A QUALITATIVE PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE MEANINGFULNESS

OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION ON

ADULT STUDENTS

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by

Priscilla Rocha
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A Dissertation Final Report Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

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Doctor of Educational Leadership

UNIVERSITY OF PHOENIX

February 2011
 UMI Number: 3467483

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A QUALITATIVE PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE MEANINGFULNESS

OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION ON

ADULT STUDENTS

by

Priscilla Rocha

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February 20 1 1

Approved:
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Lisa Isbell-Hager, EdD, Mentor

James Booker 111, PhD, Committee Member

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Diane Gavin, PhD, Committee Member

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Accepted and Signed:

Accepted and Signed:

Accepted and Signed:

Diane Gavin, PhD Date

~ e a n , - s c h o oof
l Advanced Studies
University of Phoenix
 ABSTRACT

The purpose of the study was to acquire a richer understanding of Hispanic Association

for Bilingual Literacy and Education (HABLE) participants’ perceptions regarding the

meaningfulness of the program in meeting their needs for English language acquisition

and cultural assimilation. The general problem addressed through the study was that the

majority of immigrants, regardless of native languages, demonstrated only minimal

proficiency in English literacy. This deficit in literacy skills resulted in limited economic

potential for participants. In the local Southern Nevada metropolitan area, 34% of recent

immigrants had not developed the requisite skills to be productive and successful as they

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acclimated within American culture. The study incorporated a qualitative data collection,
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using both a questionnaire and an interview protocol, designed to identify the extent to

which HABLE services were meeting the needs of the immigrant community.
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Convenience sampling was utilized in the study; the sample was comprised of 30

participants of the HABLE ESL literacy program who spoke the most prevalent Spanish

dialect. Findings indicated the HABLE literacy program provided meaningful and life-
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changing services to program participants in the areas of English language acquisition

and cultural assimilation. The study was the first scholarly inquiry conducted in the local

area regarding the HABLE program. Conclusions and recommendations derived from the

study may be used in the development of program goals and related policies concerning

continued program services in the community.

 v

DEDICATION

I dedicate this dissertation to the five most important and influential people in my

life. First, I dedicate this to my grandfather, Frank Ortega, who raised me and loved more

than anyone else in this life. He was a great role model and the most important person in

my life. He introduced me to the world of politics at the age of 5, and his wish for me was

to become an educator. I also dedicate this dissertation to my grandmother, Rita Ortega,

for instilling in me family values and the importance of motherly love. Finally, I also

dedicate this dissertation to my sons, Jerome and Bon Rocha, who have been my

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inspiration to succeed, and to my other half, Amo, who spent many lonely moments

watching television and making sure I had enough caffeine to get me through until dawn.
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I thank him for supporting me through all of my endeavors and for his words of wisdom.
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 vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank the following people: Dr. Jack Lazzarotto, for having faith in me

and providing me the opportunity to grow professionally; Ernie Jaurequi, for providing

me with ideas and advice; Dr. Edward Goldman, for being my mentor and such a good

friend; Dr. Esther Vargas, for taking the Adult English Language Acquisition Services

(AELAS) reins and running to my side every time I had a question about the doctoral

journey; Renee, my administrative assistant and the AELAS staff, for being so patient

with me during my most stressful moments; and to Manny Ramirez for tutoring me

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through the statistics class and always being there for me when I was ready to pull my

hair out if my computer skipped a beat. I also thank Dee Lublin for running to my side
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whenever my computer gave me stress that I did not need at the moment. Thanks also to
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Dr. Bennett for all her support. I wish to thank Dr. Isbell-Hager, my mentor, and Dr.

Booker, Dr. Radda, and Dr. Gavin, my committee members, for guiding me through this

entire process and for their kind words of wisdom and encouragement.
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Last but not least, I appreciate my two precious cats. King always brought me the

ball to play with him so that I could take a break from my assignments. Princess meowed

at me so I could walk away from the computer to scratch her belly and take a break from

reading and writing.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................1

Background of the Study .........................................................................................2

Problem Statement ...................................................................................................5

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................7

Significance of the Study .........................................................................................7

Nature of the Study ..................................................................................................8

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Research Questions ..................................................................................................9

Conceptual or Theoretical Framework ....................................................................9

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Definitions..............................................................................................................12
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Assumptions...........................................................................................................14

Scope, Limitations, and Delimitations ...................................................................15

Summary ................................................................................................................17
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...........................................................................18

Related Studies.......................................................................................................19

Documentation .......................................................................................................21

Historical Progression of Instructional Approaches ..............................................21

Instructional Models and Theoretical Constructs ..................................................23

Instructional Strategies...........................................................................................30

Stages of Language Acquisition ............................................................................31

Cultural Assimilation .............................................................................................37

Andragogical Principles .........................................................................................39

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Evaluation of Linguistic Programs ........................................................................41

Conclusion .............................................................................................................42

Summary ................................................................................................................42

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS ...........................................................................45

Research Method Appropriateness ........................................................................46

Research Design Appropriateness .........................................................................46

Population of the Research Study ..........................................................................47

Sample Group ........................................................................................................47

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Recruitment, Informed Consent, and Confidentiality ............................................49

Data Collection ......................................................................................................51

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Data Analysis .........................................................................................................53
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Timeline of the Study.............................................................................................55

Summary ................................................................................................................56

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ...................................................................................................58

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The Meaningfulness of the Hispanic Association for Bilingual Literacy and

Education Program: English Language Acquisition ..............................................60

The Meaningfulness of the Hispanic Association for Bilingual Literacy and

Education Program: Cultural Assimilation ............................................................63

The Meaningfulness of the Hispanic Association for Bilingual Literacy and

Education Program: The Training Experience ......................................................69

The Meaningfulness of the Hispanic Association for Bilingual Literacy and

Education Program: Personal Support ...................................................................76

Concerns of Program Participants .........................................................................79

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Recommendations of Program Participants ...........................................................80

Summary of Findings .............................................................................................80

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION.............................................................................................83

Background of the Study .......................................................................................83

Discussion of Results .............................................................................................87

Effects of Limitations on the Interpretation of Results..........................................95

Implications of Findings ........................................................................................96

Recommendations ..................................................................................................97

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Conclusion .............................................................................................................98

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................99
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APPENDIX A: PROGRAM PARTICIPANTS ...............................................................109
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APPENDIX B: PERMISSION LETTERS ......................................................................111

APPENDIX C: TELEPHONE SCRIPTS ........................................................................113

APPENDIX D: INVITATION LETTERS ......................................................................115

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APPENDIX E: PRESENTATIONS ................................................................................117

APPENDIX F: FOLLOW-UP TELEPHONE CALL ......................................................121

APPENDIX G: QUESTIONNAIRE................................................................................122

APPENDIX H: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL ...................................................................126

APPENDIX I: INFORMED CONSENT .........................................................................127

APPENDIX J: QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS...............................................................128

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: Stages of Language Acquisition for English Learners: Listening/Speaking

Skills ...................................................................................................................................33

TABLE 2: Stages of Language Acquisition for English Learners: Reading/Writing

Skills ...................................................................................................................................34

TABLE 3: Population Receiving Program Services .........................................................48

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 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

At the time this dissertation study was conducted, the combined educational and

psychological experiences of immigrants as they assimilated within American

communities presented a myriad of challenges (Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007; Wilton &

Constantine, 2003). It was essential that newcomers develop numerous skills as quickly

as possible in order to successfully acclimate in their new lives. For example, they needed

to simultaneously (a) acquire essential skills for daily living, (b) obtain gainful

employment, and (c) develop social support systems (Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007;

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Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006). A lack of language skills further complicated immigrants’

experiences as they attempted to overcome these challenges (Bohn, 2010; Olivas & Li,
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2006). In some geographical regions, the intensity of these collective dynamics was
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exacerbated as a result of the population trends and economical environments (Klingner

& Artiles, 2003; Piedra & Engstrom, 2009). Given the continual increase in immigrant

population, the challenges brought by these influences also affected program planners
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and administrators of the local educational entities (Coolican, 2010).

Approximately 47 million Hispanics lived in the United States in 2008 (Davies,

2009). In perhaps a more comprehensible representation, Piedra and Engstrom (2009)

reported that the adult figurehead of one in seven families in the country was an

immigrant. This equated to approximately 14% of families that were frequently

composed of two or three generations. Restated, 23% of all children below 6 years of age

who resided in America during 2004 had at least one immigrant parent (Capps, Bronte-

Tinkew, & Horowitz, 2010). The presence of immigrants brings measurable economic,

social, educational, and cultural effects that must be addressed and minimized (Bohn,
 2

2010; Davies, 2009; Van Hook & Glick, 2007). For example, local immigrants earned a

significantly low annual median income, necessitating dependence on free or reduced-

priced meals in the public school system (Metropolitan Research Association, 2010).

Based on local school district records, participants also frequently shared homes intended

for single families with family members or friends.

Bohn (2010) additionally reported that the increase in immigration in America

since the 1970s has resulted in numerous fiscal and social policies in efforts to both

“mitigate the costs . . . and augment the benefits” of immigration within a changing

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multicultural community (p. 29). Immigration laws were continually in the process of

serious consideration and revision. The various effects on family cohesion and parenting
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practices further complicate assimilation experiences for immigrants and particularly
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threaten both social and educational adjustments for second-generation children of

immigrants (Capps et al., 2010; Piedra & Engstrom, 2009). Demographic trends within

the local community mirrored this national shift.

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Background of the Study

The general population of the Southern Nevada metropolitan area, wherein this

qualitative phenomenological study was conducted, exceeded 1.8 million residents and

had historically grown at an annual rate of over 6% for the past 10 years (Metropolitan

Research Association, 2010). As Coolican (2010) reported, Hispanics comprised 22% of

the local population in 2000; Pratt (2005) stated that this percentage quickly increased to

25% within just 2 years. Coolican additionally reported that Hispanics comprised 28% of

the local population in 2008. By the time this dissertation study was conducted in 2010,

the Hispanic population, and particularly the Mexican Hispanics, in the area comprised
 3

nearly 31% of total residents (Metropolitan Research Association, 2010). Many Hispanic

immigrants had historically depended on the various services acquired through the

Hispanic Association for Bilingual Literacy and Education (HABLE) program for

developing the ability to both speak and write in the English language to assist them in

the assimilation process.

Over 2,600 immigrants, originating from 69 different countries and numerous

regions in Mexico, participated in the HABLE English as a Second Language (ESL)

literacy program in 2009 (see Appendix A). Concern existed that a lack of literacy skills

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would continue to be evident among immigrants who (a) may not have been participating

in literacy instruction; (b) may not have been participating in literacy instruction that was
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research based; or (c) may not have developed literacy skills in their native language and
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were, therefore, experiencing significant challenges in learning English. The significant

challenges immigrants face when relocating to the United States suggested the need for

an investigation into the value of the HABLE ESL literacy program in meeting
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participant needs.

A pertinent fact supporting the need for the study was that the annual median

income for HABLE participants was approximately $20,000, yet the annual median

income throughout the county was more than twice this amount at $45,000 (Metropolitan

Research Association, 2010). Because of this low-income status, participants’ children

depended upon receiving free or reduced-priced meals in the public school system. In

addition, adult non-English speakers served through the HABLE program typically lived

in substandard housing and lacked other essential resources.

The economic delta may have been a direct result of numerous factors. First,
 4

demographic profiles of participants, as noted in registration materials collected between

1985 and 2010, reflected that less than 30% of participants had graduated from high

school in their countries or regions of origin and that only approximately 15% of

participants had acquired any type of high school equivalency certification in America.

Furthermore, less than 50% of participants had resided in the local metropolitan area for

more than 5 years; approximately 20% moved to the area 1 year before this study was

conducted. Participants frequently shared housing with family members or friends who

had also migrated to America; approximately 80% had rented apartments, and the

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remaining participants resided in homes intended for single families. Because of

challenges qualifying for government-subsidized housing (DeFina & Hannon, 2009),

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only 2% had acquired governmental assistance.
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The HABLE ESL literacy program was founded based on the belief that non-

English speakers immigrating to the United States must first assimilate linguistically in

order to effectively participate in the local community. This belief was supported in the
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literature (Brown, 2007; Capps et al., 2010; Lee & Dallman, 2008). The program

incorporated the traditional bilingual model that was also recommended in the literature

(Hernández, 2001; Nieto, 2004). An additional component that was integrated within the

HABLE literacy program was an emphasis on cultural assimilation; this approach, as

well, was supported in the research (Bennett, 2003; Brown, 2007; Curtin, 2005b; Ivey &

Broaddus, 2007; Klein, 2008; Lee & Dallman, 2008).

The HABLE ESL literacy program was established in 1992 as a nonprofit agency.

Through HABLE, immigrants migrating to the Southern Nevada metropolitan area were

provided numerous additional services to assist in the assimilation process. Services

 5

included interventions to address needs in seven overall areas: (a) adult literacy, (b)

community lifeskills, (c) parent mentoring, (d) information and referrals for community

resources, (e) immigration assistance, (f) alternatives to gang affiliation, and (g) domestic

violence and abuse. This assistance was designed to minimize various social and

economic challenges historically experienced by HABLE participants.

This introductory chapter presents the statement of the problem, the purpose, and

a statement of the significance of this study. The research questions are also provided.

The chapter additionally explores the theoretical perspectives in the field, the definitions,

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assumptions, scope, limitations, and delimitations of the research. All segments of this

research study supported the identified problem noted within the setting and incorporated
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research in pertinent areas within the field of leadership.
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Problem Statement

The general problem addressed through the study was that the majority of

immigrants, regardless of native languages, demonstrated only minimal proficiency in

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English literacy (Hepburn, 2004; Nieto, 2004; Sum, Kirsch, & Yamamoto, 2004). This

deficit in literacy skills resulted in limited economic potential for this group. In the local

Southern Nevada metropolitan area, 34% of recent immigrants had not developed the

requisite skills to be productive and successful as they acclimated within American

culture (Metropolitan Research Association, 2010). A deficit in English literacy skills

directly affects employability skills, behaviors, earnings, and opportunities for both social

and civic participation (Sum et al., 2004). The need to address this problem was

paramount, as immigrants had historically comprised over 40% of the annual population

growth in the local community since 1998 (Bernstein, 2005; Sum et al., 2004).
 6

Traditionally, approximately 70% of immigrants within America were Hispanics

migrating from the many countries and regions of Mexico (Bernstein, 2005; Hepburn,

2004). This demographic shift had been noted in the local area and had brought

unprecedented demands on the economy and job market wherein tourism and gaming

were the major sources of employment (Metropolitan Research Association, 2010; Pratt,

2005). In light of the population trends and transient nature of the area, the challenges of

adult non-English speakers served through HABLE primarily involved financial

limitations but additionally included substandard housing and a lack of other family

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resources. In reflection of the research (Brown, 2007; Capps et al., 2010; Comprehensive

Adult Student Assessment System [CASAS], 2008, 2009; Lee & Dallman, 2008), the
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HABLE literacy program was founded to assist immigrants in linguist development in
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preparation for success in the cultural assimilation process.

The opportunity for participants in the local geographical area to develop English

literacy skills, establish a feeling of connection within the community, and gain financial
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security typically began with enrollment for HABLE services, as no similar program

existed in the local area. The belief that “language is at the heart of culture” (Bennett,

2003, p. 271) emphasizes the importance of the interrelated services provided to

immigrants in the Southern Nevada metropolitan area, as immigrants typically had not

developed the requisite skills to be productive and successful as they acclimated within

American culture (Metropolitan Research Association, 2010). The population of the

HABLE program consisted of immigrants ranging in age from 18 to 71. A review of

archived program notes reflected that HABLE participants consistently stated in

discussions held at town hall meetings and personal interviews, as well as in survey
 7

responses, that their primary need was that of language acquisition.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological study was to acquire a richer

understanding of HABLE participants’ perceptions regarding the meaningfulness of the

program in meeting their needs for English language acquisition and cultural

assimilation. The study incorporated a qualitative data collection designed to identify the

extent to which HABLE services were meeting the needs of the immigrant community.

Convenience sampling was utilized in the study; the sample was comprised of 30

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participants of the HABLE ESL literacy program who spoke the most prevalent Spanish

dialect. The researcher selected this non-probability sampling technique because of

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participants’ convenient accessibility and close proximity to the researcher and to reduce
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the subjects’ fear of exposing their identity and legal status.

Worthen, Sanders, and Fitzpatrick (2004) described qualitative inquiry as research

studies focusing on processes rather than outcomes. Worthen et al. (2004) additionally
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reported that the examination of narrative, verbal descriptions adds a measureable level

of both depth and richness to a study. Fitzpatrick, Sanders, and Worthen (2004) also

endorsed the relevance of qualitative studies by reporting the increased emphasis on

qualitative data. Likewise, this phenomenological research was designed to gain the

shared meaning of the experience of HABLE participants. As expected at the onset of the

study, the study provided program leaders with a richer understanding of participants’

experiences and the meaningfulness of the HABLE ESL program.

Significance of the Study

Findings derived from the study have contributed to the current literature by
 8

assisting in the identification of critical perspectives of immigrants. The contributions of

participants provided richness and depth that had previously gone undiscovered in the

local setting because of the absence of examination. Findings of the study additionally

contributed to the professional literature. The collective emphases involved investigation

of the challenges and needs of local immigrants regarding both literacy acquisition and

cultural assimilation. Through these emphases, a potential gap in the literature was filled.

Through an examination involving reports of HABLE ESL program participants

regarding the extent to which the literacy program was meeting their needs, two

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categories of topics were thoroughly examined. The first involved language acquisition;

the second was in the area of cultural assimilation. By conducting the study,
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recommendations were identified for improving the HABLE ESL instructional model for
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continued application within the community.

Nature of the Study

A qualitative phenomenological design was selected for use in this study. Gay,
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Mills, and Airasian (2005) described phenomenology as a study regarding how

“phenomena are experienced by participants” (p. 201). The approach was similarly

described by Gall, Gall, and Borg (2003) who described phenomenology as “the study of

the different ways in which people conceptualize the world around them” (p. 632).

Hoffman (2010) further described the phenomenological design as one that “requires the

researcher to demonstrate a thorough understanding of the underlying paradigms that

guide qualitative research” (p 284).

Qualitative research, similarly, is used to “capture the human meanings of social

life as it is lived, experienced, and understood by the participants” (Gay et al., 2005, p.
 9

201). An initial review of the literature supported the expectation that implications and

outcomes would be derived and substantiated from the analysis of qualitative data

acquired through questionnaire and interview responses (Creswell, 2002, 2003;

Fitzpatrick et al., 2004; Gall et al., 2003; McMillan & Schumacher, 2006). The intention

was to examine the experiences and meaningfulness of participants within the HABLE

ESL literacy program in order to identify the extent to which participants felt their needs

for language proficiency and cultural assimilation were addressed. Through this study,

the value of the HABLE model was explored; results provided a basis for recommending

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program improvements for continued application within the local community.

Research Questions IE
Two research questions were used to explore participants’ perceptions of the
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HABLE ESL literacy program. The first asked, “What are participants’ perceptions

regarding the meaningfulness of the program in meeting their needs for English language

acquisition?” The second asked, “What are participants’ perceptions regarding the
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meaningfulness of the program in meeting their needs for cultural assimilation?”

Conceptual or Theoretical Framework

The traditional bilingual model, supporting English instruction with students’

native language, was the approach used in the HABLE ESL literacy program. This

instructional design was initially developed for implementation over a 3-year period of

time. After 3 years, language learners were expected to become fully immersed in the

second language (Hernández, 2001; Nieto, 2004). As supported in the literature,

instruction in the English language was provided as an emphasis within the HABLE

instructional program (Curtin, 2005b; Fu, 2004; Hernández, 2001; Ivey & Broaddus,
 10

2007).

Participants’ native language served as the crux of the instructional experience for

the purpose of enhancing both understanding and language assimilation (Hernández,

2001; Honigsfeld, 2009; Nieto, 2004). The bilingual model also contains an integrated

component addressing cultural assimilation for the purpose of adding relevance to the

learning experience (Bennett, 2003; Brown, 2007; Curtin, 2005b; Ivey & Broaddus,

2007; Klein, 2008; Lee & Dallman, 2008), and this emphasis was embedded within the

HABLE program as well. An important factor in ESL instruction is the ability to

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effectively assess educational progress, and this need was intricately woven throughout

the HABLE literacy program as participants’ demonstrated skills necessary for promotion
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to subsequent instructional levels.
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Fu (2004) urged educators to realize that English language learner (ELL) students

are more knowledgeable than they may be able to express within the academic domain.

Consequently, Fu urged educators to not underestimate students’ acquired functional

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skills and contextual understanding. Rehm (2008) similarly encouraged the use of

alternative methods for measuring student learning. In reflection of these ideals, the

CASAS (2008) model was used for assessing language skills of HABLE ESL

participants. The model consisted of six stages of English proficiency collectively

identifying performance in the areas of listening, speaking, reading, and writing (CASAS,

2008, 2009). Performance standards incorporated in the HABLE ESL literacy program

were mutually aligned with both CASAS skills (2008, 2009) and state English language

arts standards (Nevada Department of Education, 2009). Of the six skills levels identified

by CASAS, four were incorporated in the HABLE ESL literacy program: (a) beginning
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literacy, (b) high beginning, (c) low intermediate, and (d) high intermediate (CASAS,

2008, 2009).

Because of their immediate need to assimilate within the community, it was

necessary for HABLE ESL participants to participate in educational activities while

meeting the various challenges within the broader community. These challenges were

exacerbated by numerous factors such as (a) English skills (Capps et al., 2010); (b) age

(Curtin, 2005b; Nordby, 2009; Wilton & Constantine, 2003), (c) literacy skills in the

native language (Nordby, 2009), (d) motivation to succeed (DelliCarpini, 2008), (e) the

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absence of a social network (Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007), (f) the emotional trauma that

may have occurred in country of origin (Nisbet & Tindall, 2004; Poyrazli & Grahame,
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2007), and (g) the level of similarity between English and the native language (Nordby,
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2009).

With cultural assimilation embedded throughout the HABLE linguistic

components, these collective challenges were addressed in efforts to assist participants in

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becoming knowledgeable and active citizens in the shortest time possible. Instructors

within the HABLE program also incorporated strategies believed to assist participants in

assimilating within the local community. For example, instructors expressed appreciation

for diversity, as encouraged by Brown (2007) as well as Lee and Dallman (2008). When

possible, instructors’ responses reflected cultural responsiveness and knowledge of the

challenges experienced by participants. Instructors also strived to help build participants’

relationships with others within the classroom in efforts to engage students and reduce

the feeling of isolation; this practice was supported by Ivey and Broaddus (2007). Adult

learning theory, emphasizing the importance of participants’ perspectives (Knowles,

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Holton, & Swanson, 2005), was additionally incorporated within the HABLE

instructional process. As an additional emphasis, instruction was differentiated, when

possible, as recommended by George (2005) as well as Mann and Willis (2000).

Definitions

Numerous terms are utilized throughout this document. Although the terms may

be familiar to the reader, definitions are provided herein to clarify their meanings

expressly for application in this research study.

Acculturation: The “process of cultural adaptation or change that results from

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sustained contact between two or more cultures” is referenced as acculturation (Capps et

al., 2010, p. 63). IE

Bilingual instruction: This instructional strategy incorporates the simultaneous
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use of two languages (American Institutes for Research, 2009; Curtin, 2005b; Honigsfeld,

2009).

Conformability: The conformability of data is the level of objectivity used

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throughout the process of analyzing and interpreting findings (Merriam, 1998).

Credibility: The credibility of a qualitative research study refers to the assurance

that data are authentic and that they measure the intended phenomena (Lincoln & Guba,

1985).

Cultural assimilation: Bennett (2003) described cultural assimilation as the

belief that “ethnic minorities are expected to give up their traditions and blend in or be

absorbed by the mainstream society” (p. 14). Poyrazli and Grahame (2007) further

described the process as one involving the incorporation of beliefs, values, attitudes, and

behaviors of the host culture. Capps et al. (2010) additionally stated that assimilation is
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one of our forms of acculturation.

Cultural pluralism: The continued practice of native cultural traditions while

simultaneously embracing the mores and practices derived from a second or subsequent

culture is described as cultural pluralism (Bennett, 2003). Capps et al. (2010) referenced

this stage of acculturation as integration.

Dependability: The “stability of data” is referenced as dependability (Mills,

2007, p. 86).

Didactic instruction: This instructional strategy is subject centered and

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emphasizes vocabulary development (Curtin, 2005a, 2005b).

ESL instruction: Representatives of the American Institutes for Research (2009)

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described ESL instruction as intensive instructional approach in English for limited
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English proficient or nonnative students.

Immersion: The practice of placing English learners in classes designed for

native English speakers without providing instructional modifications is referenced as

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immersion (Bennett, 2003; Hepburn, 2004; Hernández, 2001).

Interactive instruction: This instructional approach is student centered and

emphasizes the lesson content (Curtin, 2005a, 2005b; Gollnick & Chinn, 2006).

Linguistic competence: As defined by Hepburn (2004), linguistic competence is

the capacity to effectively communicate with persons of limited English proficiency or

literacy skills.

Sheltered instruction: This instructional model incorporates the combined use of

cognitive, metacognitive, and affective strategies while limiting vocabulary to words and

phrases that students can comprehend (Bennett, 2003; Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2004).