Acquaintance with an arbitrary germanic language

(German as relevant for English or a variant of the English language)

German is a West Germanic language that belongs to the Indo-European language

family. It is closely related to English, Dutch, Frisian, and the Scandinavian languages.
German has about 90 million native speakers and 80 million second-language speakers.
It is the official language of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein,
Luxembourg, Belgium, and the European Union. It is also a recognized minority
language in several other countries.

German has a long and rich history that dates back to the 8th century AD, when the
earliest written records of the language appear. The oldest form of German is known as
Old High German, which was spoken until the 11th century. It evolved into Middle
High German, which was used from the 12th to the 15th century. During this period,
German literature flourished, producing works such as the epic Nibelungenlied and the
romance Tristan. The modern standard form of German, known as New High German,
emerged in the 16th century, influenced by Martin Luther’s translation of the Bible.

German has many varieties and dialects, which differ in pronunciation, vocabulary,
grammar, and spelling. Some of the major dialect groups are Low German, Low
Franconian, Central German, High Franconian, Upper German, and Swiss German.
Standard German is based on the Central German dialects, especially those spoken in
the region around Hanover. Standard German is used in formal situations, education,
media, and literature, while the dialects are used in everyday speech and regional
culture.

German has a complex grammar system that features four cases (nominative,
accusative, dative, and genitive), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), two
numbers (singular and plural), and six tenses (present, past, perfect, pluperfect, future,
and future perfect). German nouns have a grammatical gender that affects their endings
and the articles and adjectives that modify them. German verbs have a stem that
changes according to the person, number, tense, mood, and voice. German also has
many verb prefixes that modify the meaning and syntax of the verb.
German has a rich and diverse vocabulary that consists of native Germanic words, as
well as loanwords from Latin, Greek, French, English, and other languages. German is
known for its long compound words that combine two or more words into one. For
example, the word Geschwindigkeitsbegrenzung means “speed limit” and is composed
of Geschwindigkeit (speed), Begrenzung (limitation), and the suffix -s that links them.
German also has many cognates with English, which are words that share a common
origin and meaning. For example, the words Haus (house), Wasser (water), and Bruder
(brother) are cognates.

German uses the Latin alphabet with 26 letters, plus four additional letters: ä, ö, ü, and
ß. The letters ä, ö, and ü are called umlauts and represent a change in the vowel sound.
The letter ß is called eszett or scharfes S and represents a voiceless s sound. German
also uses capital letters for all nouns and some pronouns, which helps to distinguish
them from other parts of speech. German spelling is mostly phonetic, which means that
words are written as they are pronounced. However, there are some exceptions and
irregularities that need to be learned.

Essentials of main linguistic subjects

Essentials of main linguistic subjects is a general term that covers the core areas of
linguistics, the scientific study of human language. Linguistics has many subfields, but
some of the most important ones are:

 Phonetics: the study of the sounds and signs of human language, how they are
produced, perceived, and represented.

 Phonology: the study of the patterns and rules of sounds and signs in human
language, how they interact and change over time.

 Morphology: the study of the structure and formation of words, how they are
composed of smaller units called morphemes, and how they relate to each
other.
  Syntax: the study of the structure and formation of sentences, how words are
combined into phrases and clauses, and how they express meaning and
function.

 Semantics: the study of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences, how
they relate to the world and to each other, and how they are affected by context
and pragmatics.

 Pragmatics: the study of the use and interpretation of language in social

situations, how speakers and hearers communicate their intentions,
assumptions, and expectations, and how they deal with ambiguity and
implicature.

There are also many other linguistic subjects that explore the connections between
language and other domains, such as:

 Historical linguistics: the study of the origin, evolution, and diversity of

human languages, how they are related and classified, and how they change
over time and space.

 Sociolinguistics: the study of the relationship between language and society,

how language varies and changes according to social factors such as region,
class, gender, ethnicity, and identity.

 Psycholinguistics: the study of the mental processes and mechanisms involved

in language production, comprehension, and acquisition, how language is
stored and accessed in the brain, and how it affects cognition and behavior.

 Applied linguistics: the study of the practical applications of linguistic

knowledge and methods, such as language teaching, learning, assessment,
translation, interpretation, and technology.

The practical use of e-dictionaries

 E-dictionaries are electronic dictionaries that can be accessed online or offline,

using devices such as computers, smartphones, tablets, or dedicated e-readers.
 E-dictionaries have many advantages over paper dictionaries, such as:

o They are more convenient, portable, and accessible, as they do not

require physical space or weight, and can be used anytime and anywhere.

o They are more comprehensive, up-to-date, and reliable, as they can

contain more entries, examples, and multimedia, and can be updated
regularly and checked for accuracy.

o They are more interactive, flexible, and user-friendly, as they can offer
features such as pronunciation, translation, synonyms, antonyms,
collocations, usage notes, and quizzes, and can be customized according
to the user’s preferences and needs.

 E-dictionaries also have some disadvantages or challenges, such as:

o They may require internet connection, electricity, or battery, which may

not be available or stable in some situations or locations.

o They may be distracting, addictive, or overwhelming, as they may

expose the user to irrelevant or excessive information, advertisements, or
notifications, and may reduce the user’s attention span or memory
retention.

o They may be inconsistent, incompatible, or incomprehensible, as they

may vary in quality, format, or style, and may not match the user’s level,
background, or expectations.

 E-dictionaries can be used effectively for various purposes, such as:

o Learning new words, phrases, or idioms, by looking up their meanings,

pronunciations, examples, and collocations, and by testing oneself with
quizzes or flashcards.

o Reading texts, articles, or books, by scanning or typing the unknown

words, and by getting instant translations, definitions, or explanations.

o Writing essays, reports, or emails, by checking the spelling, grammar, or

style, and by finding the appropriate words, synonyms, or expressions.
 o Communicating with native or non-native speakers, by translating the
messages, questions, or answers, and by learning the cultural or
pragmatic aspects of the language.

Students’ individual interests in languages and linguistics etc.

 Students’ individual interests in languages and linguistics refer to the personal

preferences, motivations, and goals that students have for learning and studying
different languages and aspects of linguistics.

 Students’ individual interests can vary depending on many factors, such as their
background, level, purpose, context, and personality. For example, some
students may be more interested in learning a language for communication,
travel, or career, while others may be more interested in learning a language for
academic, cultural, or personal reasons. Similarly, some students may be more
interested in studying the structure, sound, or meaning of language, while
others may be more interested in studying the use, variation, or change of
language in society.

 Students’ individual interests can influence their language learning and

linguistic development in various ways, such as:

o They can affect their choice of language, dialect, or register to learn or

study, as well as the resources, materials, or methods they use.

o They can affect their engagement, participation, and performance in

language learning or linguistic activities, tasks, or projects, as well as
their feedback, assessment, or evaluation.

o They can affect their attitude, confidence, and satisfaction in language

learning or linguistic outcomes, as well as their challenges, difficulties,
or problems.
 Students’ individual interests can be enhanced or supported by teachers,
researchers, or peers in various ways, such as:

o They can be identified, recognized, and respected, by using surveys,

interviews, or observations, and by acknowledging the diversity and
complexity of students’ interests.

o They can be stimulated, nurtured, and sustained, by using relevant,

meaningful, and authentic topics, texts, or tasks, and by providing choice,
autonomy, and challenge for students.

o They can be shared, discussed, and reflected, by using collaborative,

interactive, and dialogic activities, strategies, or tools, and by providing
feedback, guidance, and support for students.