UMARU MUSA YAR’ADUA UNIVERSITY KATSINA

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER SCIENCE

MTH 1302
(Differential and Integral Calculus)
LECTURE NOTE

MODULE 1

1 Functions of Real Variables

In mathematics, there are often situations where the value of one variable influences the value
of another variable. Therefore, if variation in the value of one variable X result in the variation
in the value of another variable Y , we then say that the variables X and Y are related. In
mathematics, relation or rule indicates correspondence between two sets such that if x ∈ X and
y ∈ Y are elements of the related sets, then x corresponds to y written as x → y. Relations
between two sets can be expressed in a number of ways as follows
1. Technique of Mapping: A map indicates a relation between sets by drawing directed lines
from the set of inputs X to the set of outputs Y as illustrated in the following diagram

in the above relation, x1 → y1 , x2 → y2 , x3 → y3 and x4 → y3 .

Example 1.1: Using the technique of mapping show the relation y = x2

2. Ordered Pairs: This consist of collecting the inputs X and outputs Y of the related sets
x → y as an ordered pairs (x, y). This indicates that for related sets containing n inputs,
each pair contains the (input, output) value of the related sets
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), (x3 , y3 ), ... , (xn , yn ).

1
 where x1 , x2 , ..., xn and y1 , y2 , ..., yn are the input and output values of the related sets
respectively

1
Example 1.2: Using an ordered pairs technique, show the relation y = x2
for the
first five positive integers of the reals.
         
1 1 1 1 1
1, , 2, , 3, , 4, , 5,
1 4 9 16 25

3. Equation form: Relations between two non-empty sets X and Y can be expressed in an
equation form

Example 1.3: The following equations indicate a rule or a relation between two variables

(i) y = 3x − 5
(ii) y = 3x2 − 1
(iii) A = πr2
(iv) x2 + y 2 = 1
√
(v) y = ± x2 + 2

One of the most important concept in algebra, and the most important ingredient in calculus
is the idea of functions.

Definition 1.1 (Function) Let X and Y be two non-empty sets, a function of real variable
is a rule that assign to every real value x ∈ X only one real value y ∈ Y , such that a value
y ∈ Y may be repeated only for different values of x ∈ X.
It follows that if X and Y are two sets and f is a function that receive values x ∈ X to generate
values y ∈ Y , then mathematically we say that y is a function of x written as

y = f (x)

where

• the set X from which the function accept values x is called the domain of the function

• the set Y which contains the processed values y is called the range or co-domain of the
function

• the value x is called the independent variable

• the value y is called the image and is the dependent variable

Functions are often represented by letters such as F, f, G, g, H, h and others, while any letter
or symbol can be used to denote the dependent and independent variables, f (x) = x3 , f (t) = t3
and f (λ) = λ3 represent the same function.

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1.1 Finding Values of Functions
If f defines a function, then for each value x in the domain of f the corresponding processed
value y = f (x) is called the value of the function

Example 1.4: Show that the rule y = 3x2 − 1 defines a function, hence find the values
of the function for the first three positive integers.

Solution:

(i) The rule y = 3x2 − 1 tells us to take a value x from the domain, square it, multiply it by
factor 3 and subtract 1. Therefore since to each value x in the domain, the rule generate
only one value y in the range then the rule y = 3x2 − 1 is a function.

(ii) The values of the function for the first three positive integers are:

x = 1 then y = 3(1)2 − 1 = 2

x = 2 then y = 3(2)2 − 1 = 11

x = 3 then y = 3(3)2 − 1 = 26

Example 1.5: The volume of a solid sphere of radius r is given as V (r) = 43 πr3 . Find the
volume of the sphere of radius 3 meters.

Solution: Substitute r = 3 meters in the function and solve, therefore

V (3) = 34 π × (3)3 = 4 × 9 × π = 36π meters

Example 1.6: Suppose that a function f is defined for all real numbers t by f (t) = 2(t−1)+3.
Find:

(i) f (0)

(ii) f (−2)

(iii) f (x + 2)

Solution:

(i) f (0) i.e, t = 0

f (0) = 2(0 − 1) + 3 = 2(−1) + 3 = −2 + 3 = 1

(ii) f (−2) i.e, t = −2

f (−2) = 2(−2 − 1) + 3 = 2(−3) + 3 = −3

(iii) f (x + 2) i.e, t = x + 2

f (x + 2) = 2(x + 2 − 1) + 3 = 2x + 5

NOTE: All functions are rules but not all rules are functions. It is therefore imperative for
students to be able to identify rules that are not functions.

A rule is said to be a function if and only if corresponding to each value x in the domain
X, there exist only one value y in the range Y , the case where two or more different values

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x ∈ X correspond to the same value y ∈ Y is not a violation, but the reverse is not allowed as
illustrated in the following mappings.

Exercise: State whether or not the following rules express a function

1
(i) y = x3

(ii) x2 + y 2 = 1

(iii) y = cos x
1
(iv) y = 2x − 4x 3
2 1
(v) y = x2
+ 3x 4

It is indeed helpful to think of a function f as a machine that receive input from the domain,
process it and produce an output. There exist restrictions on this so-called input/output
machine

(i) It only accept inputs from the domain

(ii) Corresponding to each input, there exist only one output which may be repeated for
different inputs

1.2 Composition (i.e Function of a Function)

This provides a way of combining two or more functions together such that the output of one
function provide an input to another function

Definition 1.2 If f (x) and g(x) are two functions, the composite function denoted by f o g (f
circle g) is defined by

(f o g)(x) = f (g(x)).

To find (f o g)(x), first find g(x) and then find f (g(x)). Similarly, to find (g o f )(x), first find
f (x) and then find g(x).

Example 1.7: If f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x + 1. Find

(i) (f o g)(x)

(ii) (g o f )(x)

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(iii) (f o f )(x)

(iv) (g o g)(x)

Solution:

(i) (f o g)(x) = f (g(x))

but g(x) = x + 1, therefore

f (g(x)) = f (x + 1) = (x + 1)2 + 1

= x2 + 2x + 2

(ii) (g o f )(x) = g(f (x))

but f (x) = x2 + 1, therefore

g(f (x)) = g(x2 + 1) = x2 + 1 + 1

= x2 + 2

(iii) (f o f )(x) = f (f (x))

but f (x) = x2 + 1, therefore

f (x2 + 1) = (x2 + 1)2 + 1

= x4 + 2x2 + 2

(iv) (g o g)(x) = g(g(x))

but g(x) = x + 1, therefore

g(g(x)) = g(x + 1) = x + 2

Example 1.8: If f (x) = x + 5 and g(x) = x2 − 3. Find

(i) f (g(0))

(ii) g(f (2))

(iii) f (f ( 12 ))

(iv) g(g(1))

Solution:

(i) f (g(0))

but g(0) = 0 − 3 = −3, therefore

f (g(0)) = f (−3) = −3 + 5 = 2

(ii) g(f (2))

but f (2) = 2 + 5 = 7, therefore

g(f (2)) = g(7) = 72 − 3 = 46

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(iii) f (f ( 21 ))

but f ( 12 ) = 1
2
+5= 11
2
, therefore

f (f ( 21 )) = f ( 11
2
)= 11
2
+5= 21
2

(iv) g(g(1))

but g(1) = 1 − 3 = −2, therefore

g(g(1)) = g(−2) = (−2)2 − 3 = 4 − 3 = 1

Example 1.9: If u(x) = 4x − 5, v(x) = x2 and f (x) = x1 . Find

(i) (u o v o f )(x)

(ii) (v o f o u)(x)

(iii) (f o v o u)(x)

Solution:

(i) (u o v o f )(x) = u(v(f (x)))

1
but f (x) = x
and v( x1 ) = ( x1 )2 = 1
x2
, therefore
4−5x2
u( x12 ) = 4( x12 ) − 5 = x2

Student should solve (ii) and (iii) as an exercise.

1.3 Inverse of a Function

1.3.1 One-to-one function:
Definition 1.3 A function f (x) is said to be one-to-one on a domain D if f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 )
whenever x1 6= x2 .

1.3.2 Inverse:
A function f has an inverse if and only if it is one-to-one. The function defined by reversing
a one-to-one function is called the inverse of f . The symbol for the inverse of f is written as
f −1 and read as ”f inverse”, but −1 in f −1 is not an exponent and also f −1 (x) does not mean
1
the reciprocal of f (x) i.e, f (x) . The following diagram illustrate the concept of inverse f −1 of a
function f

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1.3.3 How to Find Inverse of a Function:
Suppose f (x) is a function, to find f −1 (x):
1. Let y = f (x) and solve the equation for x in terms of y

2. Interchange x and y in the result which gives the inverse f −1 (x)

Example 1.10: Find the inverse of the following functions
(i) f (x) = 31 x − 2

(ii) f (x) = x3 + 1
Solution:
(i) Let y = 31 x − 2

3y = x − 6

therefore x = 3y + 6

Thus, by interchange x and y we have

y = 3x + 6

f −1 (x) = 3x + 6
Student should solve (ii) as an exercise.

1.4 Domain and Range of Functions

Most often the domain of functions defined by equations are not specified. Therefore, if only
an equation defining a function is given, then by convention it is agreed that the domain and
range of a real-valued function is the largest set of real numbers.

Definition 1.4 (Domain) Domain of a function of real variable is the largest set of real values
for which the value of the function y has real values.

Definition 1.5 (Range) The range of a function is the largest set of real values for which y
has real values

1.4.1 Finding Domain and Range of Functions

Since the interest is on real-valued functions, then the domain X must consist of real values
for which the corresponding range Y has real values. In finding the domain of functions, the
following points will help
• Start with the domain as the largest set of real values

• If the function has a denominator of algebraic expression, then exclude any value that
give zero denominator

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 • If the function contain a radical of even index, then exclude any value that makes the
expression inside the radical to be negative

The domain of functions are expressed using any of the following four ways which ever is most
convenient

(i) In-equalities

(ii) Interval notation

(a) open interval (a, b) = a < x < b

(b) closed interval [a, b] = a ≤ x ≤ b
(c) half open-half closed interval
(a, b] = a < x ≤ b
[a, b) = a ≤ x < b

(iii) Set notation

(iv) Words

Example 1.11: Find the domain and range of the following functions
√
(i) y = 1 − x2
1
(ii) y = x
√
(iii) f (x) = x
√
x2 −2
(iv) f (x) = x2 −1

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(v) y = x3
√
(vi) y = x2 − 1
√
(vii) h(t) = 3t − 4 − 3t
√
(viii) y = 4 − x

Solution:
√
(i) y = 1 − x2

Domain: The expression inside the radical must be non-negative, therefore

1 − x2 ≥ 0

−x2 ≥ −1

x2 ≤ 1

x≤1

But the only values x in the inequality x ≤ 1 for which y has real values are in the interval
√
[−1, 1], therefore the domain of the function y = 1 − x2 is the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.

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 Range: The range is obtained by substituting the maximum and minimum values of the
domain in the function, therefore the range is closed in the interval 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.
1
(ii) y = x

Domain: Since division by zero is not allowed, then the function can take any real value
x except at x = 0, therefore the domain is given by
Domain= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞)
or = {x|x 6= 0, x ∈ R}

Range: From the domain, the range is the set of all real numbers except zero, therefore
Range = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞)
or = {y|y 6= 0, y ∈ R}
√
Example 1.12: If f (x) = x and g(x) = x + 1, find the domain and range of the following
(i) (f o g)(x)
(ii) (g o f )(x)
Solution:
(i) (f o g)(x) = f (g(x))
but g(x) = x + 1, therefore
√
f (g(x)) = f (x + 1) = x + 1
√
Now let y = x + 1, then the domain of y require that the expression x+1 is non-negative
Domain = x + 1 ≥ 0
x ≥ −1
Domain = [−1, ∞)
From the domain, the least value of y is zero, therefore
Range = [0, ∞)
(ii) (g o f )(x) = g(f (x))
√
but f (x) = x, therefore
√ √
g(f (x)) = g( x) = x + 1
√
Now let y = x + 1
√
Domain: x ≥ 0 which implies that x ≥ 0, therefore
D = [0, ∞)
Range: From the domain, the least value of y is 1
R = [1, ∞)

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1.5 Functions and Algebraic Operations
Like real numbers, the algebraic operations of addition (+), multiplication (×), subtraction
(−) and division (./.) applies to functions. Let f (x) and g(x) be two functions, then

1. The sum of functions f + g is a function given by

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

where the domain of the function f + g consist of the values x that are in the domains of
both f and g, i.e,

Domain of f + g = domain of f ∩ domain of g

2. The difference of functions f − g is a function given by

(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)

where the domain of the function f − g are the values x that are in the domains of both
f and g, i.e,

Domain of f − g = domain of f ∩ domain of g

3. The product of functions f  g is a function given by

(f  g)(x) = f (x)  g(x)

where the domain of the function f  g are the values x that are in the domains of both
f and g, i.e,

Domain of f  g = domain of f ∩ domain of g

f
4. The quotient of functions g
is a function given by
 
f f (x)
(x) = , g(x) 6= 0
g g(x)

where the domain of the function fg consist of the values x for which g(x) 6= 0 and that
are in the domains of both f and g, i.e,
f
Domain of g
= {x|x 6= 0}∪ domain of f ∩ domain of g

Example 1.13: Let f and g be two functions defined by

1 √ 3x
f (x) = x+2
and g(x) = 1−x3

Find the following, and determine the domain and range in each case:

(i) (f + g)(x)

(ii) (f − g)(x)

(iii) (f  g)(x)
 
(iv) fg (x)

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1.6 Even and Odd Functions
Definition 1.6 (even function) A function y = f (x) is called an even function if f (−x) =
f (x) for every x in the domain of f , i.e., both x and −x must be in the domain.

Definition 1.7 (odd function) A function y = f (x) is called an odd function if f (−x) =
−f (x) for every x in the domain of f , also x and −x must be in the domain.
Example 1.14: Determine whether the following functions are even, odd or neither

(i) f (x) = x2

(ii) f (x) = x3

(iii) f (x) = x2 + x
1
(iv) x2 +1

1
(v) x−1

Solution:

(i) f (x) = x2

f (−x) = (−x)2 = x2 = f (x)

therefore, the function f (x) = x2 is even

(ii) f (x) = x3

f (−x) = (−x)3 = −x3 = −f (x)

therefore, the function f (x) = x3 is odd

(iii) f (x) = x2 + x

f (−x) = (−x)2 − x

= x2 − x

therefore, the function is neither even nor odd

1
(iv) f (x) = x2 +1

1 1
f (−x) = (−x)2 +1
= x2 +1
= f (x)

therefore, the function is even

1
(v) f (x) = x−1

1 −1
f (−x) = −x−1
= x+1

the function is neither even nor odd

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 1.7 Graph of Functions
Let the equation y = f (x) be a function in x and y, the graph of the function f is defined as
the set of points (x, y) in the xy−plane that satisfies the equation.

Example 1.15: Graph the function y = x2 over the interval [−2, 2]

Solution:

Step 1: Make a table of xy−pairs that satisfy the function rule of the equation y = x2

Table 1: values of y = x2 for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2

x f (x) = x2 y
−2 (−2)2 4
2
−1 (−1) 1
0 (0)2 0
2
1 (1) 1
2
2 (2) 4

Step 2: Plot the points (x, y) whose coordinate appear in the above table

Step 3: Carefully draw a smooth curve joining the plotted points, and label the curve with its
equation

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Example 1.16: Graph the function y = |x| over the interval [−4, 4].

Solution: Following the steps in the above example, we’ve

Example 1.17: Graph the function f (x) = |x| such that


 x for x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x for x < 0


Solution: The is known as the absolute value function with domain X as the set of whole
real numbers −∞ < x < ∞. The absolute value function is an even function such that
f (−x) = f (x), and the range Y is the set of non-negative real numbers 0 ≤ y < ∞

Example 1.18: Graph the function



 −x, x<0



f (x) = x2 , 0≤x≤1




1, x>1


Solution: This is a piecewise defined function that uses different formula on different parts of
its domain

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 Let y = f (x)

i.e, y = −x for x < 0 (−∞, 0)

y = x2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 [0, 2]

y = 1 for x > 2 (2, ∞)

The graph of the function is given by

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES

1. Given the function f (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 2, evaluate the following:

(i) f (0)
(ii) f (−1.6)
√
(iii) f ( 2)
(iv) f (x + 1)

2. Find g(3), g(−1), g(π) and g(t2 − 1) for each of the following functions
x+1
(a) g(x) = 2
 √
 x+1 x≥1
(b) g(x) =
undefined x<1


3. Given that f (x) = x + 3 and g(x) = x2 + 2, find the following

(i) f (g(0))
(ii) g(f (0))
(iii) f (g(−2))
(iv) g(f (5))
(v) (f o g)(x)
(vi) (g o f )(x)

14
 √
4. If u(x) = 4x − 8, v(x) = x and w(x) = x4 , find the following:

(i) u(v(w(x)))
(ii) u(w(v(x)))
(iii) w(u(v(x)))
(iv) w(v(u(x)))
(v) v(u(w(x)))
(vi) v(w(v(x)))

5. Find f −1 (x) in each of the following

(i) f (x) = x + 5
(ii) f (x) = 6x
(iii) f (x) = x3
x
(iv) f (x) = 2

6. Find the domain of the following functions

(i) f (x) = x3
1
(ii) f (x) = (x−1)(x−3)
√
(iii) f (x) = x2 − 5x + 6

7. Find the domain and range of the following functions

√
(i) f (x) = 2 + x − 1
x+1
(ii) f (x) = x−1
1
(iii) f (t) = t
1√
(iv) f (t) = 1+ t

8. In each of the following, classify the functions as even, odd or neither

(i) f (x) = x + 1
(ii) f (x) = 3
x5 −x
(iii) f (x) = 1−x2
3
(iv) f (t) = t + t
t
(v) g(t) = t2 −1
−5
(vi) h(w) = w

9. Sketch the graph of the following functions

√
(i) y = 3 x
(ii) y = x3
√
(iii) y = x

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 MODULE 2

2 Limits and Continuity

The notion of a limit due to its importance plays a central role in calculus and much of the
modern mathematics.

Definition 2.1 Let L be a real number and suppose that f (x) is a function defined in an open
interval containing x0 but not necessary at x0 itself. The limit as x approaches x0 of f (x) is L
and written as

lim f (x) = L,
x→x0

where the symbol x → x0 is read as ”x tends or approaches x0 ”. This means x will approach
or tends as close as possible to x0 but never reaches it.

2.1 Properties of Limits

Suppose lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M , where both L and M are real numbers, then
x→a x→a

1. Sum rule:

lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = L + M .

x→a x→a x→a

2. Difference rule:

lim (f (x) − g(x)) = lim f (x) − lim g(x) = L − M .

x→a x→a x→a

3. Product rule:

lim (f (x)  g(x)) = lim f (x)  lim g(x) = L  M .

x→a x→a x→a

4. Quotient rule:
f (x) lim f (x)
L
lim = x→a
= , M 6= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a
M

5. Constant multiple rule:

lim kf (x) = k lim f (x) = kL, where k is any constant.

x→a x→a

2.2 Idea of Limit

Consider a function y = f (x) = x2 + 1 whose graph is given as

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To understand what happens to the function f (x) = x2 + 1 as x gets close to a particular
value x0 = 2, consider the table below putting in mind that x can get close to 2 from the right
and from the left along the x−axis. From the table below, it shows that as x gets close to

x → 2 from the right f (x) = x2 + 1 x → 2 from the left f (x) = x2 + 1

3 10 1 2
2.5 7.25 1.5 3.25
2.3 6.29 1.7 3.89
2.1 5.41 1.9 4.61
2.05 5.2025 1.95 4.8025
2.01 5.0401 1.99 4.9601
2.001 5.0044001 1.999 4.996001
2.0001 5.00040001 1.9999 4.99960001

x0 = 2, the function f (x) = x2 + 1 gets close to 5 from both sides. Therefore, in mathematical
symbol we write it as lim (x2 + 1) = 5 and is read as the limit as x approaches or tends to 2 of
x→2
x2 + 1 is equal to 5.

2.3 Ways of Calculating Limits

1. Finding limits by substitution: To evaluate limit of a polynomial function as x approaches
a value x0 = a, substitute x0 = a for x in the formula for the given function. Also, to eval-
uate the limit of a rational function as x approaches x0 = a at which the denominator of
the function is not zero, then substitute x0 = a for x in the formula for the given function.

Example 2.0: Find

(i) lim (x3 + 2x2 + x + 4)

x→2

(ii) lim 2x2 − 13 x

x→−2

(iii) lim 10(x2 − 5x + 2)

x→3

(iv) lim [(x2 + 1) + (5x3 + 3)]

x→0

(v) lim (x2 + 5x + 8)2

x→1
x3 +4x2 −3
(vi) lim x2 +5
x→−1
√
(vii) lim 4x2 − 3
x→−2

Solution:

(i) lim (x3 + 2x2 + x + 4)

x→2

Using the polynomial rule that if f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + ... + cn xn is a polynomial

where c0 , c1 , c2 , ..., cn are real numbers and n is a positive integer, then
lim f (x) = c0 + c1 a + c2 a2 + ... + cn an = f (a)
x→a

∴ lim (x3 + 2x2 + x + 4) = 23 + 2(22 ) + 2 + 4 = 22.

x→2

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 (ii) lim 2x2 − 13 x


x→−2

Using the difference rule, we have

lim 2x2 − 13 x = lim 2x2 − lim 1
= 2(−2)2 − 13 (−2) = 26


x .
x→−2 x→−2 x→−2 3 3

(iii) lim 10(x2 − 5x + 2)

x→3
Using the constant multiple rule
lim 10(x2 − 5x + 2) = 10 lim (x2 − 5x + 2) = 10(32 − 5(3) + 2) = −40.
x→3 x→3
2 3
(iv) lim [(x + 1) + (5x + 3)]
x→0
Using sum rule, we have
lim [(x2 + 1) + (5x3 + 3)] = lim (x2 + 1) + lim (5x3 + 3) = (0 + 1) + (0 + 3) = 4.
x→0 x→0 x→0
2 2
(v) lim (x + 5x + 8)
x→1
Using the product rule, we have
lim (x2 + 5x + 8)2 = lim (x2 + 5x + 8)  lim (x2 + 5x + 8)
x→1 x→1 x→1
2 2
= (1 + 5(1) + 8)(1 + 5(1) + 8)
= 196.
x3 +4x2 −3
(vi) lim x2 +5
x→−1

Using the quotient rule, we have

lim x3 +4x2 −3
x3 +4x2 −3
lim x2 +5
= x→−1
lim x2 +5
, since lim x2 + 5 6= 0
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1

(−1)3 +4(−1)2 −3 0
∴= (−1)2 +5
= 6
= 0.
√
(vii) lim 4x2 − 3
x→−2

Since we are dealing with real-valued function, provided the function does not give
a complex number, we evaluate the limit using substitution
√ p √
∴ lim 4x2 − 3 = 4(−2)2 − 3 = 14.
x→−2

2. Finding limits by eliminating zero denominator: If the denominator of a rational function

is zero at the point x0 = a (i.e, when x0 = a is substituted in the function). Try to
eliminate the zero denominator using algebraic techniques to provide a common factor if
possible to the numerator and the denominator in order to reduce the rational function
to one whose denominator at the limit point x0 = a is not zero, and then proceed to
evaluate the limit using quotient rule of limits.

Example 2.1: Find the limits of the following functions:

x2 −4
(i) lim
x→−2 x+2
x2 +3x−10
(ii) lim x+5
x→−5
t+3
(iii) lim 2
t→−3 t +4t+3
x−5
(iv) lim 2
x→5 x −25
x2 +x−2
(v) lim 2
x→1 x −x

18
 x3 −x2 −5x−3
(vi) lim (x+1)2
x→−1

Solution:
x2 −4 x2 −22
(i) lim = lim
x→−2 x+2 x→−2 x+2
(x−2)(x+2)
= lim x+2
x→−2

= lim (x − 2)
x→−2
= −2 − 2 = −4.
x2 +3x−10
(ii) lim x+5
x→−5
(x+5)(x−2)
lim x+5
x→−5

lim (x − 2) = −5 − 2 = −7.
x→−5
t+3
(iii) lim 2
t→−3 t +4t+3
t+3
lim
t→−3 (t+1)(t+3)

lim 1 = 1
−3+1
= − 12 .
t→−3 t+1
x3 −x2 −5x−3
(vi) lim (x+1)2
x→−1

To factorize x3 − x2 − 5x − 3 completely where x + 1 is a factor using long-division

of polynomials, we have
x2 − 2x − 3
√
x + 1 x3 − x2 − 5x − 3
x3 + x2 −
−2x2 − 5x − 3
−2x2 − 2x −
−3x − 3
−3x − 3
0 0.
2
∴ x − 2x − 3 = (x + 1)(x + 3)
x3 −x2 −5x−3 (x+1)(x+1)(x−3)
∴ lim (x+1)2
= lim (x+1)2
x→−1 x→−1

= lim (x − 3)
x→−1
= −1 − 3 = −4.

3. Finding limits by creating a common factor: If the denominator of a rational function is

zero at the limit point x0 = a, and the numerator and the denominator have no obvious
common factor, we then create a common one to both of them.

Example 2.2: Find the limits of the following functions

√ √
2+x− 2
(i) lim x
x→0

(ii) lim √ x−1

x→1 x+3−2

19
 √
h2 +8−3
(iii) lim h+1
h→−1

Solution:
√ √
2+x− 2
(i) lim x
x→0
We create the common factor using the idea of rationalization of either the numerator
or the denominator as the case may be, thus
√ √ √ √ √ √
2+x− 2 2+x− 2 2+x+√2
lim x
= lim x
 √
2+x+ 2
x→0 x→0
√ √ √ √
= lim (2+x)+ 2(x√2+x)− √
2( 2+x)−2
2+x+x 2
x→0
= lim √ x √
x→0 x( 2+x+ 2)

= lim √ 1 √
x→0 2+x+ 2

= √ 1 √ = √ 1√ = 1
√ .
2+0+ 2 2+ 2 2 2

(ii) lim √ x−1

x→1 x+3−2

By rationalization of the denominator, we’ve

√
lim√ x−1 = lim √ x−1 × √x+3+2
x→1 x+3−2 x→1 x+3−2 x+3+2
√
= lim (x−1) x+3−4
x+3+2(x−1)
x→1
√
= lim (x−1)[x−1
x+3+2]
x→1
√ √
= lim x + 3 + 2 = 1 + 3 + 2 = 4.
x→1

2.4 Limits as x → ±∞
Consider a function f (x) = x1 . The function is defined for all values of x except x = 0, i.e,
for all x 6= 0. The behavior of the function when x is positive and increasingly large, then
the function f (x) = x1 approaches zero. The behavior is the same when x is negative and its
magnitude becomes increasingly large.
1
lim = 0.
x→±∞ x

2.4.1 Limits of Rational Functions as x → ±∞

To find the limit of a rational function as x → ±∞, divide both the numerator and the
denominator by the degree of the denominator (highest power of x).
Case 1: Numerator and denominator of the same degree
3x2 −7x+3
Example 2.3: Find lim 2
x→∞ 2x +5

Solution:
1
3x2 −7x+3 (3x2 −7x+3)
x2
lim 2 = lim 1
(2x2 +5)
x→∞ 2x +5 x→∞ x2

3− x7 + 3
x2
= lim 5
2+ 2
x→∞ x

7 3
3− ∞ +∞
= 5
2+ ∞

20
 3−0+0
= 2+0
= 32 .

Case 2: Degree of numerator greater than degree of denominator

3x2 −2x+1
Example 2.4: Find lim x+3
x→−∞

Solution:
1
3x2 −2x+1 (3x2 −2x+1)
lim x+3
= lim x
1
(x+3)
x→−∞ x→−∞ x

3x−2+ x1
= lim 3
x→−∞ 1+ x

1
3(−∞)−2+ −∞
= 3
1+ ∞

−∞−2+0 −∞−2
= 1+0
= 1
= −∞.

Case 3: Degree of numerator less than degree of denominator

3x+7
Example 2.4: Find lim 2
x→−∞ x −2

Solution:
1
3x+7 (3x+7)
x2
lim 2 = lim 1
x→−∞ x −2 x→−∞ x 2 (x2 −2)

3
x
+ 72
= lim x
1− 22
x→−∞ x

3 7
−∞
+ −∞
= 2
1− −∞

0+0 0
= 1−0
= 1
= 0.

2.4.2 Limit of Rational Functions as x → ±∞ with Non-integer or Negative Powers

Following the same procedure as above

Example 2.5: Find the limits of the following functions

√
3 x− √
5x
(i) lim √
3 x+ √
5x
x→∞

Solution:
 √
3x √
5 x
√
3 x− √
5x 3 x−
√ √
3x
lim √ 5 x lim
3 x+ √ = lim  √
3x √
5 x
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ 3 x+
√ √
3x

!
1
1− x 15
x3
= lim 1
!
x→∞
1+ x 15
x3

2
1−x− 15
= lim 2
− 15
x→∞ 1+x
1
1− 2
x 15
= lim 1+ 12
x→∞
x 15

21
 1
1− ∞ 1−0 1
= 1
1+ ∞
= 1+0
= 1
= 1.

x−1 +x−4
(ii) lim x −2 −x−3
x→∞

Solution:
−1 −4
h   −2 i
x−1 x−4 x−3
lim x−2 +x−3 = lim x−2
+ x−2
/ xx−2 + x−2
x→∞ x −x x→∞

x+x−2
= lim −1
x→∞ 1−x
1
x+
x2
= lim 1
1− x
x→∞
1
∞+ ∞
= 1
1− ∞

∞+0
= 1−0
= ∞.

2.5 Limits using L0 Hopital’s rule

f (x)
Indeterminate Quotients:- Suppose that the rational function g(x)
evaluated both at x = a
f (x) 0
are zero. Then lim = which is known as indeterminate form, hence the limit cannot be
x→a g(x) 0
obtained using substitution. In such case, the L0 Hopital’s rule is applied which named after a
French mathematician Guillaume Francois Antoine de L0 Hopital (1661 − 1704).

2.5.1 L0 Hopitals rule:

Suppose that f (a) = g(a) = 0 and that both f and g are differentiable on an open interval I
containing a. Suppose also that g 0 (x) 6= 0 on I if x 6= a, then

f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 ,
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

if the limit on the right exist (or if it is x → ±∞).

x2 +5x−14
Example 2.6: Find lim 2
x→2 x −5x+6

Solution:
Using substitution:
x2 +5x−14 22 +5(2)−14
lim 2 = lim 2
x→2 x −5x+6 x→2 2 −5(2)+6

4+10−14
= 4−10+6
= 00 .

Using elimination of zero denominator:

x2 +5x−14 (x−2)(x+7)
lim 2 = lim
x→2 x −5x+6 x→2 (x−2)(x−3)

x+7
= lim
x→2 x−3

2+7
= 2−3
= −9.

Now using L0 Hopitals rule:

22
 Let f (x) = x2 + 5x − 14, g(x) = x2 − 5x + 6, f 0 (x) = 2x + 5, g 0 (x) = 2x − 5
f (x) f 0 (x)
∴ lim = lim 0
x→2 g(x) x→2 g (x)

2x+5
= lim
x→2 2x−5

2(2)+5
= lim
x→2 2(2)−5

4+5 9
= 4−5
= −1
= −9.
x3 +x2 −x−1
Example 2.7: Find lim 2 .
x→1 x +2x−3

Solution: Using L0 Hopitals rule:

Let f (x) = x3 + x2 − x − 1, g(x) = x2 + 2x − 3, f 0 (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 1, g 0 (x) = 2x + 2
f (x) f 0 (x)
∴ lim = lim 0
x→1 g(x) x→1 g (x)

3x2 +2x−1
= lim 2x+2
x→1

3(1)2 +2(1)−1
= 2(1)+2

3+2−1 4
= 2+2
= 4
= 1.
Note that by substitution we will have
x3 + x2 − x − 1 0
lim 2
= .
x→1 x + 2x − 3 0

2.6 Continuity
The following limits in sections (2.8.1) - (2.8.3) will provide an intuition towards understand-
ing the concept of continuity.

2.6.1 Infinite Limits

Suppose f (x) = x1 , the limit lim f (x) as x → 0+ or as x → 0− . The values of f grows without
bound, thus, f has no limit as x → 0+ or as x → 0− . But for convenience, the behavior of
f (x) is described by saying that f (x) approaches ∞ as x → 0+ or approaches −∞ as x → 0− .
Mathematically it is written as
1
lim+ f (x) = lim+ =∞
x→0 x→0 x
and
1
lim− f (x) = lim− = −∞
x→0 x→0 x
NOTE:

The above description of the limit of the function f (x) = x1 is neither saying that the lim-
its exist nor there is a real number ∞, but just a representation mathematically to describe
the behavior of the function f (x) = x1 as x → 0+ or x → 0− . Moreover, the limits lim+ x1 or
x→0
1 1
lim− x
does not exist because x
becomes arbitrary large and positive as x → 0+ or negative as
x→0
−
x → 0 where lim+ and lim− referred to as right hand and left hand limits respectively.
x→0 x→0

23
2.6.2 Right Hand Limit
A function f (x) has a right hand limit (R.H.L) L at a0 if lim+ = L, where x → a+
0 means as x
x→a0
approaches a0 from the right.

2.6.3 Left Hand Limit

A function f (x) has a left hand limit (L.H.L) L at a0 if lim− = L, where x → a−
0 means as x
x→a0
approaches a0 from the left.

Definition 2.2 A function f (x) is continuous at an interior point x = a of its domain if and
only if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

2.6.4 Continuity Test

A function f (x) is continuous at x = a if and only if the following three conditions are satisfied
(i) f (a) exist or defined (i.e, a lies in the domain of f ).

(ii) lim f (x) exist (i.e, f has limit as x → a).

x→a

(iii) lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Example 2.8: Determine whether the following functions are continuous at the indicated
point.
(i) f (x) = √x−4 at x = 4
x−2

x2 −x+2
(ii) f (x) = x3 +x2 −3
at x = 1

 x+3 x 6= 1
(iii) g(x) = at x = 1
−4 x=1


 3 − x if x ≤ 2
(iv) f (x) = at x = 2
x2 −4
if x > 2

x−2

Solution:
(i) f (x) = √x−4 at x = 4
x−2

Firstly, check the conditions for continuity

f (4) = √4−4 = 0
= 0
4−2 2−2 0

∴ f (4) is not defined, hence f (x) is not continuous at x = 4.

x2 −x+2
(ii) f (x) = x3 +x2 −3
at x = 1

Firstly, check the conditions for continuity

12 −1+2
1. f (1) = 13 +12 −3

24
 1−1+2
= 1+1−3
= −2
x2 −x+2
2. lim x 3 +x2 −3 = −2 by using substitution
x→1

3. lim f (x) = f (1)

x→1

Hence f (x) is continuous at x = 1.


 x+3 x 6= 1
(iii) g(x) = at x = 1
−4 x=1


Firstly, check the conditions for continuity

1. g(1) = −4

2. lim g(x) = lim (x + 3) = 1 + 3 = 4

x→1 x→1

3. lim g(x) 6= g(1)

x→1

Hence g(x) is not continuous at x = 1


 3 − x if x ≤ 2
(iv) f (x) = at x = 2
 x2 −4
x−2
if x > 2

Check for conditions of continuity

1. f (2) = 3 − 2 = 1

2. To find lim f (x), we have to find both the right hand and left hand limits
x→2

Right Hand Limit:

x2 −4
lim+ f (x) = lim+ x−2
x→2 x→2

(x+2)(x−2)
= lim+ x−2
x→2

= lim+ x + 2 = 2 + 2 = 4
x→2

Left Hand Limit:

lim f (x) = lim− (3 − x) = 3 − 2 = 1

x→2− x→2

Since RHL 6= LHL or lim+ f (x) 6= lim− f (x)

x→2 x→2

∴ The overall lim f (x) does not exist, hence f (x) is not continuous.
x→2

25
2.6.5 Discontinuity
If a function f (x) defined over an interval I is not continuous at point x = a, then f (x) is said
to be discontinuous at x = a.
Types of Discontinuity

1. Removable Discontinuity: A discontinuity of a function f (x) defined over an interval

I which can be removed by extending the domain of definition is called a removable
discontinuity.

2. Jump Discontinuity: A jump discontinuity of a function f (x) defined over an interval I

is a discontinuity in which the lim f (x) does not exist.
x→a

Example 2.9: Determine if the following functions are continuous or discontinuous at the
given points. If discontinuous state the type of discontinuity.
x2 −6x+5
(i) f (x) = x2 −4x+3
at x = 1.

 x+3 x<3
(ii) f (x) = at x = 3.
2
x +1 x≥3

 1
 x
x 6= 0
(iii) f (x) = at x = 0.
0 x=0


Solutions:
x2 −6x+5
(i) f (x) = x2 −4x+3
at x = 1.
12 −6(1)+5 0
f (1) = 12 −4(1)+3
= 0

To check the type of discontinuity

(x−1)(x−5)
lim f (x) = lim
x→1 x→1 (x−1)(x−3)

x−5 1−5
= lim = =2
x→1 x−3 1−3

∴ lim f (x) exist, hence f (x) has removable discontinuity at x = 1.

x→1

 x+3 x<3
(ii) f (x) = at x = 3.
2
x +1 x≥3


1. f (3) = 32 + 1 = 9 + 1 = 10

2. To find lim f (x)

x→3

Right Hand Limit:

lim f (x) = lim+ (x2 + 1) = 9 + 1 = 10

x→3+ x→3

Left Hand Limit:

lim f (x) = lim− (x + 3) = 3 + 3 = 6

x→3− x→3

26
 Since R.H.L 6= L.H.L, lim f (x) does not exist and hence f (x) has jump discontinuity
x→3

Example 2.10: Determine for what values of x the following functions are discontinuous.
x3 +x2 +2
(i) f (x) = x2 −x−2

2x2 −3x+1
(ii) f (x) = 2x+1

Solution:

(i) f (x) is discontinuous when x2 − x − 2 = 0

(x − 2)(x + 1) = 0 and x = 2 or x = −1

∴ f (x) is discontinuous at x = −1 and x = 2.

(ii) f (x) is discontinuous when 2x + 1 = 0

2x = −1

x = − 21

∴ f (x) is discontinuous at x = − 12 ,

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES

1. Evaluate the following limits

x2 −2x
(a) lim
x→3 x+1
6x−9
(b) lim 3
x→0 x −12x+3
x2 −4x+4
(c) lim 2
x→2 x +x−6
t3 +8
(d) lim
t→−2 t+2
y+6
(e) lim 2
x→6 y −36
√
(f) lim x+4−2
x
x→0
√
2
(g) lim xx−2
x→0
4x2 −x
(h) lim 3
x→∞ 2x −5
5x3 −2x2 +1
(i) lim 3x+5
x→−∞
1 1


(j) lim x
+ x2
x→0
x2 −9

 x+3
x 6= −3
(k) Let f (x) =
k x = −3


find k so that f (−3) = lim f (x)

x→−3

(l) lim 1−cos2x

x→0 x+x
t3 −4t+15
(m) lim 2
t→−3 t −t−12

27
 3x −1
(n) lim x
x→0 2 −1
ln(ex −1)
(o) lim ln x
x→0

2. Determine whether the following functions are continuous at the indicated points
 x2 −4
 x−2 , x 6= 2
(a) g(x) =
3, x=2


 7x − 2, x≤1
(b) f (x) =
5x2 , x>1


3. Find the values of x for which the following functions are not continuous
x
(a) f (x) = x2 −1
3x+1
(b) f (x) = x2 +7x−2

4. Find the values of x for which the following functions are discontinuous, determine
whether each value is a removable discontinuity
x2 +3x
(a) f (x) = x+3
x2 −4
(b) f (x) = x3 −8

 2x − 3, x≤2
(c) f (x) =
x2 , x>2


28
 MODULE 3

3 Derivative as a Limit of Rate of Change

Derivative can be introduced in two ways as

• Slope (gradient) of a curve

• Rate of change

3.1 Slope (Gradient) of a straight Line

Consider the figure below

The gradient of the sloping straight line shown in the figure above is defined as

y2 − y1 ∆y dy
Gradient = = =
x2 − x1 ∆x dx

where ∆y = change in y, ∆x = change in x respectively.

Note: The gradient of a straight line is constant throughout its length.

3.2 Slope (Gradient) of a Curve

Consider the figure below

29
Contrary to the slope of a straight line, the slope of a curve varies along its length or changes
from point to point on the curve. Let us try to find the slope at a point P (x, y) by taking
another point on the curve Q(x, y), therefore the slope of the secant line (straight line) joining
points P and Q is given by

dy y1 − y
Msec = =
dx x1 − x

If we change Q to another point, we get another secant line and hence another slope. In partic-
ular we can take Q closer to P , and as Q gets closer and closer to P (i.e, as ∆x approaches 0)
the value of Msec may approach a fixed value. In that case, the fixed value is the slope of the
tangent line at point P or simply the slope of the curve at P , thus

∆y dy
Mtan = lim =
∆x→0 ∆x dx

Example 3.0: Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = x3 + 3x + 5 at point x1 .

Solution:

Let P has co-ordinate (x1 , y1 )

Q has co-ordinate (x2 , y2 )

But y1 = x31 + 3x1 + 5

and y2 = x32 + 3x2 + 5

∴ y2 = (x1 + ∆x)3 + 3(x1 + ∆x) + 5

= x31 + 3x21 ∆x + 3x1 (∆x)2 + (∆x)3 + 3x1 + 3∆x + 5

∆y
but Mtan = lim ∆x
∆x→0

where ∆y = y2 − y1

= x31 + 3x21 ∆x + 3x1 (∆x)2 + (∆x)3 + 3x1 + 3∆x + 5 − x31 + 3x1 + 5

= 3x21 ∆x + 3x1 (∆x)2 + (∆x)3 + 3∆x

∆x = x2 − x1

= x1 + ∆x − x1 = ∆x
3x21 ∆x+3x1 (∆x)2 +(∆x)3 +3∆x
∴ Mtan = lim ∆x
∆x→0

∆x(3x21 +3x1 (∆x)+(∆x)2 +3)

= lim ∆x
∆x→0

= lim 3x21 + 3x1 (∆x) + (∆x)2 + 3

∆x→0

as ∆x → 0

= 3x21 + 3.

30
3.3 Rate of Change
The same procedure is applied to investigate rate of change

Example 3.1: How does the change in radius of a circle affects its area? Moreover, if the
radius of a circle is increased from 2 cm to 2.01 cm, what happen to its area?

Solution:

A(r) = πr2

Let A1 = πr12

A2 = πr22

The rate of change of area A with respect to radius r is defined as

∆A
Rate of change = ∆r

where ∆A = A2 − A1

∆r = r2 − r1

∴ A2 = π(r1 + ∆r)2

= πr12 + 2r1 π∆r + π(∆r)2

∆A πr12 +2r1 π∆r+π(∆r)2 −πr12
∴ ∆r
= ∆r

Indeed ∆r = r2 − r1 = 2.01cm − 2.0cm = 0.01cm

∆A
∴ ∆r
= 2(2)π + π(0.01) = 4.01π.

Further, let y = f (x) be function over an open interval I containing x, then the derivative of f
or of y at the point x is defined to be the slope of the function at x, or the rate of change of y
with respect to x defined as

f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
or

dy f (x + ∆x) − f (x) ∆y
= lim = lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x

where ∆x and ∆y are a small increments in x and y respectively. The above process of finding
slope or rate of change of a function is called differentiation from the ’first principle’

Note: The words slope, gradient and rate of change in relation to differentiation are used
interchangeably.

Example 3.2: If f (x) = x2 + x1 , find f 0 (x) from the first principle.

Solution:

From the first principle we have

31
 f (x+∆x)−f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim ∆x
,
∆x→0

1
but f (x) = x2 + x
1
∴ f (x + ∆x) = (x + ∆x)2 + x+∆x

1
(x+∆x)2 + x+∆x −(x2 + x1 )
f 0 (x) = lim ∆x
∆x→0

1 1
= lim 2x + ∆x + ∆x(x+∆x)
− x∆x
∆x→0

As x → 0,

f 0 (x) = 2x − 1
x2
√
Example 3.3: Find the derivative of the function y = x from the first principle.

Solution: From the first principle, we’ve

dy f (x+∆x)−f (x)
dx
= lim ∆x
∆x→0
√ √
such that f (x) = x, and f (x + ∆x) = x + ∆x
√ √
dy x+∆x− x
∴ dx
= lim ∆x
∆x→0
√ √ √ √
x+∆x− x x+∆x+ x
= lim ∆x
 √ √
x+∆x+ x
∆x→0

1 √
= lim √
x+∆x+ x
∆x→0

As ∆x → 0,
dy 1
dx
= √
2 x
.

Remark:

Differentiation from the first principle is rather a tedious exercise especially for more com-
plex functions. Therefore the need for more effective methods for differentiating the following
functions are necessary:

• Polynomial functions

• Trigonometric functions

• Logarithmic functions

• Exponential functions

• Constant functions

EXERCISES: Use the first principle approach to differentiate the following functions with
respect to x (w.r.t x).

1. y = 3x3 − 2x2 + 3x + 2
1
2. y = x

32
 1
3. y = x2

4. y = 3 − x2
2
5. y = x

6. y = 4x3

3.4 Polynomial Functions

Polynomial functions are functions that involved non-negative integer exponents on the inde-
pendent variable (i.e, xn , n ≥ 0), multiplied by constant coefficients and separated by only the
operations of addition (+) and subtraction (−). Mathematically written as

f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + ... + cn xn ,

where c0 , c1 , ..., cn are constant coefficient. An example of polynomial functions are:

(i) f (x) = x2

(ii) f (x) = 2x3 + 5x2 + 3

(iii) f (x) = 3x + 1

Theorem 3.1 If f (x) = xn , then f (x)0 = nxn−1 for any real number n
Proof: Using the idea of the first principle
f (x+∆x)−f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim ∆x
∆x→0

but f (x) = xn and f (x + ∆x) = (x + ∆x)n

(x+∆x)n −xn
∴ f 0 (x) = lim ∆x
∆x→0

   
n n
xn + xn−1 ∆x + xn−2 (∆x)2 + ... + (∆x)n − xn
0
1 2
f (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x

    
n n−1 n n−2 n−1
∆x x + x ∆x + ... + (∆x)
1 2
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
 
n
As ∆x → 0, and since =n
1
dy
f 0 (x) = dx
= nxn−1 .

Moreover, the rule for differentiating a power of x is simply multiplying by the index (power)
and reducing the index by 1.

Example 3.4: The derivative of the following functions are given as:
d
(i) dx
(x20 ) = 20x20−1 = 20x19

33
 √ 1
(ii) d
dt
( t) = 12 t 2 −1 = 2√
1
t

d 1
= −3x−3−1 = −3x−4


(iii) dx x3

Example 3.5: Differentiate the following functions with respect to x.

(i) f (x) = 4x4 − 3x2 + 5
(ii) f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
12 13
(iii) f (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 16 − x
+ x7

Solution:
d d d d
(i) dx
(4x4 − 3x2 + 5) = dx
(4x4 ) − dx
(3x2 ) + dx
(5)
= 16x3 − 6x + 0
= 16x3 − 6x.
d d d d
(ii) dx
(ax2 + bx + c) = dx
(ax2 ) + dx
(bx) + dx
(c)
= 2ax + b.
d 12 13 12 91
(iii) dx
(3x2 − 4x + 16 − x
+ x7
) = 6x − 4 + x2
− x8

Remarks: If u and v are variables:

d du dv
1. dx
(u ± v) = dx
± dx
d d
2. dx
(cu) = c dx u
d d d d
3. (c u
dx 1 1
+ c2 u2 + ... + ck uk ) = c1 dx u1 + c2 dx u2 + ... + cn dx un
EXERCISES
1. Write down the gradient of the following curves
(i) y = 3x7
(ii) y = 5x2 − 3x
(iii) y = 3x4 − 2x3 + x2 − x + 10
√ 3
2. If p = 3 t + t 2 + t3 + 20
t3
− 7, find d
dt
p.
3. Differentiate the following functions
(i) y = √1
x
1
(ii) y = x2
1
(iii) y = √
3x

3
(iv) y = x− 2
2
(v) y = √
3 x
2
(vi) y = x
(vii) y = x
(viii) 5 − 3x2
(ix) y = 7

34
3.5 Techniques of Differentiation (Explicit)
A differentiation which involves the case where the dependent variable can be expressed explic-
itly in terms of the independent variable is called explicit differentiation.

3.5.1 Chain Rule (Function of a Function)

dy
Consider the function y = (3 + x)2 = x2 + 6x + 9, then dx = 2x + 6. But the expansion leads
to a laborious multiplication when higher index is involved, e.g (x + 3)36 or gives infinite series
1
when negative or fractional index is involved, e.g (x+3)−2 or (x+3) 2 . It is therefore imperative
to devise a legitimate and simple way of differentiating such type of functions.

In general, suppose that y = y(u) such that u = u(x), that is y is a function of u and u
is a function of x. The derivative of y is given by
dy ∆y
= lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x

∆y ∆y ∆u
but = 
∆x ∆x ∆u

∆y ∆y ∆u
= 
∆x ∆u ∆x

 
dy ∆y ∆u
∴ = lim 
dx ∆x→0 ∆u ∆x

dy ∆y ∆u dy du
= lim  lim = 
dx ∆x→0 ∆u ∆x→0 ∆x du dx

dy dy du
= 
dx du dx

The above formula in the box is referred to us the chain rule.

Example 3.6: Find the derivatives of the following functions

(i) y = (2x + 3)37

(ii) y = (x2 − 4x)15

√
(iii) p = 2t − 3
p
(iv) u = 3 (θ2 + 3θ − 4)2

Solution:

(i) y = (2x + 3)37

Let u = (2x + 3)
dy dy du
by the chain rule dx
= du
 dx
, where

35
 dy du
du
= 37u36 and dx
=2
dy
∴ dx
= 37u36  2

= 74u36

= 74(2x + 3)3 6.

(ii) y = (x2 − 4x)15

Let u = x2 − 4x such that y = u15

dy du
∴ du
= 15u14 and dx
= 2x − 4

by the chain rule, we have

dy
dx
= 15u14  (2x − 4) = 15(x2 − 4x)14 (2x − 4).
√ 1
(iii) p = 2t − 3 = (2t − 3) 2
1
Let u = 2t − 3 such that p = u 2
dp 1
where du
dt
= 2 and du
= 21 u− 2
dp dp du
∴ dt
= du
 dt

dp 1 1
dt
= 12 u− 2  2 = u− 2
dp √ 1
dt
= 2t−3
p 2
(iv) u = 3
(θ2 + 3θ − 4)2 = (θ2 + 3θ − 4) 3
2
Let v = θ2 + 3θ − 4, and u = v 3
1
where dv
dθ
= 2θ + 3 and du
dv
= 23 v − 3
du du dv
∴ dθ
= dv
 dθ
1
= 23 v − 3  (2θ + 3)
1
= 23 (θ2 + 3θ − 4)− 3 (2θ + 3)
2(2θ+3)
= 1
3(θ2 +3θ−4) 3

2(2θ+3)
= √
3 3 θ2 +3θ−4
.

EXERCISES
dy
p
1. If y = 3x2 + 4x − (5x − 2)4 , find dx

2. Differentiate the following functions with respect to x

2
(i) y = (3x − 1) 3
1
(ii) y = 2
(2x−1) 3

3. Differentiate

36
 2
(i) y = (6x2 − 4x)− 3
−1
(ii) y = √
(1+ x)2
1 2


(iii) y = 1 − x

1
(iv) y = 2x2 − x32 3
√ 2
(v) y = x − √1x
q
1


(vi) y = 1−x2

3.5.2 Product Rule

Let y be the product of two functions u and v of a variable x, i.e. y = uv. Then for any small
change ∆y in y there is small changes ∆u, ∆v in u and v respectively. Thus

y + ∆y = (u + ∆u)(v + ∆v),

∴ ∆y = uv + u∆v + v∆u + ∆u∆v − y,

since y = uv, therefore

∆y = uv + u∆v + v∆u + ∆u∆v − uv,

∆y = u∆v + v∆u + ∆u∆v,

dy
suppose that we want to find dx
, therefore dividing through by ∆x we’ve

∆y ∆v ∆u ∆u∆v
=u +v + .
∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x
Therefore as ∆x → 0, ∆u, ∆v and ∆y approaches zero also
dy ∆y
= lim ,
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
 
dy ∆v ∆u ∆u∆v
= lim u +v + ,
dx ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x ∆x

dy ∆v ∆u ∆u∆v
= u lim + v lim + lim ,
dx ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x

dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
d du dv
Note: dx
(uv) 6= dx
+ dx
.

Example 3.7: Differentiate w.r.t x the following functions

(i) y = (x2 + 1)(x3 + 2)

(ii) y = (x2 − 3)(x + 1)2

37
(iii) y = (x2 + 1)(x + 3)−2
p
(iv) y = (x − 1) (x2 + 1)

Solution:

(i) y = (x2 + 1)(x3 + 2)

Using product rule

dy dv
dx
= u dx + v du
dx

Let u = x2 + 1, v = x3 + 2, such that

du dv
dx
= 2x and dx
= 3x2
dy
∴ dx
= (x2 + 1)  3x2 + (x3 + 2)  2x = 5x4 + 3x2 + 4x

(ii) y = (x2 − 3)(x + 1)2

Let u = x2 − 3, v = (x + 1)2 such that

du dv
dx
= 2x and dx
= 2(x + 1)  1
dy
∴ dx
= (x2 − 3)  2(x + 1) + (x + 1)2  2x = (x + 1)[(2x2 − 6) + (2x2 + 2)].

(iii) y = (x2 + 1)(x + 3)−2

following the same method as above, we have

2(x + 3)−2 [x − (x2 + 1)(x + 3)−1 ].

p 1
(iv) y = (x − 1) (x2 + 1) = (x − 1)(x2 + 1) 2
1
Let u = x − 1, v = (x2 + 1) 2 such that
1
du
dx
= 1 and dv
dx
= 12 (x2 + 1)− 2  2x
dy 2 √
= √x −x + x2 + 1
dx x2 +1

EXERCISES

1. Differentiate w.r.t x
√
(i) y = (x2 − 1) 1 + x
(ii) y = x2 (x + 1)3
3 5
(iii) y = (x + 1) 2 (x − 1) 2
p
(iv) y = (1 − x2 ) 3 (1 − 2x)−2
p
(v) y = (x + 1)(x − 2)3

38
3.5.3 Quotient Rule
u
Suppose that y = v
where both u and v are functions of x, then

u + ∆u
y + ∆y =
v + ∆v

u + ∆u
∆y = −y
v + ∆v

u + ∆u u
∆y = −
v + ∆v v

v(u + ∆u) − u(v + ∆v)

=
v∆v

v∆u − u∆v
=
v(v + ∆v)
dividing through by ∆x, we have
∆y v∆v − u∆v
=
∆x v(v + ∆v)∆x

∆y ∆v
v ∆u − u ∆x
= ∆x
∆x v(v + ∆v)
but
dy ∆y
= lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
as ∆x → 0, ∆u → 0, ∆v → 0 and ∆y → 0
!
dy v ∆u
∆x
∆v
− u ∆x
∴ = lim
dx ∆x→0 v(v + ∆v)

dy v lim ∆u ∆v
− u lim ∆x
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0
=
dx v(v + ∆v)

dy v du
dx
dv
− u dx
∴ =
dx v2
(3x+4)3
Example 3.8: If y = (x−2)2
, find y 0
dy v du dv
−u dx
Solution: Using quotient rule dx
= dx
v 2

Let u = (3x + 4)3 , v = (x − 2)2 then

du
dx
= 3(3x + 4)2  3 = 9(3x + 4)2

39
 dv
dx
= 2(x − 2)
dy (x−2)2 9(3x+4)2 −(3x+4)3 2(x−2)
∴ dx
= ((x−2)2 )2

(3x+4)3
the above gives the derivative of the function y = (x−2)2
, what remains is to simplify
further
(x − 2)(3x + 4)2 [9(x − 2) − 2(3x + 4)]
y0 =
(x − 2)4

(3x + 4)2 (3x − 26)

∴ y0 = .
(x − 2)3
The above question can be solved using product rule but with y being simplified as
(3x+4)3
y= (x−2)2
= (3x + 4)3  (x − 2)−2 , therefore using the product rule

y 0 = u dx
dv
+ v du
dx
, where u = (3x + 4)3 and v = (x − 2)−2
du
dx
= 9(3x + 4)2 , dv
dx
= −2(x − 2)−3

∴ y 0 = (3x + 4)3  −2(x − 2)−3 + (x − 2)−2  9(3x + 4)2

3 9(3x+4)2
= − 2(3x+4)
(x−2)3
+ (x−2)2

after further simplifications, we’ve

(3x+4)2 (3x−26)
y0 = (x−2)3
.

which when compared with using quotient rule is the same.

r 
(x+1)3
Example 3.9: Differentiate y = x+2
.

Solution:
r  3
(x+1)3 (x+1) 2
y= x+2
= 1
(x+2) 2

3 1
let u = (x + 1) 2 , v = (x + 2) 2
1 dy 1
such that du
dx
= 23 (x + 1) 2  1, du
= 12 (x + 2)− 2
1 1 3 1
0 (x+2) 2  32 (x+1) 2 −(x+1) 2  21 (x+2)− 2
y =  1 2
(x+2) 2

1 1
1
(x+2)− 2 (x+1) 2 [3(x+2)−(x+1)]
= 2
X+2
1 1
(x+2)− 2 (x+1) 2 (2x+5)
= 2(x+2)

1
(x+1) 2 (2x+5)
= 3
2(x+2) 2

EXERCISES
1. If y = √ x , show that y = (1 + x2 )
1+x2

40
 2. Differentiate w.r.t x the following functions
q
2 )3
(i) y = (1+x 2+x2
2
(ii) y = √x
1+x2

3.6 Implicit Differentiation

So far we have been dealing with case where the dependent variable can be isolated and ex-
pressed explicitly as a function of individual variable, such as
3x2 +5x
y= 4x3 +3x2 −1
.
There are cases where it may not be possible or easy to do so, such as in the examples below
1. x + y 2 − 2y 3 + 4 = 0

2. 3xy 2 + 4x2 y + 3y 3 + 4x3 = 7

3. x = y 4 − y − 1
In examples 1 and 3 we can solve for x, so let us consider cases where we can solve for x.
Consider the function
1
x = y2 ∴ x2 = y
dx 1
but dy
= 2y = 2x 2
1
Now from y = x 2
dy 1
dx
= 12 x− 2 = 1
1
2x 2

dy 1
∴ dx
= dx
dy

generally
dy ∆y
dx
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x

1
= lim ∆x
∆x→0 ∆y

dy 1
dx
= dx .
dy

Now to differentiate x + y 2 − 2y 3 + 4 = 0 in example 1, we solve for x as

x = 2y 3 − y 2 − 4
dy
dx
= 6y 2 − 2y
dy 1
but dx
= dx
dy

dy 1
∴ dx
= 6y 2 −2y

But in the case of example 2, i.e, 3xy 2 + 4x2 y + 3y 3 + 4x3 = 7 differentiate by differentiating
each term w.r.t x
d d
dx
(3xy 2 + 4x2 y + 3y 3 + 4x3 ) = dx
(7)

41
 d d d d
dx
(3xy 2 ) + dx
(4x2 y) + dx
(3y 3 ) + dx
(4x3 ) =0
d d d d
3 dx (xy 2 ) + 4 dx (x2 y) + 3 dx (y 3 ) + 4 dx (x3 ) = 0
dy dy dy
3(x  2y dx + y 2 ) + 4(x2  dx
+ 2xy) + 3(3y 2 dx ) + 12x2 = 0
dy dy dy
3(2xy dx + y 2 ) + 4(x2 dx + 2xy) + 9y 2 dx + 12x2 = 0
dy dy dy
6xy dx + 3y 2 + 4x2 dx + 8xy + 9y 2 dx + 12x2 = 0
dy dy dy
6xy dx + 4x2 dx + 9y 2 dx = −3y 2 − 8xy − 12x2
dy
dx
(6xy + 4x2 + 9y 2 ) = −3y 2 − 8xy − 12x2
dy 2
−8xy−12x 2

dx
= − 3y
6xy+4x2 +9y 2

Example 3.10: Find the gradient of the curve x2 + 2xy − 2y 2 + x = 2 at (−4, 1).
dy
Solution: The gradient is dx
when x = −4, y = 1. Differentiating through with respect
to x, we have
d 2 d d d d
dx
x+ 2 dx (xy) − 2 dx (y 2 ) + dx (x) = dx
(2)
dy dy



2x + 2 x dx + y − 2 2y dx +1=0
dy dy
2x + 2x dx + 2y − 4y dx +1=0
dy dy
2x dx − 4y dx = −2x − 2y − 1
dy
dx
(2x − 4y) = −(2x + 2y + 1)
dy
dx
= − (2x+2y+1)
2x−4y

when x = −4 and y = 1
dy
dx
= − [2(−4)+2(1)+1]
2(−4)−4(1)
5
= − 12 .
dy
Example 3.11: If x = t3 + t2 , y = t2 + t, and dx
in terms of t.

Solution:
dx dy
dt
= 3t2 + 2t, dt
= 2t + 1
dy dy dt
but dx
= dt
 dx
(using chain rule)
dy dy 1 1
∴ dx
= dt
 dx = (2t + 1)  3t2 +2t
dt

EXERCISES
dy
1. Find dx
when

(i) x2 + 2xy + y 2 = 3
(ii) x2 − 3xy + y 2 − 2y + 4x = 0
(iii) 3x2 − 4xy = 7
(iv) 3(x − y)2 = 2xy + 1

42
 (v) (x − y)xy = 4
dy
2. Find dx
in terms of t

(i) x = t2 , y = t3
t t2
(ii) x = 1−t
, y = 1−t

(iii) x = √ 1 , y= √ t
1+t2 1+t3

3. Find the gradient of the ellipse 2x2 + 3y 2 = 14 at the points where x = 1.

4. Find the gradient of the conic x2 − 3yx + 2y 2 − 2x = 4 at the point (1, −1).

3.6.1 Higher Derivatives

dy dy
Given y = f (x) we can find dx which is also a function of x. We can further differentiate dx
with respect to x which is referred to us the second derivative written as

d2 y
 
d dy
= 2,
dx dx dx

similarly, we find

d2 y d3 y
 
d
= .
dx dx2 dx3

Thus, we have

y - original function
dy
dx
- first derivative
d2 y
dx2
- second derivative
d3 y
dx3
- third derivative

.........
dn y
dxn
- nth derivative

Alternative notations are:

y, y 0 , y 00 , y 000 , ..., y (n) or

f, f 0 , f 00 , f 000 , ..., f (n)

Example 3.12: If y = x2 − 1
x2
, find y 0 , y 00 and y 000

Solution:

y = x2 − x−2

y 0 = 2x + 2x−3 = 2x + 2
x3

y 00 = 2 − 6x−4 = 2 − 6
x4

y 000 = 24x−5 = 24
x5

43
 d2 y d3 y d4 y
Example 3.13: If y = 2x3 − 11x2 + 12x − 5, determine , ,
dx2 dx3 dx4
.

Solution:

y = 2x3 − 11x2 + 12x − 5

dy
dx
= 6x2 − 22x + 12
d2 y
dx2
= 12x − 22
d3 y
dx3
= 12
d4 y
dx4
=0

EXERCISES
dy d2 y
1. If y = 4x3 − 6x2 − 9x + 1, find dx
and hence find the values of dx2
when the gradient is
zero.
dy d2 y
2. If x = at2 , y = 2at, find dx
and dx2
.
dy d2 y d3 y
3. If x2 + 3xy − y 2 = 3, find ,
dx dx2
and dx3
at the point (1, 1).
d y 2 dy
4. If y = √ x , prove that (1 + x2 ) dx2 + 2x dx = 0
1+x2

3.7 Trigonometric Functions

These are functions that involve trigonometric ratios e.g, sin, cos, tan e.t.c. Another way of
measuring angles is radian

In a unit circle, an arc of length s subtends an angle of s radians. Since a unit circle has
an arc of length 2π

∴ 3600 = 2π rad

π rad = 1800
π
2
= 900
π
3
= 600
π
4
= 450

44
 MODULE 4

4 Integral Calculus
Integration can be considered from two angles

(a) Integration as the reverse process of differentiation (anti-derivative)

(b) Integration as the process of finding the area under a curve

The two approaches are the same, just like differentiation, integration has so many applications
in mathematics, physics, chemistry, engineering, economics, e.t.c.

Definition 4.1 Integration is the reverse process of differentiation.

When we differentiate, we start with an expression and proceed to find its derivative. When
we integrate, we start with the derivative and then find the expression from which it has been
d
derived. For example, dx (x4 ) = 4x3 , then the integral of 4x2 with respect to x which we know
to be x4 is written mathematically as
Z
4x3 dx = x4 .
R
Thus,
R the symbol f (x)dx denote the integral of f (x) with respect to the variable x; the sym-
bol was developed from a capital S which was used in the 17th century when the idea of
calculus were first devised. The expression f (x) to be integrated is called the integrand and
the differential dx is usefully there to assist in the evaluation of certain integrals.
dy
Further, from differentiation we know that the derivative of x4 is 4x3 , then the equation dx = 4x3
4 4 4 4
is satisfied when y = x , when y = x + 1, when y = x − 6, and generally when y = x ± C,
where C is some constant also called an arbitrary constant of integration and must always be
included. Such an integral is called an indefinite integral since we do not know the value of
C. However, in certain circumstances the value of C can be determined if further information
about the integral is provided.
R
Example 4.0: Given the integral I = 4x3 dx, determine the value of the constant C when
I = 3 and x = 2.

Solution:
R
I = 4x3 dx = x4 + C

where C is the constant of integration

but when I = 3 and x = 2 we’ve

3 = 24 + C

C = −13

∴ I = x4 − 13.

45
4.1 Standard Integrals
Every derivative written in reverse order gives an integral, for instance
d
dx
(sin x) = cos x
R
∴ cos x dx = sin x + C

It follows therefore that the following list of standard derivatives provides a source of standard
integrals
d
1. dx
(xn ) = nxn−1 replacing n by n + 1, we have
d
dx
= (n + 1)xn , therefore
 n+1 
d x
dx n+1
= xn , we therefore conclude that

xn+1
R
xn dx = n+1
+C

This is true for all real number n except when n = −1, for which division by zero is not
allowed.
d
2. dx
(sin x) = cos x
R
∴ cos x dx = sin x + C
d
3. dx
(cos x) = − sin x
d
dx
(− cos x) = sin x
R
∴ sin x dx = − cos x + C
d
4. dx
(tan x) = sec2 x
R
∴ sec2 x dx = tan x + C
d
5. dx
(ex ) = ex
R
∴ ex dx = ex + C
d 1
6. dx
(ln x) = x
1
R
∴ x
dx = ln x + C

4.2 Integration of Polynomial Expression

Polynomial expressions are integrated term by term with the individual constant of integration
consolidated into one symbol C for the whole expression.

Example 4.1: Integrate the following polynomial expressions:

(i) 4x3 + 5x2 − 2x + 7

x4 +1
(ii) x2

(iii) 4x5

Solution:

46
 R R R R R
(i) (4x3 + 5x2 − 2x + 7) dx = 4x3 dx + 5x2 dx − 2x dx + 7 dx
5x3
= x4 + 3
− x2 + 7x + C
x4 +1
dx = (x2 + x−2 ) dx
R R
(ii) x2

x3 x−2+1
= 3
+ −2+1
+C

= 13 x3 − x−1 + C
5+1
4x5 dx = 4 x5+1 + C
R
(iii)
4x6
= 6
+C

4.2.1 Properties
If f (x) and g(x) are two integrable functions, k is some real number:
R R R
(i) [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
R R
(ii) kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx
R
(iii) k dx = kx + C
R
(iv) 0 dx = C

4.3 Methods of Integration (Indefinite Integral)

R
Apart from the simple case like (cos x − sin x + x3 − 18x5 ) dx, there are some types of products
and quotients that can be integrated. Thus

4.3.1 Integration by Substitution

The anti-derivative formula so far do not tell us how to evaluate integral such as
Z √
2x 1 + x2 dx.

To find the anti-derivative of such as an integral, we use problem solving strategy of introducing
something extra. The something extra is a new variable introduced say u to change from the
old variable x. Suppose that we let u be equals the expression under the root sign u = 1 + x2 ,
then the differential of u is du = 2x dx
Z √ Z √
∴ 2
2x 1 + x dx = 1 + x2  2x dx

√
Z
= u du

2 3
= u2 + C
3

2 3
= (1 + x2 ) 2 + C
3

47
We can therefore check the answer by using chain rule to differentiate the final function
 
d 2 2 23 2 3 1
(1 + x ) + C =  (1 + x2 ) 2
dx 3 3 2

√
= 2x 1 + x2

In general, this standard method work for all integral that can be written in the form
Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx

Observed that if F 0 = f , then

Z
F 0 (g(x))g 0 (x) dx = F (g(x)) + C (1)

because by chain rule, we have

d
[F (g(x))] = F 0 (g(x))g 0 (x)
dx
If we make the change of variable or substitution u = g(x), then Eq. (1) becomes
Z
F 0 (g(x))g 0 (x) dx = F (g(x)) + C

= F (u) + C

Z
= F 0 (u) du

or F 0 = f , we get
Z Z
0
f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du

Example 4.2: Evaluate the following integrals

R
(i) (2x + 1)3 dx
R
(ii) 8x(x2 + 1)3 dx
R
(iii) x2 (1 − x3 )4 dx
Solution:
(i) Let u = 2x + 1, then
du dx 1
dx
= 2 so that du
= 2
then dx = 12 du

By substitution we have (2x + 1)3 = u3 , therefore the integral becomes

R 1 3 4
2
u du = u8 + C
(2x+1)4
= 8
+C

48
 (ii) Let t = x2 + 1 so that dt = 2x dx, then it follows that 4dt = 8x dx

re-writing the integral in terms of the new variable t we have

4t dt = 45 t5 + C
R 4

= 54 (x2 + 1)5 + C

(iii) Let u = 1 − x3 so that du = −3x2 dx, then

du
dx = − 3x 2 , and by substitution the integral becomes

du
= − 13 u4 du
R 2 4
R
x u  − 3x 2

= − 15 u5 + C

= − 15 (1 − x3 )5 + C

Example 4.3: Evaluate the following integrals

R
(i) x sin x2 dx

(ii) √a21−x2 dx
R

R 1
(iii) 1+x 2 dx

Solution:
du
(i) Let u = x2 so that du = 2x dx and hence dx = 2x

therefore by substitution, the integral becomes

sin u du 1
R R
2x
= 2
sin u du

= 21 (− cos u) + C

= − 21 cos x2 + C
dx
(ii) Let x = a sin θ such that dθ
= a cos θ and dx = a cos θ dθ

by substitution, we’ve

= √ 2a cos2 θ
R dx R
√
a2 −x2
dθ
a −a sin2 θ

√ a cos θ
R
= dθ
a2 (1−sin2 θ)
p
but (cos θ = 1 − sin2 θ), therefore
√ a cos θ 2 dθ = aa cos θ
R R
2 cos θ
dθ
a (1−sin θ)
R
=
dθ = θ + C

but x = a sin θ ⇒ θ = sin−1 xa

−1 x
∴ √adx
R

2 −x2 = sin a
+C

(iii) Let x = tan θ such that dx = sec2 θ dθ

49
 therefore by substitution, the integral becomes
R 1 R sec2 θ
1+x2
dx = 1+tan 2 θ dθ

but sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ, therefore

R sec2 θ R sec2 θ
2
1+tan θ
dθ = sec2 θ
dθ
R
= dθ = θ + C

but x = tan θ ⇒ θ = tan−1 (x)

−1
R 1
∴ 1+x 2 dx = tan x+C

Remarks:
√
1. In general, if the denominator of an integrand is in the form a2 − b2 x2 such as in example
4.3 (ii) above, for this substitute (a sin θ) for bx, when the integrand has a minus sign (−),
then substitute (a cos θ) for bx.

2. If the general form of the denominator of an integrand is a2 + b2 x2 such as in example

4.3 (iii) above, then substitute (a tan θ) for bx.

Exercises: Use substitution method to evaluate the following integrals

R
(i) (2x + 3)2 dx
R√
(ii) 4x − 3 dx
R 2 3
(iii) x (x + 4)2 dx
R
(iv) cos 3θ dθ

(v) sin2 θ cos θ dθ

R

1
R
(vi) √4−9x 2 dx

R −1
(vii) √1−4x 2 dx

R 1
(viii) 1+9x 2 dx

4.3.2 Exponential Function

Recall that

d x d f df
(e ) = ex or if x = f is a function e = ef
dx dx dx

Example 4.4:
2 +4x
1. If y = e3x find y 0
2 +4x
y 0 = e3x  (6x + 4)
√
2. Find y 0 if y = x3 e x
1 √ √
 
y 0 = x3 12 x− 2 e x + e x (3x2 )

50
 √  
2 x x
=x e √
2 x
+3

3. Evaluate the following integrals

R
(i) ex dx
R
(ii) e3x dx
R 2
(iii) 4xex +1 dx
R
(iv) 2e2x dx
d x d f df
Solution: Since dx e = ex and dx
e = ef dx , it follows that
R
(i) ex dx = ex + C
R
(ii) e3x dx
df
let f = 3x such that df = 3dx and dx = 3
by substitution the integral becomes
e dx = 13 ef df
R 3x R

= 13 ef + C
= 13 e3x + C
R 2 +1
(iii) 4xex dx
df
let f = x2 + 1 such that df = 2x dx and dx = 2x
by substitution the integral becomes
R 2 R df
4xex +1 dx = 4xef 2x
R
= 2 ef df
= 2ef + C
2 +1)
= 2e(x +C
x −x ex −e−x
cosh(x) = e +e
R
Example 4.5: Given thatR 2
and sinh(x) = 2
, show that cosh x dx =
sinh x + C, hence, find cosh x sinh x dx.

Solution:
ex +e−x
R R
cosh x dx = 2
dx

= 12 [ex − e−x ] + C

= sinh x + C
−x −x
R R 1 x 1 x

cosh x sinh x dx = 2
(e + e )  2
(e − e ) dx

= 41 (e2x − e−2x ) dx
R

= 41 12 e2x + 12 e−2x + C
 

= 14 12 (e2x + e−2x ) + C
 

= 18 cosh 2x + C

51
4.3.3 Natural Logarithm (ln x)
Recall that

d 1 d 1 df
(ln x) = or if x = f is a function (ln f ) =
dx x dx f dx

Example 4.6: Find y 0 if

(i) y = ln(x2 − 4x + 8)

y0 = 1
x2 −4x+8
 (2x − 4)

(ii) y = ln(sin 2x)

y0 = 1
 2 cos 2x =
sin 2x
2 cos 2x
sin 2x
= 2 cot 2x
 2 
x +3
(iii) y = ln x2 −2

= ln(x2 + 3) − ln(x2 − 2)

y0 = 2x
x2 +3
− 2x
x2 −2

1
4.3.4 Integral of f (x) = x

We know that the derivative of y = ln x is x1 , hence given a function f (x) = x1 , the integral is
given by
Z
1
dx = ln |x| + C
x

Notice also that ln |x| + C = ln ax, where a is some constant.

Example 4.7: Evaluate the following integrals

R 1
(i) 2x+1
R 2
(ii) x6x
3 +5 dx

R
(iii) tan x dx

Solution:
du
(i) Let u = 2x + 1 ⇒ du = 2 dx ⇒ dx = 2

by substitution, the integral becomes

R 1 R 1 du
2x+1
= u
 2

= 12 u1 du
R

= 12 ln u + C

= 12 ln(2x + 1) + C
dt
(ii) Let t = x3 + 5 ⇒ dt = 3x2 dx ⇒ dx = 3x2
, therefore

52
 6x2 6x2 dt
R R
x3 +5
dx = t
 3x2

1
R
=2 t
dt

= 2 ln t + C

= 2 ln(x3 + 5) + C
sin x
R R
(iii) tan x dx = cos x
dx
du
let u = cos x ⇒ du = − sin x dx ⇒ dx = − sin x
, therefore
R sin x R sin x
cos x
dx = u
 − du
sin x
R du
=− u

= − ln u + C

= − ln(cos x) + C

= ln(cos x)−1 + C

= ln(sec x) + C

Exercises: Evaluate the following integrals

R x+1
(i) x2 +2x+5 dx

(ii) x22x+1 dx
R

R
(iii) cot x dx

(iv) (e2x + 2e−3x ) dx

R

2
(v) (e3−2x + xe−3x ) dx
R

(vi) 2 sinh x4 dx
R

4.3.5 Integration by Parts

Every differentiation rule has a corresponding integration rule. Integration by part is an in-
tegration rule that correspond to the product rule of differentiation. Moreover, the product
rule of differentiation states that if f (x) and g(x) are two differentiable functions, then the
derivative of their product is given by
d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x)g 0 (x) + g(x)f 0 (x).
dx
In the notation of indefinite integral, the above equation becomes
Z
f (x)g(x) = f (x)g 0 (x) + g(x)f 0 (x) dx,
R
integral operator dx is a linear operator, thus we have
Z Z
f (x)g(x) = f (x)g (x) dx + g(x)f 0 (x) dx,
0

53
we can also re-write the above equation as
Z Z
f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) + g(x)f 0 (x) dx.
0

The above equation is the formula for integration by parts, it is perhaps easily remembered in
the following notation.

Let u = f (x), v = g(x), then their respective differentials are du = f 0 (x) dx and dv = g 0 (x) dx.
Then by substitution, the formula for integration by part becomes
Z Z Z
u dv = uv − v du, where v = g 0 (x) dx

Example 4.8: Find the following integrals

R
(i) x sin x dx
R
(ii) ln x dx
R
(iii) t2 et dt
x
(iv) xe− 2 dx
R

Solution:

(i) Let u = x ⇒ du = dx

dv = sin x dx ⇒ v = − cos x
R R
by integration by parts u dv = uv − v du, we have
R R
x sin x dx = x(− cos x) − (− cos x) dx
R
= −x cos x + cos x dx

= −x cos x + sin x + C

Note: The aim of integration by parts is to obtain a simpler

R integral than the initial
integral. Thus in example 4.8R (i) above, we started with ( x sin x dx) and expressed it in
terms of a simpler integral ( cos x dx).

(ii) Let u = ln x ⇒ du = x1 dx

dv = dx ⇒ v = x
R R
by integration by parts u dv = uv − v du, we have

ln x dx = x ln x − x( x1 ) dx
R R

R
= x ln x − dx

= x ln x − x + C

= x(ln x − 1) + C

(iii) Observe that t2 becomes simpler when differentiated, whereas et remain unchanged when
differentiated or integrated.

54
 Let u = t2 ⇒ du = 2t dt

dv = et dt ⇒ v = et
R R
by integration by parts u dv = uv − v du, we have
R 2 t R
t e dt = t2 et − et  2t dt
R
= t2 et − 2 tet dt
R
by integration by parts again for tet dt, we have
R t R
te dt = tet − et dt

= tet − et + C

putting the two results together, we have

R 2 t
t e dt = t2 et − 2[tet − et + C]
R 2 t
t e dt = t2 et − 2tet − 2et + C where C = 2C

Let u = x ⇒ du = dx
x x
dv = e− 2 dx ⇒ v = −2e− 2
R R
by integration by parts u dv = uv − v du, we have
R −x x x
xe 2 dx = x(−2e− 2 ) − (−2e− 2 ) dx
R

x R x
= x(−2e− 2 ) + 2 e− 2 dx
x x
= x(−2e− 2 ) + 2(−2e− 2 + C)
x x
= x(−2e− 2 ) − 4e− 2 + C where C = 2C

Exercises: Use Integration by parts to evaluate the following integrals

R
(i) x(2x + 3)3 dx
R
(ii) x2 cos x dx

(iii) xe−x dx
R

R
(iv) cos x sin x dx
R
(v) x2 e2x dx
R 4x
(vi) 3e x dx

55
4.3.6 Integration of Rational Function by Partial fraction
In this section, we show how to integrate any rational function (a ratio of polynomials) by
expressing it as a sum of simpler fractions called partial fractions that we already know how
2 1
to integrate. To illustrate the method, observe that by taking the fractions x−1 and x+2 to a
common denominator, we have

2 1 2(x + 2) − (x − 1)
− =
x−1 x+2 (x − 1)(x + 2)

x+5
=
x2 +x−5
if we reverse the procedure, we see how to integrate the rational function

p(x)
f (x) =
q(x)

where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials. It is therefore possible to express the rational function
f (x) as a sum of simple fractions provided that the degree of p(x) is less than the degree of q(x),
and such a rational function is called proper. But if the rational function f (x) is improper, i.e,
deg (p(x)) ≥ deg (q(x)), then we must take the preliminary step of dividing p(x) by q(x) using
long division until a remainder r(x) is obtained such that deg (r(x)) < deg (q(x)). The division
Statement is given by

p(x) r(x)
≡ s(x) +
q(x) q(x)

the two algebraic expressions above are equivalent, where s(x) and r(x) are polynomials. There
are three possible factors for the complex fraction.

1. Simple Linear Factors:

This means that we can write q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 )...(ak x + bk ), where no factor is
repeated and no factor is a constant multiple of another. In this case, the partial fraction
theorem states that there exist constants A1 , A2 , ..., Ak such that

r(x) A1 A2 Ak
= + + ... +
q(x) a1 x + b 1 a2 x + b 2 ak x + b k
1
Example 4.9: Express x2 −16
as a partial fraction.

Solution:
1 1
=
x2 − 16 (x + 4)(x − 4)

1 A B
= +
(x + 4)(x − 4) x+4 x−4

1 = A(x − 4) + B(x + 4)

56
 Substituting x = 4, we’ve

1 = A(0) + B(x + 4)

1
B=
8

Substituting x = −4, we’ve

1
A=−
8

1 1 1
∴ = −
(x + 4)(x − 4) 8(x − 4) 8(x + 4)

2. Repeated Linear Factors:

Suppose that the first linear factor is repeated r times such that (a1 x + b1 )r occurs in the
factorization of q(x). Then instead of single term a1 A 1
x+b1
, the idea is to use

A1 A2 Ak
1
+ 2
+ ... +
(a1 x + b1 ) (a1 x + b1 ) (a1 x + b1 )r
x+1
Example 4.10: Express x2 (x−1)
as a partial fraction

x+1 A B C
= + + 2
x2 (x
− 1) x−1 x x
2
x + 1 = Ax + B(x − 1)x + (x − 1)

x + 1 = Ax2 + B(x − 1)x + (x − 1)

Substituting x = 1, we’ve

A=2

Substituting x = 0, we’ve

C = −1

To find B use any value of x, substituting x = 2

3 = 4A + 2B + C

3 = 8 + 2B − 1

B = −2

x+1 1 2 1
= − − 2
x2 (x − 1) x−1 x x

57
 (3) Quadratic Factors:

If Q(x) has the factors (ax2 + bx + c)r where b2 − 4ac < 0, then instead of the single
partial fraction, the following sum occur in the partial fraction decomposition of p(x)
q(x)
or
r(x)
q(x)
as the case may be

A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 Ar x + Br
+ + ... +
(ax2 + bx + c)1 (ax2 + bx + c)2 (ax2 + bx + c)r
1−x+2x2 −x3
Example 4.11: Express x(x2 +1)2
as partial fraction

1 − x + 2x2 − x3 A Bx + C Dx + E
2 2
= + 2 + 2
x(x + 1) x (x + 1) (x + 1)2

Multiplying through by x(x2 + 1)2 , we’ve

−x3 + 2x2 − x + 1 = A(x2 + 1)2 + (Bx + C)x(x2 + 1) + (Dx + E)x

= A(x4 + 2x2 + 1) + B(x4 + x2 ) + C(x3 + x) + Dx2 + Ex

= (A + B)x4 + Cx3 + (2A + B + D)x2 + (C + E)x + A

Equating the coefficients from both sides yields the following system of equations

A+B =0
C = −1
2A + B + D = 2
C + E = −1
A=1
which has the solutions
A = 1, B = −1, C = −1, D = 1, E = 0

1 − x + 2x2 − x3 1 (x + 1) x
∴ 2 2
= − 2 + 2 .
x(x + 1) x x +1 (x + 1)2

Some integrals can only be evaluated using the technique of partial fraction, the concept is
illustrated via the following examples

1
R
Example 4.12: Find 1−x2
dx

Solution: Express the integrand as a partial fraction

1 1
2
= .
1−x (1 − x)(1 + x)
Integration by partial fraction states that there exist constants say A and B such that
1 A B
≡ +
(1 − x)(1 + x) 1−x 1+x

1 = A(1 + x) + B(1 − x)

58
 Substituting x = 1, we’ve
1
1 = 2A ⇒ A =
2

Substituting x = −1, we’ve

1
1 = 2B ⇒ B =
2
Z Z Z
1 1 1 1 1
∴ dx = dx + dx
1 − x2 2 1−x 2 1+x

1 1
= ln(1 − x) + ln(1 + x) + C
2 2

1
= [ln(1 − x) + ln(1 + x)] + C.
2
x2
R
Example 4.13: Find x2 +3x+2
dx

Solution: The fraction is improper, therefore divide to obtain a proper fraction

1
√
x2 + 3x + 2 x2

(x2 + 3x + 2) −

−3x − 2
therefore, the integrand can be written as
x2 −3x − 2
2
≡1+ 2
x + 3x + 2 x + 3x + 2

−3x − 2 −3x − 2
=
x2 + 3x + 2 (x + 1)(x + 2)
Integration by partial fraction states that there exist constants say A and B such that
−3x − 2 A B
= +
(x + 1)(x + 2) x+1 x+2

−3x − 2 = A(x + 2) + B(x + 1)

Substituting x = −1, we’ve

1=A

Substituting x = −2, we’ve

4 = −B, ⇒ B = −4

59
 x2 1 4
2
=1+ −
x + 3x + 2 x+1 x+2

x2
Z Z Z Z
1 4
∴ = 1 dx + dx − dx
x2 + 3x + 2 x+1 x+2

= x + ln(x + 1) − 4 ln(x + 2) + C

Exercise: Evaluate the following integrals using integration by partial fraction:

R 2
(i) x(x+1) dx
x−1
R
(ii) (x−3)(x−2) dx

(iii) x2 (x32 +9)

R

4.4 Definite Integral

Let F (x) be the anti-derivative of a given function f (x) such that
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C

Suppose that the function is defined over an interval [a, b], then it follows that for the given
value x = a the integral will be F (a) + C, and for the given value x = b the integral will be
F (b) + C. Then the difference between the two values of the integral will be F (b) − F (a) for
which a < b, this difference is written as
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a)
a

This is called the definite integral of f (x) with respect to x from the limit x = a to the limit
x = b. In another way, it can be express as
Z b
f (x) dx = [g(x)]ba
a

= g(b) − g(a)
Note: In definite Integral, there is no arbitrary constant of integration.

Example 4.14: Evaluate the following integrals

R2
(i) 1 3x2 dx
R1
(ii) −1 (6x2 + 4x + 1) dx
R2
(iii) 1 (x + 3)2 dx
Solution:
R2
(i) 1 3x2 dx = [x3 ]31 = 23 − 13 = 7.
R1
(ii) −1 (6x2 + 4x + 1) dx = [2x3 + 2x2 + x]1−1

60
 = [2(1)3 + 2(1)2 + 1] − 2(−1)3 + 2(−1)2 − 1]

= 5 − (−1) = 6.
R2
(iii) 1
(x + 3)2 dx

let u = x + 3 and du = dx, such that when x = 1 ⇒ u = 4 and x = 2 ⇒ u = 5

R2 R5
∴ 1 (x + 3)2 dx = 4 u2 du
u3 5
= |
3 4
125 64
= 3
− 3
61
= 3
.

4.4.1 Definite Integral Using Substitution Method

There are two methods for evaluating a definite integral by substitution:

1. Evaluate the indefinite integral first and then substitute the limits, consider the following
example
R4√ R√
Example 4.15: Evaluate 0
2x + 1 dx = 2x + 1 dx]40

du
Solution: Let u = 2x + 1, du = 2 dx which implies that dx = 2
R√ R 1
since 2x + 1 dx]40 = (2x + 1) 2 dx]40
R 1
= 12 u 2 du]40
3
= 12 [ 23 u 2 ]]40
3
= 13 (2x + 1) 2 ]40
3 3
= 13 (9) 2 − 13 (1) 2
= 31 (27 − 1) = 26
3

2. Evaluating the indefinite integral by changing the limits of integration when the variable
is changed, this method is usually the most preferable

Example 4.16: Evaluate the following integrals

R2 1
(i) 1 (3−5x) 2 dx

R1
(ii) −1 (2x − 1)(x + 1)2 dx
R3
(iii) 0 x21+9 dx

Solution:
−du
(i) Let u = 3 − 5x, du = −5 dx ⇒ dx = 5
when x = 1 ⇒ u = −2, and when x = 2 ⇒ u = −7
1 −7 1
R2 1 R
1 (3−5x) 2 dx = − 5 −2 u2
du
−7
= − 51 −2 u−2 du
R

61
 h i−7
u−1
= − 15 −1
−2
therefore substituting limits we’ve
= 51 − 17 + 21 = 14
1
 
.
(ii) Let t = x + 1, dt = dx
when x = −1 ⇒ t = 0, and when x = 1 ⇒ t = 2, therefore we’ve
R2 3
R2 4
0
(2t − 3)t dx = 0
(2t − 3t3 ) dt
2
= 25 t5 − 43 t4 0


= 25 (2)5 − 34 (2)4 − 0
 

= 24 45 − 34 = 45 .
 

x
(iii) Let x = 3 tan t and dx = 3 sec2 t dt, such that tan t = 3
when x = 0 ⇒ t = 0, and when x = 3 ⇒ t = π4 , therefore we’ve
R3 1 R π 3 sec2 t
0 x2 +9
dx = 04 9+9 tan2 t
dt
R π sec2 t
= 13 04 sec 2 t dt
π
= 13 04 dt
R
π
= 31 [t]04 = π
12
.

Exercises: Evaluate the following integrals

R2
(i) 0 (x + x2 ) dx
R2 3
(ii) 1 x x+2x
3 dx
R1 √
(iii) −2 x + 3 dx
R 2π
(iv) 0 sin 2x dx
R1 2
(v) 0 xe−x dx
Rπ
(vi) 0 sin2 x dx

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 Test Questions CBT

1. Consider the functions f (x) = 2x2 + 1 and g(x) = x + 1, compute (f o g)(x)

(a) x2 + 4x + 3
(b) 2x2 + 4x + 3
(c) 2x + 4x
(d) 2x2 + 4x − 3
(e) 2x − 4x + 3

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