicating dominance of heat conduction in
solid phase of PCM. During A-B stage the heat dissipation occur by heat
conduction and latent heat of melting. However, due to the conduction
dominant nature in A-B stage, the isothermal plateau behaviour of
battery surface is not observed. The faster melting rate can also be
confirmed from Fig. 15 (b), where the liquid fraction curve after Point B
shows increase in melting rate in comparison to the linear rate in A-B
stage. After point B, the liquid PCM interface moves in downward di­
rection along the housing inner wall (see Fig. 16 (a)). During B–C stage
in Fig. 16 (a), the melted part of PCM gets enlarged and strength of
natural convection inside the PCM enhances, which accelerates the
melting of PCM. This accelerating behaviour is due to continuously
enlarging recirculation effects during B–C stage (see Fig. 16 (c)), and
natural convection inside PCM. This recirculation in PCM domain from
battery outer surface to housing inner surface results in convective heat
transfer from the battery to the housing. Fig. 16 (c) of the manuscript
showing the velocity vector field demonstrates that most molten PCM
ascends to the upper region of battery housing along the hot battery
surface. The melted PCM subsequently descends in the outer region of
the PCM enclosure. It acquires heat during the upward movement and
rejects heat to the outer region during the downward movement. The
ionic wind enhances the heat transfer from the outer region of the
enclosure. There is a formation of recirculation bubble, whose size in­
creases with time during the melting stage. The recirculating flow con­
tributes to an additional mechanism of heat transfer by bulk fluid
movement. As a result, the overall heat transfer increases by the melting
of PCM.
Fig. 16 shows transient contour plot of the liquid fraction, temper­
ature, and velocity contours as a function of time t* , where t * is the
Fig. 15. (a) Transient variation of battery temperature and liquid fraction showing PCM melting behaviour and, (b) corresponding zoomed view of liquid fraction
variation at 8.8 W heat generation rate.
13
Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676
normalized time with respect to the total melting time t * = Tmelt
T
and Tmelt
represents the total melting time. The time instant in Fig. 16 corresponds
to transition points A, B, C, and D of Fig. 15. Fig. 16 (a) shows that, the
melted zone grows during the heating by the battery. Before Point C, the
liquid PCM moves along the housing wall, and subsequently the melting
interface separates from the housing wall as the downward heat con­
duction speeds up the melting along the metal housing wall. The
isothermal behaviour of battery temperature during BC regime is mainly
due to latent heat of fusion of PCM, as dissipation due to recirculation
effects in melted PCM from battery to surrounding environment via
housing is weak in PCM based TMS. So, recirculation effects are majorly
involved in accelerating the melting of PCM, which happens till 1430 s
(Point C). Point C corresponds to the time when the un-melted PCM is
completely separated from the housing wall. Fig. 16 (b) shows that Point
C is the transition point when mid-height temperature of housing wall
approaches the peak melting temperature. The, point D reflects the
complete melting time of PCM. After point C, large amount of PCM has
been melted, and latent heat does not contribute towards heat dissipa­
tion from the battery. In C–D stage rate of liquid fraction rise reduces
(see Fig. 15 (a)) possibly due to dominance of conduction resistance
compared to convection effects. The size of the recirculation flow region
increases from C-D i.e., till complete melting. After point D, heat transfer
takes place till steady state of the battery.
4.2.3. PCM melting behaviour and battery temperature of hybrid TMS
It is observed that the heat transfer gets deteriorated when point C
corresponds to the melting front crosses the bottom corner of the metal
housing and resulting in rapid rise in the battery temperature. So, point
C is the heat deterioration point. The isothermal behaviour of battery i.
e., B–C region helps in delaying the rise in battery temperature. The
hybrid TMS in which PCM and forced convection due to ionic wind is
involved, have longer isothermal behaviour region i.e., the B–C stage i.
e., point C (heat deterioration point) is extended for longer period as
compared to PCM based TMS. Fig. 17 presents the transient variation of
battery temperature, housing temperature and liquid fraction as a
function of the actuation voltage for hybrid TMS. It is observed that the
initial melting regime from point A to B is similar for all ionic wind
actuation cases in hybrid TMS. However, after point B, the melting
behaviour strongly depends on the strength of the ionic wind i.e.,
actuation voltage.
When the PCM melting front meets the housing wall after point B, it
allows convection of heat from the battery to the housing wall. This
process reduces thermal resistance, speeds up the heat dissipation, and
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676

Fig. 16. (a) Liquid fraction, (b) temperature contour, (c) velocity field distribution inside the PCM region for PCM based TMS at different time instants for heat
T
generation of 8.8 W. Here, t * = Tmelt where, Tmelt is the total time required for complete melting of PCM. The different transition points i.e. A, B, C and D are marked in
the figure.

establishes a temperature plateau during the BC stage till 1430s for PCM
based TMS and 6000 s for hybrid TMS at 9 kV actuation voltage (see
Fig. 17 (a) and (d)). During BC phase, the heat generated is efficiently
absorbed by latent heat with only a small amount of heat dissipating into
the surrounding environment through the housing for PCM based TMS.
Due to this battery temperature rises above 100 ◦ C for PCM based TMS at
end of 5000 s as shown in Fig. 17 (a). In hybrid TMS, heat dissipation
from the housing is enhanced, as housing temperature is kept below 45
◦
C at 7 kV, 37.5 ◦ C at 8 kV and 33 ◦ C at 9 kV actuation voltage (see
housing temperature variation in Fig. 17). So, in hybrid TMS, the latent
heat absorption by PCM and heat dissipation from housing due to ionic
wind both play role in absorbing generated heat from battery. Thus,
melting of PCM is delayed by ionic wind in hybrid TMS, as some part of
heat generated from battery has now also been removed by ionic wind
outside the housing. This can be observed through liquid fraction vari­
ation as shown in fig. S4 (a) in supplementary section for liquid fraction

14
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi
Fig. 17. Transient variation of battery and housing temperature alongwith liquid fraction of PCM1 for different cases of hybrid TMS: (a) 0 kV (PCM based), (b) 7 kV
(hybrid TMS), (c) 8 kV (hybrid TMS), (d) 9 kV (hybrid TMS). The heat generation rate is 8.8 W.
contours. Fig. 17 shows that for 7 kV, 8 kV and 9 kV actuation voltages,
the complete melting time of PCM is delayed till 1750 s, 2850 s and
6000 s respectively as compared to PCM based TMS (0 kV actuation
voltage) were PCM completely melts in 1430 s. This delayed melting of
PCM in hybrid TMS causes the isothermal plateau behaviour of battery
temperature to get extended. Hence as shown in Fig. 17, the battery
temperature at 5000 s is equal to 71◦ C, 62.4◦ C, and 60.8◦ C for 7 kV, 8 kV
and 9 kV excitation voltage respectively. The battery temperature de­
creases by 29%, 37.6%, 40%, for 7 kV, 8 kV, 9 kV voltages respectively
in hybrid TMS.
This decrease in battery temperature is attributed to the enhanced
forced convection outside the PCM outer wall, which results in elonga­
tion of melting period of PCM1. The housing temperature reduces from
about 74 ◦ C for PCM based TMS (actuation voltage equal to 0 kV) to 33
◦
C for hybrid TMS operated at 9 kV actuation voltage. Indicating about
55% drop in battery housing temperature. This drop is because of
enhanced heat transfer coefficient due to ionic wind forced convection
outside the housing in hybrid TMS (see Fig. 11 (b)). Moreover, the
thermal storage tendency of PCM1 is significantly increased from 7 kV to
9 kV hybrid TMS because the heat dissipation through recirculation
effects from battery outer wall to housing inner wall will remain alive in
PCM1 for longer periods of elongated melting inside the melted part of
PCM1.
15
Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676
4.2.4. Spatial variation of battery temperature distribution with time
It may be noted that it is desirable to have maximum battery tem­
perature variation of 5 ◦ C along the battery for optimal performance.
Battery temperature is measured at three points on battery outer wall
surface (see Fig. 1(a) and Fig. 6(a)). Fig. 18 shows the maximum battery
temperature difference (ΔT) between Tb,top and Tb,bottom on the battery
outer wall at 8.8 W heat generation rates for different actuation condi­
tions. It shows that the ΔT lies within 3◦ C to 4◦ C for all hybrid TMS
cases, which is a desirable condition for BTMS. During initial period,
temperature difference in OA stage increases as temperature at upper
part of battery is higher than lower part of battery. The difference may
be attributed to the difference in heat transfer from top to bottom
portion of the battery packing due to end conditions.
In AB stage, battery temperature at the top exceeds the melting
temperature of PCM i.e., 36 ◦ C. The PCM close to the upper section
begins to melt, keeping the upper temperature nearly constant whereas
bottom battery temperature rises, reducing the top-to-bottom ΔT. Dur­
ing B–C stage the convection inside the liquid PCM increases leading to
slower rise of axial temperature difference. In a hybrid TMS, both the
absorption of latent heat by the PCM and the dissipation of heat from the
housing through ionic wind are involved in removing the heat generated
by the battery. Consequently, the melting of PCM is delayed since a
portion of the heat produced by the battery is now expelled outside the
housing through the ionic wind. Therefore, slower rise in battery
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676

Fig. 18. Transient variation of battery temperature difference (ΔT) between the top and bottom portion of battery for hybrid (7 kV, 8 kV, 9 kV) and passive (0 kV)
TMS. The location A, B, C, and D corresponds to the temperature and liquid fraction plots in Fig. 15 (b).

Fig. 19. Transient variation of battery and housing temperature alongwith liquid fraction for PCM1 and PCM2 based TMS, ionic wind based TMS and hybrid TMS (9
kV actuation voltage) at heat generation rate of 8.8 W: (a) PCM1 (Fatty acid) based TMS, (b) PCM2 (Paraffin) based TMS, (c) Ionic wind and hybrid TMS with
PCM1, (d) Ionic wind and hybrid TMS with PCM2.

16
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi
temperature difference is further reduced due to applied actuation
voltages (7 kV, 8 kV, and 9 kV) for ionic wind forced convention in
hybrid TMS.
The temperature difference in CD stage drops due to stronger effect
of convection inside the liquid PCM. It may be noted that the time
corresponding to highest temperature difference (point C) location in
Fig. 18, shifts to a later period due to the ionic wind in hybrid TMS. The
location C correlates well with the plateau temperature region shown in
Fig. 17. The overall battery temperature non- uniformity reduces with
increase in actuation voltage. The rate of rise in temperature during the
BC stage decreases with increase in actuation voltage. However, the
magnitude of temperature difference between the top and bottom
portion of the battery is almost independent of the actuation voltage.
The temperature difference between the top and bottom portion de­
pends on the thermal boundary layer development on the battery
surface.
4.2.5. Influence of PCM thermo-physical property
This section discusses the influence of PCM thermophysical property
on the performance of battery cooling system. Two PCM materials i.e.,
fatty acid (PCM1) and paraffin (PCM2) have been used. Table 1 shows
the thermophysical properties of these PCM materials. Fig. 19 (a) & (b)
compare battery and housing temperature, liquid fraction of PCM1 and
PCM2 for PCM based TMS (0 kV actuation voltage). Since PCM2 has
higher latent heat of fusion than PCM1, latent heat storage assisted by
heat convection in PCM2 will be more pronounced in A-B stage than
PCM1. As a result, point B of battery temperature is located at 52◦ C and
60.8◦ C for PCM2 and PCM1 respectively. This leads to lower tempera­
ture level of isothermal plateau, or the occurrence of B–C stage is 8.8◦ C
lower in case of PCM2 compared to PCM1 in hybrid TMS. PCM2 takes
2750 s for complete melting whereas PCM1 takes 1790 s, which can be
ascertained from liquid fraction variation. The delayed melting period of
PCM2 signifies higher conversion of heat dissipated from battery into
latent heat storage as compared those in PCM1. Due to this phenomena,
isothermal temperature plateau behaviour (B–C stage) of battery for
PCM2 and PCM1 exist till 2350 s and 1430s respectively. Thermal
control point C is extended to 2350 s and the amount of unmelted
fraction is also higher for PCM2 at point C of melting period (refer to fig.
S2 & S3 in supplementary section). PCM2 has higher heat storage ten­
dency than PCM1, and therefore PCM2 performs better than PCM1
during A-B and B–C stage of melting process. Due to above phenomena,
the battery temperature reaches above 100 ◦ C with PCM1 and kept
below 78 ◦ C with PCM2 for PCM based TMS. Battery temperature below
permissible limit (60 ◦ C) is achieved with PCM1 passive TMS till 1430 s
and this time is extended to 2750 s with PCM2 passive based TMS. But
with hybrid TMS this permissible limit extended to 6000 s for both the
PCMs.
Fig. 19 (c) and (d) compares battery and housing temperature, liquid
fraction of PCM1 and PCM2 for Hybrid based TMS (9 kV actuation
voltage). Melting rate of PCM2 is lower than PCM1, as melted fraction of
PCM2 is 80% at end of 6000 s, whereas PCM1 has 96%. The melt frac­
tion of PCM2 is always lower than those of PCM1 throughout the melting
process. This is attributed to higher latent heat of fusion of PCM2 for
melting as compared to PCM1 (refer to fig. S4 of supplementary section
for liquid fraction contours of PCM1 and PCM2 of hybrid TMS). The time
required to achieve the latent heat by heat dissipated from battery to
melt PCM2 is delayed. PCM2 has lower dynamic viscosity than PCM1.
Therefore, the liquid convection in PCM2 will be more vigorous than
PCM1. Therefore, during BC phase, convective heat transfer from bat­
tery to housing will be more pronounced and durable in case of PCM2
hybrid TMS. From velocity contours in supplementary section, it can be
observed that maximum velocity in melted part of PCM2 is 0.0034 m/s,
whereas the maximum velocity in PCM1 is 0.0022 m/s (refer to fig. S5 of
supplementary section for velocity contours for PCM1 and PCM2 under
hybrid TMS). PCM2 has extended duration of isothermal behaviour of
battery temperature compared to PCM1 and convective heat transfer
17
Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676
from battery to housing is more pronounced in PCM2 as compared to
PCM1. As a result, in Fig. 19 (c) and (d), hybrid TMS with PCM2 per­
forms better than Ionic wind based TMS by lowering the battery tem­
perature by 4◦ C from 56◦ C to 52◦ C as compared to active TMS. In PCM1
based hybrid TMS, battery temperature is higher than Ionic wind based
TMS case by 4.8◦ C at 9 kV actuation voltage. Therefore, PCM2 under
hybrid TMS at 9 kV actuation voltage shows superior thermal manage­
ment capabilities than PCM1 hybrid TMS and ionic wind based TMS.
5. Conclusion
The present study proposes an ionic wind assisted phase change
material (PCM) based hybrid cooling technique for battery thermal
management system (BTMS). Both experimental and simulation studies
have been carried out for 18,650 Li-ion battery at heat generation rate of
8.8 W (8C discharging rate) & 6.6 W (6C discharging rate). Ionic wind is
generated by placing three wire electrodes around the battery. Fatty acid
and paraffin are compared to study the effect of PCM thermophysical
property. The temperature distribution, liquid fraction corresponding to
PCM melting, velocity distribution in liquid PCM and heat transfer co­
efficient results are presented. Parametric study on the effect of actua­
tion voltage has also been carried out. Some of the findings from the
present study are summarized as follows.
1. Proposed hybrid battery thermal management system shows 260%
higher heat transfer coefficient compared to free convection case. As
a result, the average battery temperature and temperature difference
along the battery outer surface reduces in hybrid TMS.
2. The ionic wind of hybrid BTS generates impinging jet type heat
transfer which develops to wall jet like flow on the battery surface.
Multiple electrode configuration leads to multiple jet impingement
and reduction in the low heat transfer wake region of the battery
surface. An outward jet coming out of the battery surface develops
due to the interaction of neighbouring wall jet.
3. The battery thermal management system shows an isothermal
behaviour during melting of phase change material. The duration of
isothermal plateau region gets extended in the presence of ionic wind
due to the forced convection heat transfer effect.
4. The PCM with higher thermal conductivity, lower viscosity and
higher latent heat helps in improving the performance of battery
cooling system. Low dynamic viscosity and high thermal conduc­
tivity helps in increasing convection heat transfer inside the PCM
during melting and higher latent heat helps in extending the melting
phase.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Rishav Kumar: Investigation. Pradipta Kumar Panigrahi: Writing
– review & editing, Supervision, Conceptualization.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.122676.
R. Kumar and P.K. Panigrahi Applied Energy 359 (2024) 122676

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