Loading Transformers By Temperature

BY V. M. MONTSINGER*
Fellow, A. I. E. E.

Synopsis.-It is pointed out that safe loading of transformers by
temperature requires not only an accurate knowledge of the thermal
laws but also a knowledge of what is a safe temperature limit to be
maintained continuously which condition seldom, if ever, happens
with the present methbd of limiting the load to nameplate rating.
In view of our present knowledge and experience the author questions
the advisability of loading transformers continuously up to the pres-
ent A. I. E. E. limit of 105 deg. cent. hot spot and argues for the
establishment of a differential of 10 deg. cent. between the limit to be
maintained continuously by means of overloads and the limit to be
reached occasionally with rated load. In other words, for continu-
ously maintained maximum temperatures the hot spot should not
exceed 95 deg. cent.
It is shown by the use of the thermal laws that without increasing
the maximum or hot spot temperature, transformers can be overloaded
1 per cent for each degree centigrade by which the ambient is below
30 deg. cent. (air) for self-cooled transformers, 25 deg. (water) for
water-cooled transformers.
The results of laboratory aging tests conducted on class A insula-
tions in atr and in oil are given. These tests show that the rate of
aging is roughly double for each 8 deg. cent. increase in temperature.
By the use of these data and by integrating the hot spot temperature
rise curve resulting from different load factors the permissible peak
load which causes the same deterioration in the insulation as a
steady load is obtained.
By combining the two rules, increased kv-a. with lower ambients
and increased kv-a. with lower load factors, there is obtained a series
of loading curves giving the permissible ky-a. capacities for different
cooling mediums and load factors. On the average, these curves are
conservative because they apply to transformers having quite a wide
range of characteristics which affect the temperature rise.
Maximum and minimum bi-monthly and average annual outdoor
temperatures as furnished by the Bureau of Standards are given for
various localities throughout the United States.
** * *

F OR several years there has been a demand on the
part of the American central station engineers to
operate transformers on a temperature basis. By
temperature basis is meant that the load be limited only
by the maximum winding temperature rather than by
the nameplate rating.
In response to this demand all leading American man-
ufacturers have developed temperature indicators for
observing the winding temperature or its equivalent
under load conditions. In fact, an indicator of the a-c.
type was developed' and first appliedt in service in
1918. Since that time many hundreds of these indica-
tors have been supplied.
This question has now progressed to the point where
definite rules or recommendations for operating trans-
formers on a temperature basis have been drawn up by
the transformer sub-committee of the Electrical Ma-
chinery Committee. $ It is proposed that these rules
(published in the A. I. E. E. JOURNAL, August 1928),
be given in the form of "Recommendations for Service
Conditions" in an Appendix to the main body of the
standards.
Such a radical departure from what has been standard
practise of loading transformers by nameplate rating
for many years brings up some very important points
*Development and Research Engineer, General Electric Com-
pany, Pittsfield, Mass.
tSo far as known, this is the first general application of an
indicator to indicate actual temperatures of transformer wind-
ings under service conditions.
1. See Bibliography for references.
tMembers of subcommittee completing the work were:
W. H. Cooney, W. M. Dann (Chairman), J. B. Gibbs, A. H._____
Kehoc, J. A. Johnson, H. C. Louis, L. C. Nichols, V. M. MJont-
singer, and J. F. Peters.
Presented at the Winter Convention of the A. 1. E. E., New York, perature is 15 deg. less than the a,mbient for self-cooled trans-
N. Y., Jan. 27-31, 1930.
for consideration because, if this new method becomes
standard practise, in the first place, it is going to result
in higher average temperatures being maintained, and
the present A. I. E. E. limit of 105 deg. may not be safe.
In the second place it will, no doubt, eventually involve
other types of apparatus. At the beginning, how-
ever, it is thought best to confine the subject to trans-
formers, as this class of apparatus is best suited for this
method of loading. In fact, a transformer's output is
limited almost, if not entirely, by the maximum tem-
perature, whereas revolving apparatus may have me-
chanical limitation. Also, on account of the non-inter-
change of heat flow directly from the copper to the iron
and vice versa (as in a generator where the windings
are embedded in iron slots) if the transformer oil and
winding rises are known for any given load the rise for
any other load can be estimated as accurately as it can
be determined by tests. This applies to either transient
or stable conditions.
Again such a radical change forces upon us the ne-
cessity of carefully considering what temperature limit
should be adopted for continuous service. The reason
for this is self-evident. By the present method of
loading by nameplate rating, the A. I. E. E. limit of
105 deg. cent. hot spot can be maintained continuously
for self-cooled transformers* only in case the following
four conditions occur simultaneously:
1. 40 deg. ambient.
2. rated load continuously.
3. tested rise of 55 deg. cent. by resistance.
4. maximum conventional allowance for hot spot.
*Water-cooled and forced oil-cooled transformers are not
involved in this discussion for the reason that the ambient temn-
formers.
776

30-27
April 1930 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE
It is very unlikely that all four of these conditions will
occur together.
On the other hand, if a transformer is loaded by
temperature, it is obvious that a condition can be
brought about that is equivalent to these four condi-
tions occurring simultaneously. The question then
is, what temperature limit is safe for this new condition?
And have we had sufficient experience to show that the
present maximum limit is safe for continuous service?
The solution of this problem, as all others of similar
nature, depends mostly upon the results of experience
with transformers in service. Laboratory tests give us
valuable information, but such tests do not take into
account all the factors encountered in the field. As to
whether we have had any cases in service where the
maximum limit has been maintained continuously, it
is very doubtful if we have. In the first place, 40 deg.
ambient does not often exist continuously, nor does 100
per cent load factor occur as a general rule, unless for
some special kinds of service, as for instance the manu-
facture of ice, electrolytic, or furnace work. Again,
transformers do not always test 55 deg. cent. rise; nor
is there always the maximum conventional allowance
between the average and hottest spot in the windings.
The chances of all of these maximum conditions occur-
ring at the same time and continuously, is possible but
remote; therefore, it is questionable if we have sufficient
data for assuming that this maximum temperature
limit could be maintained continuously with a satisfac-
tory resulting life of the apparatus. By satisfactory
life is meant at least fifteen years and perhaps twenty
or twenty-five years. We have had maximum rated
(55 deg. rise) transformers only since 1913.
When the present standards for rating and tempera-
ture limits were established in 1913, no one, of course,
knew at that time just what the exact temperature
limit should be. Papers presented on the subject of
temperature at this memorable meeting of the Mid-
winter Convention give very meager data on this point.
Experience since that time, however, has shown that for
average service conditions, the standards were well
chosen, and it would be unfortunate if the standard rise
of 55 deg. cent. for nameplate rating should be dis-
turbed. Even if loading by temperature should become
standard practise, it is quite necessary to retain a stand-
ard temperature rise for test purposes (with rate kv-a.)
in order to have some measure of the material in a given
transformer. The present rise of 55 deg. should not
be disturbed.
Regardless of the method of loading transformers, it
is quite logical to have a differential in the temperature
limits for continuous and for periodic service. For ex-
ample, if 105 deg. cent. is satisfactory for continuous
service, at least 10 deg. cent. higher temperature if not
more should be permissible for short time peak loads,
However, we have no experience that would justify us
at this time in increasing the limit of 105 deg. even for
short time service; consequently, if we establish a tem-
777
perature differential, it seems that it would be best to
be on the safe side and first adopt a lower limit for con-
tinuous service, and retain the 105 deg. for periodic
service, especially if this can be done without disturbing
the present standards. In a few years, it may be found
that these limits can be raised.
At this point it is well to comment on the seeming
inconsistency in the proposed rules given in Appendix
A. For instance, Paragraph 13-601 says that a trans-
former is suitable for carrying rated load continuously
provided that the cooling medium does not exceed 40
deg. cent. for air. In other words this says that it is all
right to maintain continuously a temperature measured
by resistance of 95 deg. (55 + 40)-which is inconsis-
tent with paragraph 13-602 which says that for all
overload conditions the temperature limits should be
10 lower than those that would result with rated load in
a 40 deg. cent. air temperature. In other words accord-
ing to the rules 95 deg. is all right for rated load but 85
deg. must not be exceeded even for a small overload.
This requires an explanation.
In the first place, in order not to disturb the present
standards of 55 deg. rise and 40 deg. ambient, it was
necessary to leave this statement essentially the same
as it is in the present standards No. 13 (paragraph 13-50)
of the 1925 edition.
To be consistent with the part giving recommended
temperature limits for overloads it would have been
necessary either to limit rated load to a cooling medium
of 30 deg. cent. for air or reduce the temperature rise of
all self-cooled transformers from 55 deg. to 45 deg. cent.,>
either of which is unnecessary. It is not necessary be-
cause the chances are that so long as rated load is not
exceeded the average temperatures in the future will
remain pretty much the same as in the past It has
already been pointed out that satisfactory results have
been obtained under the present practise of operating
under usual service conditions. Whatever is said in the
rules will have little or no effect on service conditions.
Another reason why a lower limit should be adopted
for overload conditions is that as the overload increases
the difference between the average and hot spot in-
creases. Some allowance for this should be made.
Attention is called to this in the footnote under para-
graph 13-603 in the Appendix.
Considering the above points and that the proposed
rules are in the nature of an experiment and are to be
used for the purpose of obtaining operating experience,
it seems that we are fully justified in making the rules
as they are.
It is the object of this paper* to present and justify
the proposed rules for loading transformers by tempera--
ture. In view of the present tendency to overload at
low ambients it seems very desirable to standardize
overload values and temperature limits which are safe,
rather than let the situation drift along with the result
*Companijon to paper by W. M. Dann entitled, OperatingR
Transformers by Temperature.
778 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE Transactions A. I. E. E.

that in some cases unsafe valves may be used. To allow ture rises under different loading conditions to a greater
the operator to assign the rating to an expensive appara- degree of accuracy than in most other types of
tus depending upon the operating conditions is a very apparatus
important matter and anything that can be done to The writer has found during many years experience
make it safe is worth while. It is hoped that the data in cooling and heating problems that the temperature
given in the paper will serve a useful purpose in guiding rise vs. loss can, in almost every case, be expressed by a
the practise. simple exponential equation. It seems to be one of
The writer has gone somewhat further than the pro- natures's laws that loss of heat by natural cooling in
posed rules of allowing overloads at low ambients in either a gas or liquid is generally proportional to the
that it is proposed to allow overloads under low load temperature rise raised to some power* usually greater
factor conditions (the ambient remaining constant) than 1.0. But in forced cooling, loss is always directly
which will use up the apparatus at approximately the proportional to temperature rise, i. e., the power is 1.0.
same rate or less than that for a given constant load The formula is:
factor. P-K6n (1)
This should enable an operator to determine at what where P is the loss,
rate he is utilizing the life of the apparatus, under cer- K a constant,
tain special conditions. Under some conditions it may 0 the temperature rise, and
be advisable to utilize the life of the apparatus at a n a numerical value depending upon the condition of
much faster rate than under average conditions, or it cooling.
may be advisable in some cases to be more conservative. Expressed in the reverse order, Equation (1) becomes
METHOD OF LOADING BY TEMPERATURE 0 = K' pn (2)
Two general methods of loading by temperature are Where K' is a new constant, and
recommended in the proposed rules, namely, (1) by n' = l/n
temperature indicator, and (2) by a loading curve where For oil immersed core type transformers and for
the load in per cent of nameplate rating is dependent constant conditions and within the usual working range
upon the ambient temperature. of oil temperatures, many tests have shown that n
Loading by Temperature Indicators. It will be noted and n' have the following approximate values:
that the proposed rules give three temperature limits
85, 90, and 95 deg. cent., depending upon whether the Self-Cooled:
. . in. terms
indicator is calibrated . *of .average
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1.
temperature, Tank surface oisv
rfac or oil rise over n
embedded detector, or hottest spot temperature. In roomn n
a. with plain tank . . 1.19 0 84
each case the limit is 10 deg. cent. less than that result- b. with irregular (corrugated,
ing from a maximum rated 55 deg. cent. rise trans- etc.) surfaces .1.25 0.80
former operating in a 40 deg. room. For water-cooled 2. Winding rise either by resis-
transformers where the ambient (ingoing water) is 25 tance or hot spot over oil-
a. Having vertical coils. .00 1.00
deg. cent. this permits loading continuously at a load
dreg wzent. th peramints loadingcontinuousl wat 1Slod
b. Having horizontal coils 1.25 0.80
to give 60 deg. cent. rise by resistance.
..

Water-Cooled:
Loading Based on Ambient Temperature. To deter- 1. Oil rise over ingoing water
mine safe loading as a function of the ambient tempera- (for a constant water rise). . 2.0 0.5
ture it is necessary to know how the kv-a. varies with 2. Winding
tance
rise either by resis-
hot spot over oil
temperature rise for the different types of transformers. a. Withorvertical coils ....... 1.0 1.0
Kv-a. vs. Temperature Rise. In transformers of the b. Withhorizontalcoils..... 1.25 0.80
oil-immersed (self-cooled and water-cooled) types, there
are two distinct and main divisions or steps to be con- When applied to the oil rise, P represents the sum of
sidered in determining the temperature rise of both the the copper and iron losses at the operating temperatures,
windings and the iron over the cooling medium. That but when applied to the windings, P represents the
is, the copper rise under load is the sum of (1) the oil rise copper loss only at the operating temperature. The
over the cooling medium, and (2) the copper rise over value of the constant K of K' must, of course, be de-
the oil. Likewise, the iron rise is the sum of (1) the oil termined from the observed or assumed values of 0 and
rise and (2), the iron rise over the oil. These rises must P for a given load.
Zalways be dealt with separately. It is obvious that the The values of 1.19 and 1.25 for n for the oil rise of
oil rise is dependent upon both the copper and iron tanks with plain and irregular surfaces respectively
losses while the copper and iron rises over the oil are agree with what would be expected. For instance,
each dependent mainly upon their respective losses, when the surface of a tank is irregular, most of the loss
This simplified thermal condition in oil-immersed *Raito of hea inarde. o utflohslwtog
transformers should be kept in mind because it is on when considering a limited ra,nge in temperature, it is close
this account that it is possible to predict the tempera- enough for practical purposes.
April 1930 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE 779

75 per cent or more, is dissipated by convection, the n, = 0.8 for horizontal windings
remaining being radiated. Loss of heat by convection = 1.0 for vertical windings
is proportional to the temperature rise raised to the L = 234 + A + T
1.25 power. Therefore, unless the vertical oil gradient 234 + A + To + T,
changes materially for different loads, and there is no
reason why it should, the oil rise should follow the same In cases where Equation (4) is used and where the
law as that of loss by convection. For a plain tank, it copper resistance increases with the temperature, it is,
is a little different because the effect of the radiation of course, necessary to determine the value of L for each
pulls the exponent down since the loss by radiation is kv-a. value by trial; but when used for the condition
approximately one-half the total loss, and the exponent where the hot spot is constant (the kv-a. varying
for radiation over the range of temperature consideredt with the ambient) L = 1. 0.
is about 1.12. Tests check very closely the average For the condition where no = nc, that is, for self-
value (1.19) of these two exponents. Later on, in cooled transformers with horizon talcoils (and lettering)
making calculations of oil rise vs. loss, the value of 1.25 1 1 1
for n is used for the reason that the tanks for all self- -n- = m and when L = 1.0
cooled power transformers have irregular surfaces.
Fig. 1 shows the rise of oil of a water-cooled trans- Tm (N + 1) - Tom
former rated WC-60-500-13,200; first for a 10 deg. cent. R =T wm (N + 1) + N Tom (4)
rise in the circulating water, and second for a 20 deg.
cent. rise in the water, and third, a curve for the oil If we desire to determine the available capacity for
rise of a WC-60-1000-44,000 volt transformer with a any given ambient, the equation becomes
10 deg. cent. rise in the water. These.curves show that
n' varies from 0.47 to 0.525. Experience shows that R = TCwm (N + 1) Tm(5)
0.5 gives results close enough for practical purposes. T wm (N + 1) + N Tom
The temperature rises of both the oil over the room The difference in the oil and winding rises resulting
and the windings over the oil are influenced to some from assuming, first, that these rises are not propor-
extent by the change in viscosity of the oil as its tem- tional to the loss and, second, that they are proportional
perature changes, though, generally speaking, this to the loss (as is sometimes done5) is given in Table I.
effect can be neglected for the oils used in America,
unless the temperature is below about 25 deg. or 30 deg. TABLE I
cent. because the increase in resistance of the copper as COMPARISON OF KV-A. VS. TEMPERATURE RISE OF OIL AND
WINDINGS BASED ON TEMPERATURE RISE BEING:
the temperature increases is approximately neutralized (1) Not proportional to loss. (2) Proportional to loss.
by the effect of the decrease in oil viscosity. The Self-cooled*
amount of oil has no effect on the rise after conditions ..--H Hot spot rise deg. cent. over:
become constant for the reason that the oil generally Oil rise deg. cent.
has approximately a uniform temperature, Fig. 2, along over ambient Oil Ambient
its entire path of flow from near the core and windings no 0.8 no= 1
=
to all points above the windings to within about 14 in. R no = 0.8 no = 1 nc = 0.8 n. = 1 nc = 0.8 nc = 1 Dif.
of the cooling coils and tank surfaces. 1.00 45 45 20 20 65 65 0
The total winding rise over the ambient may be cal- 1.25
1.50
55
66.4
57.5
73.3
28.6
38.3
31.2
45.0
83.6
104.7
88.7
118.3 13.6
5.1
culated for any load other than normal by the following - Water-cooled*
formula: Hot spot rise deg. cent. over:
T = C - A = To (L N R2 + 1)no + TC L R2nc (3) Oil rise deg. cent. __
over ambient Oil
__ -_-_ Ambient
in which- _ _
T = temperature rise (either hot spotor average) of -oR |0 0.5 nO = =0.8 n= 05
=1nc =08 no1
=|
windings over ambient 3 35 3 30 65 _ 65
C = coppertemperatureindeg. cent. 1.25 39.6 45 43 46.8 82.6 91.8 9.2
A = ambient temperature in deg. cent. 1.50 44.5 56.5 57.4 67.5 101.4 124. 22.6
T o = temperature rise of oil (either top oil or average *Ratio cu. to iron losses 1:1 when R = 1.0
oil) over ambient at ratedload These results show that the error, introduced by
N = ratio of copper to iron loss at rated load assuming nO and nC equal to unity is in some cases too
R = ratio of overload to rated load large to neglect, especially for water-cooled transformer.
Tc= temperature rise of copper over oil at rated load Figs. 3 and 4 give curves of the variation in ky-a. vs.
(either hot spot or average) temperature rise of the windings and oil, above the
nO= 0.8 for self-cooled transformers room, of a self-cooled transformer with (1) horizontal
= 0.5 for water-cooled transformers and (2) vertical windings, assuming three different
tSee Equation (9), Bibliography 3. ratios of copper to iron losses. The rises were
780 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE Transactions A. I. E. E.

calculated by the above formulas with the following
assumed data at 100 per cent load:
40 deg. cent. top oil rise over the room,
*25 deg. cent. hot-spot winding rise over top oil,
Tank with irregular surface (n = 1.25)
1:2, 1:1, and 2:1 ratios of copper to iron loss at rated
load.
KV-A. VS. COOLING MEDIUM TEMPERATURES TO
PRODUCE A GIVEN MAXIMUM OR HOT SPOT
TEMPERATURE
By subtracting various ambient temperatures from a
given average maximum, say 80 deg. cent. (25 plus
55 = 80), or a given hot spot 90 deg. (25 plus 55 plus
10 90) for water-cooled transformers, or 85 and
=

In estimating these kv-a. values, the increased copper 95 deg. cent., maximum and hot spot temperatures
loss due to the increasing resistance (with temperatures) respectively for self-cooled transformers in a 30 deg.
was taken into account. cent. ambient, we obtain by the aid of the curves of
Fig. 5 shows similar curve for representative water- kv-a. vs. temperature rise the available kv-a. capacities
for the various ambients. These are shown in Tables
80 ~~~~~~~~~~II
and III.
50L C> XIt will be noted that for all the conditions assumed
for ratios of losses, etc., the following simple rule will
be met:
,0 H . =
"The capacity can be increased 1 per cent for each
CD T degree that the ambient is below 25 deg. cent. for water-
, 83 =It __ _
t-- X- land 30 deg. cent. for self-cooled transformers."
cooled
In fact, the rule is more conservative for present day
4
1 2 3 4 5678910 20 304050
RELATIVE LOSS TO COOLING COIL
Tank Temp. 200 Oil LevelI
FIG. I-CURVES SHOWING OIL RISE OF THE WATER COOLED 300 '42 O . o
TRANSFORMERS FOLLOWING 4242. 4 42.20
(a) WC-60- 500-13,200, 20 deg. cent. water rise 42 4.2 =.4
(b) WC-60- 500-13,200, 10 deg. cent. water rise 41.8 0 42.50 42.5 42 0
(c) WC-60-1000-44,000, 10 deg. cent. water rise 42 -o | ll 70O
39.40 0/ I. 420 i
cooled transformers having vertical coils, different O.0--42.50 '42o.
39 ° 60
ratios of copper to iron losses, and the following as- 390 L 40.8 Topof Core
sumed data at 100 per cent load. 380 0 '41.8
1. 30 deg. cent. top oil rise over in-going water tem- 380 0|/39.80
perature. 36.6 o40.50
2. 35 deg. cent hottest spot winding rise over top oil. 1/4- 40'L-'
34.5 37.20
3. 1:1, 2:1, and 4:1 ratio of copper to iron loss. 34.80 N380
4. 90 per cent of loss being carried away by the
water, remaining 10 per cent being dissipated to the
o\L_ IF2
7
air by the tank. 1 20'
5. A constant rate of flow of cooling water, this L ingoing Water 140Cloll
rate being such as to give a 10 deg. cent. rise at 100 per - Outgoing Water 23.50C -
cent load. Room20"Temp. 240C
The conditions assumed in item (5) give conservative 400 3000\__ 10t 20" 330" 40" __

results because if the water were increased with the L J

load, as is often the case, the resulting oil rise would be
less. (The winding rise over the oil is, *of course,
constant for any given load for any rise in the water.)
The change in the oil rise is not proportional to the
change in the maximum water rise because it is depen-
dent more nearly on the average rise of the water.
Generally, the oil rise increases approximately 0.7 as
fast as the maximum water rise and vice versa. See
lFig. 1. For example, if with a 10 deg. cent. water rise,
the oil rise is 30 deg. cent. and the amount of water is
reduced one-half to give a 20 deg. cent. rise, the oil rise is
increased to about 37 deg. cent.
sasmdta h ots so vrteaeaetmea
ture is 10 deg. cent., thus leaving an average wvinding
leg.ecent. over the
rise Of 55
room.."an
FIG. 2-TEMPERATURE GRADIENT OF OIL IN WATER COOLED
TRANSFORMER
WC-60-2100,-13,900-2300 volts
high efficiency units than it appears to be from the
values given in Tables II and III, because it is assumed
that (1), the hot spot is 10 deg. cent. whereas on account
of the low copper densities used, the hot spot is perhaps
more nearly 5 to 7 deg. cent. instead of 10 deg. cent.
Again it is assumed that the tested rise is 55 deg. cent.
at rated load, which is not always the case. This 1 per
cent rule was pointed out by the wrter in the June
1918 issue of the General Electric Review, in the follow-
ing statement:
increase of approximately one per cent
April 1930 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE 781

in the kilovolt-amperes capacity of self-cooled trans- exceeding the normal hot-spot limit. The same ap-
formers can usually be obtained for each degree that proximate rate of increase in capacity applies to
the ambient temperature is below 40 deg. cent., without water-cooled transformers for each degree that the
TABLE IL
WATER-COOLED TRANSFORMER RELATIVE KV-A. CAPACITIES VS. INGOING WATER TEMPERATURES TO PRODUCE A GIVEN
WINDING TEMPERATURE
Assumed characteristics at 100 per cent load Per cent kv-a.

Ratio of copper to iron loss 1:1 2:1 4:1

Oil rise over room deg. cent ............................... 30 35 40 30 35 40 30 35 40

Average winding rise over oil deg. cent ...................... 25 20 15 25 20 15 25 20 15
Hot spot rise over oil deg. cent ........................... 35 30 25 35 30 25 35 30 25

Ingoing Position Based on

Water temp. of winding
deg. cent. windings temp. of

35 Vert. 80-deg. av'g. 85. 83. 81. 86.5 85. 83.5 87.5 86.5 85.
Horiz. ; 4
83. 81. 79. 84.5 83. 81.5 86. 85. 84.
Vert. 90-deg. hot spot 88.5 87.5 86.5 89. 88. 87. 90. 89. 88.
Horiz. 4c
86.5 85.5 84.5 87. 86. 85. 88.5 88. 87.5

25 Vert. 80-deg. av'g. 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. 100.
Horiz.
Vert. 90-deg. hot spot
Horiz. i

15 Vert. 80 -deg. av'g. 113.5 115. 116.5 112. 113. 114. 111.5 112.5 114.
Horiz. < 115.5 117. 118.5 114. 115. 116. 113. 113.5 114.5
Vert. 90-deg. hot spot 110.5 111.5 113. 110. 110.5 111. 109.5 110. 110.5
Horiz. i
112.5 113.5 114.5 111.5 112. 112.5 110.5 111. 111.5

0 Vert. 80-deg. av'g. 131. 134. 137. 129. 131. 133. 127. 129. 131.
Horiz. 136.5 139.5 142. 133.5 135.5 137.5 131.5 133. 134.5
Vert. 90-deg. hot spot 125. 127. 129 123.5 125. 126.5 122.5 124. 125.5
Horiz. 130.5 132. 134 128.0 129.5 131. 126.5 127.5 128.5

TABLE III
SELF-COOLED TRANSFORMER RELATIVE KV-A. CAPACITIES VS. ROOM TEMPERATURES TO PRODUCE A GIVEN WINDING
TEMPERATURE.
Assumed characteristics at 100 per cent load Per cent kv-a.

Ratio copper to iron loss 1:2 1:1 2:1

Oil rise over room deg. cent .............................. 45 40 35 45 40 35 45 40 35

Average winding rise over oil deg. cent ..... ................ 10 15 20 10 15 20 10 15 20
Hot winding rise over oil deg. cent ......................... 20 25 30 20 25 30 20 25 30

Room Position Based on

temp. of winding
deg. cent. windings temp. of:

40 Vert. 85-deg. avg. 74 78 81.5 80 82.5 84 84.5 85.5 86.5

Horiz. c
71 75.5 77.5 78.5 80.5 82 83 83.5 85
Vert. 95-deg. hot spot 82.5 85 87. 86 87. 88 88 89. 89.5
Horiz. 80.5 82 84 84 85 86 87 87.5 88

30 Vert. 85-deg. avg. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Horiz. 9

Vert. 95-deg. hot spot

Horiz.

20 Vert. 85-deg. avg. 121 118 115.5 117 115 114. 114 113 112
Horiz. 123 120.5 118.5 118 117 114.5 115 114 113.5
Vert. 95-deg. hot spot 115 113 111.5 112.5 111.5 110.5 111 110 109.5
Horiz. ; 117 115.5 114 114.5 113.5 112.5 112 111.5 111

10 Vert. 85-deg. avg. 139 133.5 130 131 127.5 126 126 124.5 123
Horiz. t
143 138.5 135 134 132 130 128 127 126.5
Vert. 95-deg. hot spot 128 125 123 123.5 122 120.5 121 119.5 118.5
Horiz. 132 129.5 127.5 127 125.5 124.5 123 122.5 122

0 Vert. 85-deg. avg. 154.5 148 143 145 141 137.5 138 136 134
Horiz. < < 161.5 155.5 151 149 146 144 141 137.5 138.5
Vert. 95-deg. hot spot 139.5 135.5 133 134 131.5 129.5 130 128.5 127
Eoriz. ; s146 143 140 139 137 135.5 134 133 132

-10 Vert. 85-deg. avg. 169 161.5 155 .5 158 153 148 .5 149 146 143 .5
Horiz. << ; 178.5 171 165.5 163 159.5 157 153 151 159.5
Vert. 95-deg. hot spot 151 146 142 144 141 138.5 139 137 135
_____________Horiz. < 159 155 152 150 148 146 143 .5 142.5 141. 5
782 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE
temperature of the ingoing water is below 25 deg. cent."
Loading as Function of Load Factor. We have seen
that the variation in load can be expressed as a simple
relation of the ambient temperature. This idea can
be carried further by making the load a function of the
load factor, although it is not quite so simple to do so.
It requires a knowledge of the rate of aging or deteriora-
110. (c)
100 ___ _ _ (b)
v//(a)v
so
90
o 80 SS°&F ,
__70 ___
60 > (C)
$50 1 e^ (a)
40
______
30 1110 1;PO 128
PER CENT KV-A. LOAD
FIG. 3-CURVES SHOWING VARIATION OF KV-A. vs. TEMPERA- short time, heavy over-loads, etc. Or one can estimate
TURE RISE IN WINDINGS AND OIL
For self-cooled transformers having vertical coils and copper to iron conditions to produce approximately the same degree
loss ratios at 100% load as follows:
(a) 1:2
(b) 1:1
(c) 2:1
tion of insulation with temperature. With this infor-
mation at hand and with a curve or set of curves giving
the hot spot temperature for various load factors, the
relative aging can be determined for the load factor by
integrating these areas, and multiplying by the rela-
tive aging. The relative life of the apparatus is repre-
sented of course by the reciprocal of the value so
obtained.
1. EFFECT OF AGING OF INSULATION ON LIFE OF A
TRANSFORMER
Insulation obviously performs two functions; it
provides both electrical and mechanical strength be-
tween turns, between coils, and from coils to ground.
tween to
Aging is a function of both time and temperature,
and eventually renders the insulation unfit to perform
either duty. In other words, contrary to the sometimes
expressed statement that "aging does not begin until a
definite temperature has been exceeded, aging goes on
at all temperatures, even room temperatures, the rate
of course increasing as the temperature increases.
Numerous laboratory tests have demonstrated that
insulation does not seriously deteriorate electrically
until the material has lost all mechanical strength and
has become charred and sufficiently weakened and
brittle to crumble; in other words, until it has passed
beyond a condition that is safe. In fact, generally,
the dielectric strength iiicreases until the material
cracks.
Transactions A. I. E. E.
Consequently, it is hopeless to judge even the rate of
deterioration of insulation by its electrical strength.
This leaves us with only the mechanical strength to
judge the insulation.
It is doubtful if the "actual" life of a transformer can
ever be determined, even by the most carefully con-
ducted laboratory test, due to the lack of a proper
criterion by which to judge whether an insulation has
reached an unsafe degree of deterioration.
It is the writer's opinion that the mechanical deter-
ioration (such as tensile tearing and bursting strength)
t///of insulation can be used to best advantage only in
one way to help us out in the problem of loading trans-
formers by temperature. This is to determine the
"rate of deterioration" at different temperatures and
use this in conjunction with some temperature which
average service conditions have shown a transformer
to give
long reasonable
it aought life, and judge from this how
to last if continuously operated at
some other temperature, say 10 deg. cent. lower or 10
deg. higher. Again, if such a curve is rational, it
should be possible to estimate roughly how fast one
is using up the life of a certain piece of apparatus on
the permissible peak loads under various load factor
deteriorato prdc centhonamepae
of deterioration, as 100 per cent load, or nameplate
' rating continuously in a given ambient. Of course,
(c)
lOC (b)
90C / (a)
a 80
7l
- -0000
.0a)(50|
40
30 ;
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~80
PE100
ICENT KV-A LOAD
120 140
FIG. 4-CURVES SHOWING VARIATION IN KV-A. vs. TEM-
PERATURE RISE OF THE WINDINGS AND OIL FOR SELF COOLED
TRANSFORMERS
Having horizontal coils and copper to iron loss ratios at 100% load as
folo (a) 1:2
(b) 1:1
(e) 2:1
it is obvious that this method is not rigidly correct
(as no method can be), yet it offers the only means of
arriving at even an approximate answer to the problem,
and enables us to make progress.
Figs. 6 and 7 show the decrease in tensile strength
of black and yellow varnish cloths when subjected to
90, 100, and 110 deg. cent. in air and in oil for a period
of 68 weeks.
 t\~ ~ (4)In90deg.cnt.oil
April 1930 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE 783

These and many other aging curves show that the where Y = time.
time necessary to reduce the insulation at a given A = constant.
temperature to a definite per cent of its initial strength e = base of naperian logarithm.
when plotted on semi-log paper against the tempera- m = constant = (0.088).*
x = temperature deg. cent.
110 ______( The form of Equation (6) means, of course, that
a() deterioration goes on at some definite rate at all tem-
loo peratures, and doubles every so many degrees increase,
s9 or vice versa. For example, if the curves shown in
Figs. 6 and 7 are re-plotted on semi-log paper, Figs. 9
2'
"i
80 80 F<\OOMand 10, it will be noted that for each 7.5 deg. or 8 deg.
cent. increase in temperature, the rate of aging doubles.
710
These data were obtained in 1921.
, 60 Practically about the same rate of aging was found
50 I by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Depart-

40

30
4° ;,s;g(ab~ ~ ~ ~ ~()(b)

20~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
80 100 120 140 (3)
PER CENT KV-A. LOAD 70
0
FIG. 5-CURVES SHOWING VARIATION IN KV-A. VS. TEMPERA-
TURE RISE OF THE WINDINGS AND OIL
For water cooled transformers having vertical coils and copper to iron 50 (5) °
loss ratios at I100%/ load as follows:
(a) 1:1 4
(b) 2:1
(c) 4:1 30
ZF20 A _ ^

10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
.-s 80 'C3>\ 9R i .TIME- WEEKS
70 n Y S FIG. 7-AGING CURVES FOR 0.012 IN. BLACK VARNISHED
0
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CAMBRIC
\- cJ7 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(1)
In 90 deg. cenlt. air
X \ \I(2) In 100 deg. cent. air
CJ 60 < (58 *(3) In 110 deg. cent. air
zc 40 ^ + ^ N _(5) In 100 deg. cent. oil
0r
O -\ (6) In 110 deg. cent. oil

Soment of Electrical Engineering (direction of Dr. V.

Bush) in the series of tests which conducted in was
1923 on "The Deterioration of Cable Paper when Sub-
0 10 20 30 40 5 7 jected to Temperature Only." These tests were made
TIME WEEKS with the collaboration of the N. E. L. A. and the
FIG. 6-AGING CURVES FOR 0.012 IN. YELLOW VARNISHED results are given in a report to the Impregnated Paper
CAMBRIC Insulated Cable Research Committee, National Elec-
(1) In 90 deg. cent. air tric Light Association. One set of curves in this
(2) In 10P deg. cent. air report is replotted and given in Fig. 8. This shows
(3) In 110 deg. cent. air that the rate of aging doubles approximately every
(5) In 100 deg. cent. ohi 8 deg. cent. increase in temperature for all the
(6) In 110 deg. cent. oil lines ranging from 90 per cent of the initial strength
down to 20 per cent of initial strength. The 8 deg.
turefals aproxmatey o a sraiht lne the ime cent. rule iS the general average of several other curves
being on the log scale). mxin this report. Considering the fact that the two sets
The isequation Y = A ernx (6)of aging tests were made independently of each other,
*See FRig. 11. and check so well' adds confidence in some such a rule.
784 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE Transactions A. I. E. E.

The tests, Figs. 9 and 10, indicated that the same law aging but even if oil is kept strictly neutral, tests show
holds for aging in both air and oil. These curves are that the aging is faster so that it cannot be explained
replotted from the curves which represent an average in this way. No completely satisfactory explanation
of the test points shown in Figs. 6 and 7 respectively. has ever been given for this shorter life of insulation in
It will be noted, however, that insulation ages faster oil than in air, though it has been suggested that it
may be due either to the oil softening up the fibers or
1000
900 \
8800
700 100
608D. 90
FCSE9 80
70
°
400 60

300~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~50
200 30.

100 2080%
F90 20%
-C 80
70 \18
60 40- 9 t
40 6 \\ i CD

30 70
1% LU 5 60%~

28 ;: 2
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3
90%
70%
2
10 3_ 4 5 6200 0
60 80 100 120 14, Aged in AirY--
DEG. CENT. Aged in Oil
I8. 80%
FIG. 8-AGING CURiVES
40 1\\AS
FOLDING STRENGTH ot002%
SHOWN By DETERIORATION IN80 Fi.1 ie uv Y9 -DEG.hwigtepoal
10
CENT.-
10 ieo
(Taken from Fig. F-37 in M. I. T. report to N. E. L. A.) FIG. 10-AGING CURVES FOR 0.012 IN. BLACK VARNISHED
CAMBRIC
(Replotted from curves in Fig. 7)
100
90

60
70 Vlthe acids intthe l atciggu attackinrsthe aIbes t s that
40 od n
50 g~~~~~~~~~ubject for a physicist to study.
Fig. 11 gives a curve showing the probable life of
30 insulation in which the time necessary to cause the
20 900%

?5 1120
9 (~~~~60%~2'o ~ 3' IA
C,C-' ___ 14~~~~~~~~~~~~-4~~~~~I ~ qua: Y=7.15 x1 u
70%~
4 60
3 0
"80% 40_
Aged in Air-- ___I I___I__I
Aged in Oil --2 3 4 5 67 18 20 30 40 50 6870188 200 1800
11
80 90 100
1 90% Y-TIIAE IN YEARS
110
DEG. CENT. FIG. 11-EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RELATIVE, LIFE OF
FIG. 9-AGING CURVEiS rOER 0.012 IN. YELLOW VARNISHED CLAss A INSULATION (ACTUAL LiFE VERiy APPROXIMATE) OR
CAMBRIC TIME TO CAUSE COMPLETE DESTRUCTION IN OIL
(Replotted from curves in Fig. 6)
 ~ 250
April 1930 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE 785

Whether or not this is correct is not vitally important TABLE IV

to the present problem.
The equation of the straight line in Fig. 11 is Approximate time in years
Y = 7.15 X 104 EOOOX (7) cent.
Temperature deg. cent. required to zero (in oil)
insulation
to reduce life of

where Y time in years

x = temperature in deg. cent. 30 94
e = 2.718 40 82
The approximate actual life as taken from the full 50 70
line curve, Fig. 11, is given in Table No. IV for each 70 48
10 deg. cent. between and including the limits of 30 80 35
and 120 deg. cent. 90 23
LOAD FACTORS 95 16
10.5
100
Typical Load Factor Curves. Figs. 12 to 17 inclusive 105 7.
show typical curves of loads ranging from about 25 110 4.5
to 90 per cent load factors observed on the New York 120 1.9

49.5 Per Cent Load Factor I

L25.4 Per Cent Load Factor -

12O678 0 11 1 2 1 2 3 -5 .1 - 7- - 0O

100 -- --- 00o

-2000

12 6 78 9101112 123 4 56 12 .m100

loo--
Mid. km. Noon P.M.Md
F1G.212 1
Mid. A.
6 M.
12
Noon
0
P.M.
12
Md

FIG. 15
45000~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~50

35000 60 Per Cert Load Facto 30000

20000 15~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0000

150 0 I~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 10 0

300t1---~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~kA000
looiI 35000S
5000
__ __ F~~~~~~~~~~~50 12 6 12
6
12
MdMid.AM. Noon P.MM. Mid.
12 66 12
Mid.
12 ~~~~~~~~~~~FIG.
16
A.M.
Mid. Noon P.M.

01 2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_
0
FIG. 13
1000
300 I-
I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0
0200
100 .1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0
YORE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9
EDISO COMPAN Loa Factor

r1Pren .1cTt7TPIAoOArUVS
LadFIa FVRIU OD ATRSO-E
786 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE
Edison Company's System. Table V shows these to-
gether with some other load factors for various kinds
of service on the same system.
The data in Table V show that for general power
and light, and for the usual industrial purposes, the
load factor seldom exceeds about 60 per cent. For ice
and sugar manufacturing purposes, however, the load
factor is high, in fact, close to 100 per cent.
Maximum or Peak Loads at Various Load Factors
to be the Equivalent of 100 per cent Load Factor. As
previously pointed out, the deterioration of insulation
is a function of both time and temperature. Therefore,
if we are to determine the effect of temperature result-
ing from various load factors on the deterioration of
the insulation, we must first know what the hot spot
temperature is during the cycle of loading, and second,
we must determine the equivalent continuous load that
will produce the same aging by integrating by parts the
area of the hot spot temperature, and use the aging
curve based on the 8 deg. rule, that is, the curve which
shows the rate of aging doubles each 8 deg. cent. in-
crease in temperature. This may be termed the
weighted aging effect. Or stated the other way around,
we must determine the maximum peak loads under
which various load factors produce the same deteriora-
tion as rated load operated 100 per cent of the time.
It is, of course, recognized that the weighted aging is
not the same even for a given load factor, but may vary
depending on the duration of the peak load. For
example, it is quite evident that the worst condition or
the condition where the greatest deterioration takes
place for, say, a 50 per cent load factor is where the
maximum load is maintained constant for 50 per cent
of the time, and the remainder of the time the load is
zero. (It is, of course, assumed that core loss is on
100 per cent of the time.) The condition where the
least deterioration will take place for this same load
factor is where the maximum load exists for a period of,
say, only one half hour, the remainder of the time the
load being light. Examples of the above cases may be
taken as follows: 50 per cent load factor worst condi-
tion, maximum load on 12 hours a day, or 15 days in a
month, or 187 days in a year, core-loss on remainder
of the time. The best condition, maximum load on
one-half hour in 24 hours or the equivalent percentage
of time in the days per year, and the remaining time
the load just under 50 per cent, the difference between
50 per cent load, and the actual load held being equiva-
lent to the short peakWload.
Assume the following characteristics at rated load:
1. 40 deg. cent. top oil rise over ambient.
2. 25 deg. cent. hot spot winding rise over oil.
3. 30 deg. cent. ambient.
4. 2:1 ratio cu. to fe. losses.
5. vertical coils.
6. tank with irregular surface (n = 1.25)
7. oil rise varies as 0.8 power of loss,
8. coil rise over oil varies directly with loss.
Transactions A. I. E. E.
9. 40 per cent load factor (rectangular load curve;
i. e., 100 per cent on 40 per cent of time, no load 60
per cent of time).
10. 15 deg. coil rise by resistance over oil.
No Load
No load loss = fe. loss = 1.0.
Full load loss = fe. + cu. = 1 + 2 = 3.
Top oil rise = 40 (1/3)8, = 16.6 deg. cent.
Top oil temp. = 30 + 16.6 = 46.6 deg. cent.
Life at 46.6 deg. cent. = 70 years (see Fig. 11) as-
suming no-load losses on during entire life.
1 10 Per Cent Load
Copper loss = 1.12 X 2 - 2.42
Iron loss = 1.0
Total loss = 2.42 + 1 = 3.42
Hot spot temp. = 1.12 (25 + 40) + 30 = 104 deg. cent.
Life at 104 deg. cent. = 7.5 years, assuming 110 per
cent load on during entire life.
At 40 per cent load factor the life is more than 7.5
years since a part of the time the temperature is less
than 104 per cent. The life can be obtained by rating
each load (i. e., no-load and 110 per cent load) accord-
ing to its duration.
A method of accomplishing this is given below:
70
Equivalent no-load life = 0.6 = 117 years.
1
Reciprocal no-load equivalent life = 117 = 0.00855.
75
Equivalent 110 per cent load life = = 18.75
0.4
years.
1
Reciprocal 100 per cent load equivalent life= 1
18.75
= 0.0532.
Total reciprocal life = 0.00855 + 0.0532 = 0.06175.
1
0.06175
16.2 years corresponds to the life of 16 years as given
in Fig. 11 with normal load applied continuously in a
30 deg.ambient with a resulting hot spot temperature
of 95 deg cent.
This method is continued using different overloads
until a life is obtained which is approximately 16 years,
the life with normal load continuously applied.
Fig. 18 shows the permissible peak loads under dif-
ferent load factor conditions that will produce, accord-
ing to the 8 deg. rule and the weighted hot spot tem-
peratures, the same deterioration of the insulation for
the best load cycle condition, the worst daily load cycle,
and the worst load cycle under any condition. The
best condition is where the maximum or peak load is a
narrow high rectangle extending over a short time not
April 1930 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE 787

over one-half hour while the remaining time the load is former 3 per cent above rated load for each 10 per cent
fairly light. decrease in the load factor below 100 per cent. Thus
The worst condition naturally comes where the load for example, at 80, 60, 40, and 20 per cent load factors
is zero part of the time and maximum the remainder of
the time-a rectangular shaped cycle. The reason the .140 140
worst daily load cycle is not as severe as the worst 9 Li
cycle under any condition is because the winding tem- C, - - 1
perature due to the time lag is not at the maximum 100 20% L. 100
value for say 50percentof thetimefora 50percent W80 1 1 80 ! 1
daily load factor as it would be if we had a 50 per cent @60- _ 60 Ho
weekly or monthly load factor. z 40 - - 40 Load
The curves in Fig. 18 show the difference between 20 Lo 20-
the worst and best daily load cycles found in service. al -1 V 10
The curve for the worst daily load factor is based on 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 12 4 8 12 4 8 12
typical load and winding hot spot temperatures as Wl p.m. a.m. p.m.
shown in Fig. 19, for different load factors which corre- cL20 ||%LF - I - 120 L.
spond roughly to the load curves obtained from the o10c -l- - 100.- -
New York Edison Company, although the lines have H80-Hot 80 SHpot
been smoothed out and reblocked in a manner to enable , ~60 'SPOt _ 60-
the calculations to be more easily made. It will be , - - 40 Load
noted that there is quite a variation in the permissible 2
peak loads between the extreme conditions. o 2 Loa 2 1
It is quite evident from the large differences in the 10 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 1 4 8 12 4 - -
12 4 8 12 4 8 12
values of permissible peak loads depending upon the a. m. p.m. aom. p.m.
shape of the load cycle that any rule expressing the FIG. 19-TYPICAL LOAD AND WINDING RIOT SPOT TEMPERA-
overload as a function of the load factor must be very TURES FOR DIFFERENT LOAD FACTORS
In each case the transformer ages at the rate which would occur with
rated load on all the time
175 - - - - - Assumptions:
110\
170 1 l

\
1.
2.
Self-cooled transformers
Core loss on all the time
165 - - _ 3.
4.
30 deg. cent. ambient temperature
Ultimate full-load top oil rise is 40 deg. cent.
160 - - _ _ _ 5.
6.
Ultimate full-load hot spot over top oil rise is 25 deg. cent.
Thermal time constant 3 hr. for top oil rise
155 - - - - - - . 7. Thermal time constant 5 min. for hot spot over top oil
< 150L 1\ the peak overloads would be 6, 12, 18, and 24 per cent,
z 145 -\ -| - -1
- - respectively.
140 - - - - - - PERMISSIBLE KV-A. CAPACITIES FOR DIFFERENT LOAD
135 - -] FACTORS AND COOLING MEDIUMS TO PRODUCE
, 130 - - I - APPROXIMATELY THE SAME DETERIORATION OF
125 (4)\ |||\|||INSULATION AS FOR 100 PER CENT LOAD
X,o1I2l\5- 'f(2) L I A LIFACTOR IN AN AVERAGE COOLING MEDIUM
120
115 X -(1)1 a- I -T_ _ - \ I cent can now combine or add the 1 per cent and 3 per
IWerules and construct a set of overload values for
110 _ - _ - _ - different ambient and load factor conditions that will
105 . I I_ I ibe
I the equivalent in aging of 100 per cent load factor,
100 - --.1 1 1 limiting the load at 100 per cent load factor to 30 deg.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 cent. ambient for self-cooled and at 25 deg. cent. for
PER CENT LOAD FACTOR water-cooled transformers.
FIG. 18-CURVES OF PERMISSIBLE PEAK LOADS FOR VARIOUS Table No. VI gives the various values of overloads of
LOAD FACTORS AND ASSUMED CONDITIONS self-cooled transformers as a function of ambient tem-
1. Worst condition for weekly or seasonal cycle peratures and load factor conditions.
2. Worst condition for daily cycle Table VII gives the values for water-cooled
3. Best condition for any cycle
4. Assumed safe loads for condition (2) transformers:
Limiting the Load by, Oil Temperature. The most
conservative; otherwise the transformer might be practical method of loading the transformer by its oil
damaged. temperature is to provide a curve which gives the per-
We might select the worst daily load cycle and formu- missible load without exceeding a definite maximum
late a rule. This shows that we can place on a trans- winding temperature or hot spot temperature for
788 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE Transactions A. I. E. E.

various oil temperatures, assuming, of course, that the instance, cannot be safely loaded as high as a new trans-
winding rise over the oil is constant. No definite rule former. This method of loading a transformer by
can be stated that would cover all cases because the coil actual oil temperature rather than by oil temperature
rise over the oil for a given load varies so greatly for rise autoniatically includes all factors or conditions that
affect the oil temperature or oil rise, such as the ambient,
TABLE V
TRANSFORMER LOAD- CURVES-N. Y. EDISON COMPANY
70 -
Per cent
Station Date Kind of service load factor 60 . -

E 51st Street ........ Oct. 30, 1924 Power & Lt. 60 t 50 - -_

Bowery ............. Dec. 20, 1923 Power & Lt. 42
240.-
Crosby. .... July 15, 1924 Power & Lt. 49.5
Yonkers ..... June 20, 1922 Sugar Company 92 : 30 - -

Otis Elev. Co Aug. 14, 1924 Industrial 34 , 20 .- -

Otis Elev. Co .....Aug. 13, 1924 Industrial 32 1 .

Cable Co., 133rd 0 -

Street .. Sept. 6-14, 19 Industrial 60 1 1 120 130 140
Williams Co., 177th PER CENT LOAD
Street .. Sept. 18,1924 Industrial 25.4
FIG. 20-CURVE SHOWING PER CENT LOAD THAT CAN BE HELD
Cons. Shipping, Corp. Sept. 22,1924 Industrial 42
Am. Chicle Co ....... Mar. 10-11, 1925 Industrial 57 WITHOUT HOT SPOT EXCEEDING 90 DEG. CENT.
Assuming:
Mfg. of Ice.
AM Eveready
AMfg. oi
Co.Mar.
June 28, 1923
veready Co........... Mar.
.................
28
2, 3,
3, 4, 1925
Mfg. of Ice
1925 Mfg. of
Industrial .
93
............ 46 (2)
Indusria 46 ...9.Asuig 3(1) 25 deg. hot spot rise
Hotspot
over oil at 100 per cent load
oil varying as square of load
overrise
Anchor Cap & Closure
Co ............... Feb. 25, 26, 27,
1925 rate of water flow in water-cooled transformers, or
Industrial 38.5
Loft Candy Co ...... Mar. 10, 11, '25 incrustation of cooling coils, etc.
Industrial 61.3
Fig. 20 shows a typical curve drawn up for a water-
cooled transformer. This curve gives the loads which
TABLE VI must not be exceeded for various oil temperatures.
SELF-COOLED TRANSFORMERS PEAK LOAD IN PER OENT OF This curve obviously shows that as the oil temperature
NORMAL
Ambient
dg. cent. 0 10 20 30
Load factor
100 130 120 110 100 2
80 136 126 116 106
60 142 132 122 112 _
2M
40 148 138 128 118
20 154 144 134 124 __16
121 2A \
TABLE VII _8L
WATER-COOLED TRANSFORMERS PEAK LOAD IN PER CENT
OF NORM AL
7
.M
o
I. I/
Ingoing water |
temperature
deg. cent. 0 5 10 15 20 25
Load factor Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
100 125 120 115 110 105 .100
80 131 126 121 |116 111 106 FIG. 21-ANNUAL VARIATION OF MAXIMUM, MINIMUM, AND
60 137 132 127 122 117 112 MEAN MONTHLY ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES
40 143 l138 133 128 123 118
20 149 144 139 134 129 1124 For an outdoor location near the sea coast at about 40 deg. latitude based
records of 10 to 50 years
on

different transformers. Hence, in cases where this
method is applied, the characteristics of the transformer
in question must be carefully considered. Furthermore,
if it is to be applied to a transformer which has been in
service for a few years, the age of the transformer must
be taken into consideration because it is obvious that a
transformer which has been in service 15 to 20 years, for
increases, the permissible ky-a. load decreases. It
does not mean, as might appear at first sight, that as
the value of the load decreases the oil temperature
increases, because the opposite of course is true. As
stated above, this method of loading is applicable only
to specific cases where the condition and characteristics
of the transformer are known.
April 1930 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE 789
TABLE VIII
MEAN BI-MONTELY OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE DEG. CENT.
Avg. No.
Jan. March May July Sept. Nov. annual temp.
Location Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min.
Albany, N. Y ........... ..... - 2.3 -11 7.5 - 2.3 23 10.5 27.5 17.5 23.8 13 9 1.0 14.4 3.1
Birmingham, Ala ......... 12. 3.5 18.4 7.9 27.2 17 32 21 31.5 19.5 10 8.1 23.4 12.8
Bismarck, N. D.- 7.3 -19.1 2 - 7.3 20 8.5 27 13.2 23.5 9.3 4.5 - 3. 11.6 .4
Boise, Idaho ............. .... - 2.4 -11 8.6 - 0.5 21 6.5 33 15.6 28 10 8.4 - 3. 3.016.1
Boston, Mass ................ 1.3 - 6.9 9 0 21.5 11 26.5 18 23 14 15.2 3 16 6.5
Charleston, S. C ............. 12.6 4.9 19 11. 26.5 19 32 24 28.5 21.5 20 11.5 23.1 14.5
Chicago, Ill. . 0.5 - 8.5 7.5 1.0 21.6 14 26.5 19.8 24.5 17.7 9.9 4 15.1 8.0
Cleveland, Ohio. . 0.5 - 7.5 8.5 -1.0 20 12.5 26. 18. 15. 19. 3.5 6.7 12.2 8.0
Dallas, Texas ................ 10.5 2 19. 7.2 28 19. 34.5 23.5 32.5 20.5 19. 9 23.7 13.5
Denver, Colo ...... .... 4. - 8.9 11.5 - 2.0 20.7 8 29.5 15. 26 11.5 8.2 - 3 16.7 3.4
Detroit, Mich. . 0 - 8.9 7.0 - 2.3 22 12.5 27. 18. 24.5 14.5 9. 3. 14.7 6.1
Fresno, Calif .............. .. 9.5 1.5 16.5 6 27.5 12.5 38. 19.5 35.5 17. 16. 5.5 23.8 10.3
Jacksonville, Fla .......... 16. 8. 22.5 14. 29. 20.5 32 23.5 28 21.5 22 14. 24.9 17
Louisville, Ky ............... 5.1 - 3.5 14 5. 25.5 16. 30 20 27 17 13.5 5. 19.2 10
Minneapolis, Minn ........... - 6. -15. 4 - 3.5 22.5 12.5 26.3 16 24.5 13 7 1.5 13. 2.4
New Orleans,La .. 17. 9.5 21.5 12.5 28 20.5 32 24.5 30.5 23.6 23 15.5 25.3 17.7
New York, N. Y ............. 2.0 - 5.3 9 1 22.5 12.6 26.5 18.5 23.5 16. 11 4 15.7 8.7
Oklahoma City, Okla........ 7 - 3.5 15.5 3.5 25. 15.5 34 21.6 32 18. 16. 5.5 21.5 10.
Omaha, Nebraska ............ 0 - 9.5 10 0 23.5 13 28.5 18 27.5 16. 11 2.5 16.5 6.5
Philadelphia, Pa ............. 3 - 4 11 2 24.5 14 28.5 20 25 16.5 12.5 5 15.5 9.0
Phoenix, Ariz ................ 16.5 2 21.4 6.5 34 21 38 25.2 37.4 21.5 21.5 4 28 15.2
Portland, Ore ................ 5.5 - 1.3 10 3.5 20 9 26.5 13.7 23.5 12 9.7 3.5 16 6.7
Raleigh, N. ..8 - 5 17 6 26 15 30.6 21 26 17 16 5.5 20.5 10.7
St. Louis, Mo. . 4.5 - 5.5 12.2 4.6 25.5 16 31 21 28.6 17.6 13 5.2 15.8 10
Spokane, Wash ............... - 2.22 -10 7.5 - 2.2 19 6 31 15 24.5 9.5 5.3 - 1.5 15. 3.G
Average max. mean = 18.3 deg.
Average rrin. mean = 8.2 deg.

Cooling Medium Temperatures under Service Condi- and forced-oil-cooled transformers will range from 0 to
tions. The two principal cooling mediums for trans- perhaps 30 or 35 deg. cent. in extreme cases. An all
formers are, of course, air and water. The extreme year average is probably not over 15 deg. cent.
annual temperature of the air throughout North ACKNOWLEDGMENT
America probably will range from 25 to 30 deg. cent. be- A N LEDGMeNt
The writer wishes to acknowledge the valuable as-
low, to 50 deg. above zero. In fact, the range is so
large that it would be impracticable to consider any sistance rendered by Mr. W. H. Cooney in the prepara-
part but the general average or perhaps some value
tionofthedatagiveninthe e
high enough to cover the greater part of the cases. Appendix At
Fig. 21 shows the annual variation of the maximum, RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE OPERATION OF
minimum, and mean monthly atmospheric temperatures TRANSFORMERS, INDUCTION REGULATORS,
for an outdoor location near the sea coast (New York) AND REACTORS
at about 40 deg. latitude. These values were based on 13-600 Limiting Observable Temperature of Oil. The
observations taken covering a period of 10 to 50 years. oil in which apparatus is permanently immersed
These curves show that the minimum value is - 4.5 deg.
cen.,
cent.,nd anheaxium
themaximum ent, wileth~
278 dg. cent.,while
278deg. should under no circumstances have a temperature,
average of the minimum and maximum values are observable by thermometer, in excess of 90 deg. cent.
- 1.1 deg. and + 23.4 deg. cent. respectively. The
for formingingratewithloathectinuously
Standards for rating
rovide iS tha
suitable
for carrying rated load continuously provided thatthe
general all year average is approximately 11 deg. cent.,.
Table VIII gives the mean maximum and minimum bi- the
monthly outdoor temperatures as given by the Weather temperature of the cooling medium does not exceed 40
Bureau for the year 1922. The locations were selected, deg. cent. for air or 25 deg. cent. for water.
and weighted approximately according to the popula- 13-602 Operation with Cooling Air and Water Exceeding
tion of the United States. These figures show that the 40 Deg. Cent. and 25 Deg. Cent. Respectively.
apparatus conforming
general annual outdoor
generalhe annualeoutdoor temperatureis
iS about 13.2 ,
temperature about
13.2 d.
s
For aprtu
rating, deg.Fo
the load should be
with the Standards for
cnfmigwhteSadrsfr
reduced 2 per cent below the
cn. tion)
T wile
average i te rtures ( rated load for each degree
ofgurs ar avilabe ae prhap arund cooling air exceeds 40 deg. cent., or that
. that the temperature of the
the temperature
25 deg. cent., though in some few cases it may be asoftecligwerxeds2dg.en.H ev,th
hig as40 eg.cen., r i exeptona caes 0 dg.use of apparatus in cooling water exceeding 35 deg.
cent. for a part of the time. An average room tem- eto ncoigareceig5 e.cn.salb
perature of 30 deg. cent. it appears would cover the
great majority of* both
* indoor
. and outdoor cases. ~~~~~~~~~~considered as special.
The temperature of water used to cool water-cooled tAs published in A. I. E. E. JOUJRNAL, August, 1928.
790 MONTSINGER: LOADING TRANSFORMERS BY TEMPERATURE Transactions A. I. E. E.

13-603 Operation at Loads Greater than the Rated Load.* (e) Exposure to steam.
(a) Apparatus Not Equipped with a Winding (f) Exposure to excessive oil vapor.
Temperature Jndicator:-Apparatus not equipped with (g) Exposure to explosive gases.
a winding-temperature indicator may be loaded con- (h) Exposure to salt air.
tinuously 1 per cent above rated load for each degree (i) Exposure to abnormal vibration or shocks.
centigrade that the temperature of the cooling medium Bibliography
is below 30 deg. cent. for air or 25 deg. cent. for water.
.TmeaueIdctrfrrnsoerWdig,b
Thus, freapewhntetmeaueoth V.M. Montsinger and A. T. Childs, General Etec. Rev., June 1918.
cooling medium is 0 deg. cent., the permissible continu- 2. Temperature Rise of Stationary Electrical Apparatus as In-
ous load is 130 per cent of rated load for air-cooled fluenced by Radiation Convection and Altitude, by V. M. Moint-
apparatus a-nd 125 per cent of rated load for water- singer and W. H. Cooney, A. I. E. E. TRANS., Vol. XLIII, 1924,
cooled apparatus. p. 814.
3. Effect of Barometric Pressure on Temperature Rise of Self-
Loads greater than 130 per cent ofrtdla
of r aed
lod
cooled apparatus or 125 per cent of rated load for i-Cooled
forair-
o
Induction Apparatus, by V. M. Montsinger, A. I. E. E.
TRANS., Vol. XXXV, 1916, p. 599.
water-cooled apparatus shall not be applied under any 4. Predetermination of Self-Cooled Oil-Immersed Transformer
conditions even though the temperature of the cooling Temperatures Before Conditions are Constant, by W. H. Cooney,
medium be lower than 0 deg. cent. A. I. E. E. T-RANS., Vol. 44, p. 1324.
(b) Apparatus Equipped witha
Wnding-Tmpera- .

ture Indicator: Apparatus equipped with a winding- A.___E.E._RAN.,_Vl._8 I.i.tEhTaNSWiVo.d4,nOtobrT129,p.r206

Safe Loading of Oil-Immersed Transformers, by E. T. Norris,
__ctoer_129_p__206
temperature indicator may be loaded continuously
in excess of rated load provided the indicated winding- F.iWcuGay: Fo
F.W a:Frtlie last ten years, the operating man has
temerauredoes not exceed the following limits:
temprincatureFor indicators mreintmso:been
maked in terms of:low ambient temperatures.
asking for increased ratings on transformers operating at
Up to the present time the designers
Hottest-spot temperature.......95 deg. cent. have not seemed to fully realize the importance of such increased
Embedded detector temperature.. 90 deg. cent. ratings. Twenty-five years ago power was generated and dis-
Resistance method temperature....85 deg. cent. tributed at 2400 volts and was either used directly by the cus-
tomer this voltage or it passed through only one transformation.
(c) Oil temperatures: Oil temperature alone is an In the atnext
inaeqat
citeio
inadquat crterin o thewindn
te wndngtepertue ecus
tmpertur becuse
step, power was generated at 13,200 volts and was
o
distributed to substations where it was stepped down to 2400
of the increased temperature drop through the insula- volts and distributed as before. These early substations fed
tion at low temperatures of the cooling medium and of both industry and domestic consumers so that the individual
the time lag between the winding and oil temperatures. used power from a substation during his working hours at the
Loading apparatus on the basis of oil temperature alone factory or office and from the same substation at his home during
as a uide
s notrecogized y theA. 1.E.E.the night. At the present time power is generated at 13,000 to
reognize by th A. I~E. E.22,000 volts, then passes through transformers and is stepped up,
as a gideisnot
13-604 Conditions Affecting Constructional or Protective as for instance to 66,000 or 132,000 volts, it is then carried a few
Features. There are conditio-ns which, while miles and again transformed to say 13,200 volts. It is then.
not th ratng,ay rquir speialdistributed to substations and still again transformed to say
not uuallaffetingthe ating mayrequie spcial4150 volts. It is then distributed and still again transformed to
sualy afectig
consideration, principally with respect to constructional the customer's voltage. In addition to this multiplication of
or protective features. Where such conditions exist voltage transformations, the citizen has changed his habits of
it is recommended that they be brought to the manu- living so that now he requires service from two substations.
facturer's
facturer'sattention.
attention. ~~~~One must supply
~~~~~~practically him with power at office and factory and is
shut down during the night while another substation
Among such conditions are: in the suburbs supplies his night requirements. The utilities
(a) Exposure to damaging fumes. are forced to use many times as many transformers today as
(b) Operation in damp places. were used twenty-five years ago for an equivalent service.
(c) Exposure to excessive dust. Another factor which is operating to increase the transformer
(d) to gritty dust.
(d) Exposure
to ~~~costson the utilities' system, is the demand for reduced core loss.
~In the last 25 years the core losses on power transformers have
*Since the operation of apparatus at loads greater than rated been reduced approximately 50 per cent. This has been accom-
load increases the probability of maintaining the limiting tem- plished in part by the use of low loss iron and in part by a reduc-
perature for a greater portion of the time, and because the life of tion of magnetic densities in the core. For instance, it is entirely
insulation is a function of both its temperature and the time of practical to manufacture a transformer operating with a core
subjection to that temperature, the operating temperature of density of 15,000 gausses. It is probable, however, that the best
th wndn shul be limiedt a loervauethn o operatin grade of-moder powe trnformers opeat mor nearl at_---