Urinary Tract Infections

(UTI)
By P.N. Karimi

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 Background
Bacterial infections of urinary tract are a very common reason to
seek health services
Common in young females and uncommon in males under age 50
Common causative organisms
a. Escherichia coli (gram-negative enteral bacteria) causes most
community acquired infections
b. Staphylococcus saprophyticus, gram-positive organism causes 10 –
15%
c. Catheter-associated UTI’s caused by gram-negative bacteria:
Proteus, Klebsiella, Seratia, Pseudomonas

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 Background ctd
Normal mechanisms that maintain sterility of urine
a. Adequate urine volume
b. Free-flow from kidneys through urinary meatus
c. Complete bladder emptying
d. Normal acidity of urine
e. Peristaltic activity of ureters and competent ureterovesical
junction
f. Increased intravesicular pressure preventing reflux
g. In males, antibacterial effect of zinc in prostatic fluid

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Pathophysiology
Pathogens which have colonized urethra, vagina, or perineal
area enter urinary tract by ascending mucous membranes of
perineal area into lower urinary tract.

Bacteria can ascend from bladder to infect the kidneys

Classifications of infections
a. Lower urinary tract infections: urethritis, prostatitis, cystitis
b. Upper urinary tract infection: pyelonephritis (inflammation
of kidney and renal pelvis)

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 Risk Factors

1. Aging
a. Increased incidence of diabetes mellitus
b. Increased risk of urinary stasis
c. Impaired immune response

2. Females: short urethra, having sexual intercourse, use of

contraceptives that alter normal bacteria flora of vagina and
perineal tissues; with age increased incidence of cystocele, rectocele
(incomplete emptying)

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3. Males: prostatic hypertrophy, bacterial prostatitis, anal intercourse

4. Urinary tract obstruction: tumor or calculi, strictures

5. Impaired bladder innervation

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 Clinical Manifestations of Lower UTI
Cystitis
1. Most common UTI
2. Remains superficial, involving bladder mucosa, which
becomes hyperemic and may hemorrhage
3. General manifestations of cystitis
a. Dysuria
b. Frequency and urgency
c. Nocturia
d. Urine has foul odor, cloudy (pyuria), bloody (hematuria)
e. Suprapubic pain and tenderness

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Clinical Manifestations ctd
4. Older clients may present with different manifestations
a.Nocturia, incontinence

b.Confusion

c.Behavioral changes

d.Lethargy

e.Anorexia

f.Fever or hypothermia

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 Pyelonephritis

It is the inflammation of renal pelvis and parenchyma

(functional kidney tissue)

Acute pyelonephritis results from an infection that ascends to

kidney from lower urinary tract

Risk factors include;Pregnancy,Urinary tract obstruction and

congenital malformation,Urinary tract trauma, scarring,Renal
calculi,Polycystic or hypertensive renal disease, diabetes
mellitus and Vesicourethral reflux

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 Pyelonephritis ctd
Pathophysiology

1.Infection spreads from renal pelvis to renal cortex

2.Kidney grossly edematous; localized abscesses in cortex

surface

3.E. Coli responsible organism for 85% of acute pyelonephritis;

also Proteus, Klebisella

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 Pyelonephritis ctd
Manifestations of acute pyelonephritis
✔ Rapid onset with chills and fever

✔ Malaise

✔ Vomiting

✔ Flank pain

✔ Costovertebral tenderness

✔ Urinary frequency, dysuria

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 Pyelonephritis ctd

Manifestations in older adults

✔ Change in behavior

✔ Acute confusion

✔ Incontinence

✔ General deterioration in condition

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 Pyelonephritis ctd

Chronic pyelonephritis
Involves chronic inflammation and scarring of tubules and interstitial
tissues of kidney

Common cause of chronic renal failure

May develop from chronic hypertension, vascular conditions, severe

vesicourteteral reflux, obstruction of urinary tract.

Behaviors
✔ Asymptomatic
✔ Mild behaviors: urinary frequency, dysuria, flank pain

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 Pyelonephritis ctd

Diagnosis

a. Urinalysis: assess pyuria, bacteria, blood cells in urine; Bacterial count

>100,000 /ml indicative of infection

b. Rapid tests for bacteria in urine

• Nitrite dipstick (turning pink = presence of bacteria)
• Leukocyte esterase test (identifies WBC in urine)

c. Gram stain of urine: identify by shape and characteristic (gram positive

or negative); obtain by clean catch urine or catheterization

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 Pyelonephritis ctd

d. Urine culture and sensitivity: identify infecting organism and most

effective antibiotic; culture requires 24 – 72 hours for results;
obtain by clean catch urine or catheterization

e. WBC with differential: leukocytosis and increased number of

neutrophils

f. Diagnostic Tests for adults who have recurrent infections or

persistent bacteriuria

i. Intravenous pyelography (IVP) or excretory urography

It Evaluates structure and excretory function of kidneys, ureters,
bladder

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b. Voiding cystourethrography: instill contrast medium into bladder
and use xray to assess bladder and urethra when filled and during
voiding
c. Cystoscopy
1. Direct visualization of urethra and bladder through cystoscope
2. Used for diagnostic, tissue biopsy, interventions
3. Client receives local or general anesthesia

d. Manual pelvic or prostate examinations to assess structural

changes of genitourinary tract, such as prostatic enlargement,
cystocele, rectocele

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 Treatment of UTI
a.Short-course therapy: 3 day course of antibiotics for
uncomplicated lower urinary tract infection; (single dose
associated with recurrent infection)

b.7 – 10 days course of treatment: for pyelonephritis, urinary

tract abnormalities or stones, or history of previous infection with
antibiotic-resistant infections; clients with severe illness may
need hospitalization and intravenous antibiotics

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 Management of UTI
c. Antibiotics commonly used for short and longer course therapy include
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ), or quinolone antibiotic such as
ciprofloxacin (Cipro)

d. Intravenous antibiotics used include ciprofloxacin, gentamycin,

ceftriaxone ampicillin

Possible outcomes of treatment for UTI, determined by follow-up

urinalysis and culture
1.Cure: no pathogens in urine
2.Unresolved bacteriuria: pathogens remain

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 Management of UTI

3.Persistent bacteriuria or relapse: persistent source of infection

causes repeated infection after initial cure

4.Reinfection: development of new infection with different pathogen

f. Prophylactic antibiotic therapy with TMP-SMZ, TMP alone or

nitrofurantoin may be used with clients who experience frequent
symptomatic UTIs

g. Catheter-associated UTI: removal of indwelling catheter followed

by 10 – 14 day course of antibiotic therapy

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 Management of UTI
Surgery
a. Surgical removal of large calculus from renal pelvis or cystoscopic
removal of bladder calculi which serve as irritant and source of bacterial
colonization; may also use percutaneous ultrasonic pyelolithotomy or
extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL)

b. Ureteroplasty: surgical repair of ureter for stricture or structural

abnormality; reimplantation if vesicoureteral reflux; clients usually return
from surgery with catheter and ureteral stent in place for 3 –5 days

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 Management of UTI
Nursing Care: Health promotion to prevent UTI

a. Fluid intake 2 – 2.5 L daily, more if hot weather or strenuous

activity is involved

b. Empty bladder every 3 – 4 hours

c. Females
1. Cleanse perineal area from front to back
2. Void before and after sexual intercourse

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 Management of UTI
3. Maintain integrity of perineal tissues
a. Avoid use of commercial feminine hygiene products or douches

b. Wear cotton underwear

c. Maintain acidity of urine (use of cranberry juice, take Vitamin C,

avoid excess milk and milk products, sodium bicarbonate)

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Management of UTI
Pain: Additional interventions include warmth, analgesics,
urinary analgesics, antispasmodic medications

Home Care: Teaching: prevention of infection and use

alternatives to indwelling catheter whenever possible

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 Urinary Calculi
1. Urinary calculi are stones in urinary tract
a. Nephrolithiasis: stones form in kidneys

b. Urolithiasis: stones form in urinary tract outside kidneys

2. Highest incidence in southern and Midwestern states

3. Males more often affected than females (4:1)

4. Most common in young and middle adults

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 Urinary Calculi ctd
Risk factors
1.Majority of stones are idiopathic (no demonstrable cause)

2.Prior personal or family history of urinary calculi

3.Dehydration: increased urine concentration

4.Immobility

5.Excess dietary intake of calcium, oxalate, protein

6.Gout, hyperparathyroidism, urinary stasis, repeated UTI infection

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 Urinary Calculi ctd
Pathophysiology
1. Factors leading to lithiasis include supersaturation (high
concentration of insoluble salt in urine), pH of urine

2. Types of calculi

a.Calcium stones (calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate)

1.Associated with high concentrations of calcium in blood or urine
2.Genetic link

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 Urinary Calculi ctd
b. Uric acid stones
Associated with high concentration of uric acid in urine
Genetic link
More common in males
Associated with gout

c. Sturvite stones
Associated with UTI caused by bacteria Proteus
Stones are very large
Staghorn stones in renal pelvis and calyces
Cystine stones: Associated with genetic defect

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Clinical manifestations
Manifestations depends upon size and location of stones
1. Calculi affecting kidney calices, pelvis
a. Few symptoms unless obstructed flow
b. Dull, aching flank pain

2. Calculi affecting bladder

a. Few symptoms
b. Dull suprapubic pain with exercise or post voiding
c. Possibly gross hematuria

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 Clinical manifestations ctd
3. Calculi affecting ureter, causing ureteral spasm

a. Renal colic: acute, severe flank pain of affected side, radiates to

suprapubic region, groin, and external genitals

b. Nausea, vomiting, pallor, cool, clammy skin

4. Manifestations of UTI may occur with urinary calculi

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 Clinical manifestations ctd
Complications
1. Obstruction: manifestations depend upon speed of obstruction
development; can ultimately lead to renal failure

2. Hydronephrosis: distention of renal pelvis and calyces; unrelieved

pressure can damage kidney (collecting tubules, proximal tubules,
glomeruli) leading to gradual loss of renal function

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 Clinical manifestations ctd
a. Acute: colicky pain on affected side

b. Chronic: few manifestations: dull ache in back or flank

c. Other manifestations: hematuria, signs of UTI, GI symptoms

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Diagnosis
Collaborative Care
1.Relief of acute symptoms
2.Remove or destroy stone
3.Prevent future stone formation

Diagnostic Tests
1.Urinalysis: hematuria, possible WBCs and crystal fragments, urine
pH helpful to diagnose stone type

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 Diagnosis
2.Chemical analysis of stone: All urine must be strained and saved;
stones or sediment sent for analysis

3.24-urine collection for calcium, uric acid, oxalate to identify possible

cause of lithiasis

4.Serum calcium, phosphorus, uric acid: identify factors in calculi

formation

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 Diagnosis ctd
5. KUB xray (kidney, ureters, bladder): flat plate to identify presence
and location of opacities

6. Renal ultrasonography: sound waves to detect stones and detect

hydronephrosis

7. CT scan of kidney: identify calculi, obstruction, disorders

8. IVP

9. Cystoscopy: visualize and possibly remove calculi from urinary

bladder and distal ureters

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 Management

1.Treatment of acute renal colic: analgesia and hydration

2.Narcotic such as intravenous morphine sulfate, NSAID, large

amounts of fluid by oral or intravenous routes

3. Medications to inhibit further lithiasis according to analysis of stone:

a. Thiazide diuretics: promotes reduction of urinary calcium excretion

b. Potassium citrate: used to alkalinize urine for stones formed in

acidic urine (uric acid, cystine, and some calcium stones)

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 Management ctd
Dietary Management: Prescribed to change character of urine and
prevent further lithiasis

1.Increased fluid intake to 2 – 2.5 liters daily, spaced throughout day

2.Limited intake of calcium and Vitamin D sources if calcium stones

3.Phosphorus and/or oxalate may be limited with calcium stones

4.Low purine (rich meats) diet for clients with uric acid stones

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 Management ctd
Lithotripsy: Use of sound or shock waves to crush stones
1.Extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy: acoustic shock waves aimed
under fluoroscopic guidance to pulverize stone into fragments small
enough to be eliminated in urine; sedation or TENS used to maintain
comfort during procedure

2.Percutaneous ultrasonic lithotripsy: nephroscope inserted into

kidney pelvis through small flank incision; stone fragmented using
small ultrasonic transducer and fragments removed through
nephroscope

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 Management ctd
3. Laser lithotripsy: stone is disintegrated by use of laser beams;
nephroscope or ureteroscope used to guide laser probe

4. Stent may be inserted into affected ureter after procedure to

maintain patency after lithotripsy procedures

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 Management ctd
Surgery
1. May be indicated as treatment depending on stone location,
severe obstruction, infection, serious bleeding
2. Types:
a.Ureterolithotomy: incision into affected ureter to remove calculus
b. Pyelolithotomy: incision into and removal of stone from kidney
pelvis
c. Nephrolithotomy: surgery to remove staghorn calculus in calices
and renal parenchyma
d. Cystoscopy: crushing and removal of bladder stones through
cystocope; stone fragments irrigated out of bladder with acid solution

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 Management ctd
Nursing Care
1.Focus on comfort during renal colic, diagnostic procedures, ensure
adequate urine output, prevent future stone formation.

2.Health promotion: adequate fluid intake for all clients, adequate

weight-bearing activity to prevent bone resorption, hypercalcuria,
prevention of UTI

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 Management ctd
Impaired Urinary Elimination
a. Teaching client and strain all urine; send recovered stones for
analysis.

b. Complete obstruction causes hydronephrosis on involved side;

other kidney continues forming urine; monitor BUN, Creatinine

c. Maintain patency and integrity of all catheters; all catheters need to

be labeled, secured, and sterility maintained

3.Deficient Knowledge: Client participation in treatment and prevention

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Management ctd
Home Care

1.Education regarding management current treatment and prevention.

2.Clients may be discharged with catheters, tubes, dressings; home care referral.

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