perspectives TWO 2000

PERSPECTIVES TWO (2000) UNIT 1
TRANSITIONS
Perspective two
Unit one
Past tense, present perfect and past perfect (focus on grammar 2, page 6)
1. Simple past tense ( see page 31 for information on simple past tense)
2. Present perfect tense ( see page 65 for details on present perfect)
3. Past perfect ( see page 120 for details on past perfect)
Transitions: in addition, moreover, however and for example (focus on grammar 3 page 8)
 Transitions are words that connect sentences. They show that one idea explains, exemplifies,
summarizes, results from or contrasts another idea.
For example, Omar studied for the test. However, he failed it. The transition, however, shows
that the first idea contrasts the second idea.
 Transitions are usually used in writing and in formal speech.
Some transitions and their usages
1. In addition and moreover
 In addition and moreover mean also.
 We use in addition and moreover to add more information to the first sentence.
Structure: subject + verb. In addition / moreover, subject + verb
First sentence transitions second sentence
e.g. a) Hamid works in a factory. In addition, he works in an office.
b) Hassan is a teacher. Moreover, he is a doctor.
Sentence a) means that Hamid works in a factory. He also works in an office.
Sentence b) means that Hassan is a teacher. He is also a doctor.
2. However
 However means but.
 We use however to join two contrasting sentences. For example. if we say that Ali is rich, the
contrasting sentence to this sentence is Asad is poor. We can join these two contrasting
sentences using however.
Structure: subject + verb. However, subject + verb
e.g.
c) Ali is rich. However, Asad is poor.
d) Bilal studied hard. However, he failed the test.
Sentence c) means that Ali is rich, but Asad is poor.
Sentence d) mean that Bilal studied hard, but he failed the test.
3. For example:
 For example means for instance or such as.
 We use for example to add examples to the first sentence.
Structure: subject+ verb. For example, subject + verb
First sentence transition second sentence (give examples here)
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PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS / INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
e.g. e) gul’s mother bought a lot of vegetables. For example, she bought tomatoes, carrots
and potatoes.
Note: it is also possible to use only nouns in place of a clause (subject + verb) after for example as in
the example below.
e.g. f) gul’s mother bought a lot of vegetables, for example, tomatoes, carrots and
potatoes.
In writing, we can use the abbreviation e.g. to give examples. (E.g. is the short form of the Latin
phrase exempli gratia which means for example)
For other ways of giving examples, see page 222 & 223
4. In fact
 In fact means actually or in reality.
 We use in fact to give a fact about the first sentence in order to prove the first sentence.
Structure: subject + verb. In fact, subject + verb
First sentence transition second sentence (add a fact here)
e.g. f) Saudi Arabia has a lot of oil . In fact, it is the richest oil country in the world
First sentence this is a fact to prove the first sentence
g) English is an old language. In fact, it is six thousand years old
First sentence this is a fact to prove the first sentence
Grammar terms
Other terms for transitions are discourse markers, connective adverbs, interrupters and liking
adjunct.
Present perfect continuous and past perfect continuous (focus on grammar 4, page 10)
1. Present perfect continuous tense
See page 92 for details on present perfect continuous tense.
2. Past perfect continuous tense.
See page 120 for details on past perfect continuous tense.
Indefinite pronouns (focus grammar 5, page 12)

 Indefinite pronouns refer to an unspecific person or thing.
 These are indefinite pennons:
For persons for things (for things, see page 57)
Someone, anyone, no one something, anything, nothing.
 Indefinite pennons which start with some (someone, something) are used in positive
sentences.
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INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
 Indefinite pronouns which start with any (anyone, anything) are used in negative sentences
and in questions.
 Indefitne pronous which start with no ( no one , nothing) are used in positive sentences, but
the meaning is negative.
How to use indianite pronouns
 Indefinite pronouns are usually used after verbs (as object).
Structure: subject + verb + indefinite pronouns ( someone, anyone , no one)
Someone: refers to an unspecific person. Someone is used in positive sentences.

e.g. a) Muhammad met someone. B) They visited someone yesterday.
Subject + verb + indefinite pronouns subject + verb + indefinite pronouns
In sentence a) someone refers to an unspecific person. We don’t know the person Muhammad met ,
so we say he met someone.
In sentence b) someone refers to an unspecific person. We don’t know the person they visited, so we
say they visited someone.
Anyone: refers to an unspecific person. Anyone is used in questions and in negative sentences.
e.g. c) Ahmad doesn’t talk to anyone. D) Did they see anyone in the class?
In sentence c) anyone refers to an unspecific person. it is used in a negative sentence.
In sentence d) anyone refers to an unspecific person. it used in a question .
No on: refers to an unspecific person. it is used in positive sentences, but the meaning is negative .
no one in positive sentence has the same meaning as anyone in negative sentence.
e.g. e) Ahmad me t no one. F) we saw no one at the market .
Sentence e) means that Ahmad didn’t meet anyone.

Sentence f) means that we didn’t see anyone.
Using adjectives with indefinite pronouns
 An adjective gives more information about a noun or pronouns
 To give more information about a pronouns, we use the following structure:
Structure pronoun + be ( is, am ,are , were) + adjective
e.g. g) We are happy. H) she is sick today.
In sentence g) the adjective (happy) is giving more information about the pronoun (we) .
In sentence h) the adjective (sick) is giving more information about the pronoun ( she).
 To give more information about an indefinite pronoun, use the adjective after the indefinite
pronoun.
e.g.
I) She did not meet anyone famous. J) She bought something beautiful.
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ACTIVE VOICE / PASSIVE VOICE
In sentence I) the adjective famous is giving more information about the indefinite pronoun
(anyone).
In sentence j) the adjective beautiful is giving more information about the indefinite pronoun
something).
Grammar term: when the adjective is used after the noun or pronoun it modifies, the adjective is
called postpositive adjective.
In sentences I) and j) the adjective (famous and beautiful) are used after the indefinite pronouns
(anyone and something). These adjectives are called postpositive adjective.
Relative pronouns: who, which and that (focus on grammar, 6 page 13)
See page 122 -127 for details on relative pronouns.
Unit two
Passive voice (focus on grammar, 2, page 27)
Voice: voice is the form of verb ( e.g. play or is played) which show whether.
a) The subject does or performs the action of verb ( it is active voice)
b) The subject receives the action of verb ( it is passive voice)
e.g. Ahmad grows rice. We wrote a short story.
The above sentences are in active voice because the subjects ( ahmad and we) do or perform the
action of verbs( grow and wrote).
e.g. rice is grown by Ahmad. A short story was written by us.
The above sentences are in passive voice because the subject (rice and short story ) receives the
action of verbs ( is grown and was written).
More examples.
e.g. a) My uncle fixes trucks. B) Trucks are fixed by my uncle.
Sentence a) is an action voice sentence because the subject (my uncle) performs the action of
verb( fix).
Sentence b) is a passive voice sentence because the subject (truck) doesn’t perform the action of
verb , but it receives the action of verb ( are fixed).
How to change an active sentence to passive voice

Steeps:
1. Find the object in an active sentence. The e object is usually a person or thing and is used
after the verb.
e.g. a) Saleem sells computers. b) She taught Ali.
Subject verb object( thing) subject verb object ( person)
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2. Make the object (found in step 1) the subject of the passive sentence.
e.g. a) Computers b) Ali
3. Add to be verb (is, am, are, was, were, been) according to the tense.
e.g. a) Computers are. b) Ali was
4. Change the verb of active sentence to past participle (i.e.verb3).
e.g. a) Computers are sold b) Ali was taught.
5. Use the subject of the active sentence after the proposition by.
e.g. a) Computers are sold by Saleem. b) Ali was taught by her.
Points to remember about verbs
 There are two types of verbs when we talk about verbs in active or passive voice.
1. Transitive verb 2. Intransitive verb
1. Transitive verb: a transitive verb is a verb which takes an object.
e.g. a) Sufyan makes tables. B) She killed a cat.
The verbs ( make and kill) in the above sentences are transitive verbs because they take objects
( table and cat)
 Only transitive verb can be changed to passive voice. Therefore, the sentences above can be
changed to passive voice because the verbs ( make and kill ) are transitive verbs.
e.g. a) tables are made by Sufyan. B) a cat was killed by her.
 It is easy to know if a verb is transitive or not . if a noun ( e.g. thing or person) is used after a
verb , then the verb is transitive . some transitibve verbs are : teach , cook , buy, sell, bring ,
read , write , paint , fix , build , make , prepare, change etc.
 Transitive verbs can be used in active or passive coive as in a and b above.
2. Intransitive verb: an intransitive cverb is a verb that doesn’t take an object.
 Intransitive verb cannot be changed to passive voice . they should only be used in active
voice.
How to know whether a verb is intransitive
If one of these words is used after a verb, then the verb is intransitive .
1. Adverb
e.g. the teacher talks quickly . my friend writes beautifully.
The verbs ( talk and write) are intrusive verbs because adverbs ( queickly ) and beautifully) are used
after them.
2. Preposition
e.g. Asad went to Dubai. His cousin lives in londeon .
the verbs ( went and live) are intransitive verbs because prepostions ( to and in ) are used after them .
3. Adjective
e.g. your car look beautiful. The soldier is tall.
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The verbs (look and is) are intensive because adjectives (beautiful and tall) are used after them.
Active and passive forms of tense.
1. Simple tense
a) Present tense
Active forms passive forms
Positive: subject + verb (s, es) + object subject+ is, am, are + verb3 + by phrase
e.g. Bilal sells books. Books are sold by Bilal.
Negative: subject+ doesn’t / don’t + verb + object subject+ is, am, are + not + verb3 + by phrase
e.g. Bilal doesn’t sell books. Books are not sold by Bilal.
Question: does/ do + subject + verb + object? Is/am/are+ subject + verb3+ by phrase?
e.g. Does Bilal sell books? Are books sold by Bilal?
b) Past tense
Positive: subject + verb2 + object subject+ was, were + verb3 + by phrase
e.g. Bilal wrote a letter a letter was written by Bilal.
Negative: subject+ didn’t + verb1 + object subject+ was, were + not + verb3 + by phrase
e.g. Bilal didn’t write songs. Songs were not written by Bilal.
Question: did + subject + verb1 + object? Was/were + subject + verb3+ by phrase?
e.g. Did Bilal write an article? Was an article written by Bilal?
c) Present perfect tense

Positive: subject + has/ have +verb3 + object subject+ has/ have + been + verb3 + by phrase
e.g. Bilal has bought a house. A house has been bought by Bilal.
Negative: subject+ hasn’t/ haven’t + verb3 + object -subject+ hasn’t/ haven’t +been+ verb3 + by phrase
e.g. Bilal hasn’t driven the car. The car hasn’t been driven by Bilal.
Question: has/ have + subject + verb3 + object? Has/ have + subject + been + verb3 + by phrase?
e.g. has Bilal studied these books? Have these books been studied by Bilal?
d) Past perfect tense

Positive: subject + had +verb3 + object subject+ had + been + verb3 + by phrase
e.g. Bilal had eaten an apple. An apple had been eaten by Bilal.
Negative: subject+ hadn’t + verb3 + object -subject+ hadn’t +been+ verb3 + by phrase
e.g. Bilal hadn’t eaten pizza. Pizza hadn’t been eaten by Bilal.
Question: had+ subject + verb3 + object? had + subject + been + verb3 + by phrase?
e.g. Had Bilal eaten an orange? Had an orange been eaten by Bilal?
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e) Future tense
Positive: subject + will +verb1 + object subject+ will + be + verb3 + by phrase
e.g. Bilal will visit his friend. His friend will be visited by Bilal.
Negative: subject+ will not + verb1 + object -subject+ will not +be+ verb3 + by phrase
e.g. Bilal will not visit his friend. His friend will not be visited by Bilal.
Question: will+ subject + verb1 + object? Will + subject + be + verb3 + by phrase?
e.g. will we visit them? Will they be visited by us?
f) Future perfect tense

Positive: subject +will have+verb3 + object subject+ will have+ been + verb3 + by phrase
e.g. she will have finished the test. The test will have been finished by her.
Negative: subject+ will not have + verb3 + object -subject+ will not have +been+ verb3 + by phrase
e.g. He won’t have finished the test. The test will not have been finished by him.
Question: will+ subject +have+ verb3 + object? will+ subject +have+ been + verb3 + by phrase?
e.g. will I have finished the test? Will the test have been finished by me?
2. Progressive tense
a. Present continues tense
Positive: subject +is /am/are +verb ing+ object subject+ is/am/are + Bing+verb3 + by phrase
e.g. I am fixing a bike. A bike is being fixed by me.
Negative: subject +is/am/are +not+ verb ing + object -subject+ is /am/are+ not Being + verb3 + by phrase
e.g. I am not fixing a car. A car is not being fixed by me..
Question: is /am/are + subject + verb ing + object? Is /am/are + subject +being + verb3 + by phrase?
e.g. am I fixing a truck? Is a truck fixed by me?
b. Past continues tense

Positive: subject +was/ were +verb ing+ object subject+ was/were + Bing+verb3 + by phrase
e.g. Ali was watching a sport program. A sport program was being watched by Ali
Negative: subject +wasn’t/ weren’t+ verb ing + object -subject+ wasn’t/ weren’t +Being + verb3 + by phrase
e.g. we weren’t watching TV. TV wasn’t being watched by us.
Question: was/were + subject + verb ing + object? Was / were + subject +being + verb3 + by phrase?
e.g. Was he teaching past tense? Was past tense being taught by him?
Note: other tenses such as present perfect continues, past perfect continues, future co0ntinouse and
future perfect continues have only active forms. They are not usually changed to passive voice.
Modal auxiliary verbs in passive voice
 These are modal auxiliary verbs: can , could , may , might , should m ,must
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Positive: subject + modal aux+ verb1 + object subject + modal aux+ be + verb3+ by phrase
e.g. We can buy a grammar book. A grammar book can be bought by us.
He should wash the car. The car should be washed by him.
Negative: subject+ mod .aux+ not + verb1+ object subject+ mod .aux+ not+ be + verb3+ by phrase
e.g. They might not help Asad. Asad might not be helped by them.
She must not play soccer. soccer must not be played by her.
Question: mod. Aux. + subject+ verb 1 + object? Mod. Aux+ subject+ be + verb 3 by phrase?
e.g. Can Fahim win the match? Can the match be won by Fahim?
Suing by phrase
 By phrase is used in passive sentences.
 By phrase is used in passive sentences when we know the performer of an action.

e.g. Saeed will burn the wood. The wood will be burned Saeed.
By phrase is used in the above passive sentence because we know the performer of the action of
burn. The performer of the action is Saeeed.
 By phrase is not used in passive sentences when we don’t know the performer of an action.
e.g. The house was built in 1740. Our friend was killed last month.
In the above passive sentences, by phrases are not used because we don’t know the performers of an
action,. We don’t know who built the house in 1740 or who killed our friend, so by phrase is not
used.
Extra information
 The preposition by is usually used in passive voice to show the person who does the action as
in this example.
The car was fixed by Junaid.
 The preposition with is usually used in passive voice to how the thing with which an action is
performed. The tire was changed with pliers.
Using pronouns after by phrase
Pronouns in active voice pronouns in passive voice
He By him
She by her
I by me
You by you
We by us
They by them
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When to use active voice
 We use active voice when the subject of the sentences is more important than the object of
the sentence. It depend on the speaker whether the subject or the object is more importation
for him.
e.g. a) Ali: Asad broke the chair. B) Bilal: the chair was broken by Asad. S
In sentence a) for Ali, the subject (Asad) of the sentence is more important than the object ( chair)
so Ali made an active sentence.
In sentence b) for Bilal, the object of the sentence a ) is more important than the subject of sentence
a) so Bilal made a passive sentence.
When to use passive voice
 Passive voice is used when the object of an active sentence is more important than the
subject. It depends on the speaker whether the subject or the object is more important for
him.
E.g. Study example a) and b) above.

Passive voice is used when we don’t know the performer of an action.
e.g. a car was stolen from Sadder.
We don’t know who stole the car so we made a passive sentence.
Grammar terms
Absolute transitive: it is a transitive verb which doesn’t appear with an object. The object is clear or
unimportant.
e.g. He smokes (cigarettes). She is singing ( a song) .

Central passive: a passive sentence which has an animate noun as its agent.
e.g. The mirror was broken by Bilal (Bilal is an animate noun and is an agent)
Agent / actor: there are other names for the performer of action in passive voice which comes after
by in by phrase: by his brother.
Agentive prepositional phrase: another name for by phrase
Agent less passive voice: a passive sentence which doesn’t have an agent (or by phrase).
e.g. The room has been redecorated.
Ergative verb: it is a verb that can be used transitively and intransitively with different subject . the
intransitive use is like passive verb. Open. Sell, move, wake are ergative verbs.
e.g. She opened the door. The door opened.
Impersonal passive: the passive voice structure which begins with it and the action of verb is
attributed to no particular person. e.g. it is Said that …….. it is believed that ……
Introductory / anticipatory subject: the pronoun it in the structure (it is said that ) is called
introductory or anticipatory subject.
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Complex transitive verb: it is a transitive verb which takes or doesn’t take an object.
e.g. She played tennis (object) she played well (no object)
Labile verb: another term for complex transitive verb.
Long passive: a passive sentence having the agent is called long passive.
e.g. The car was repaired badly by Hassan.
Short passive: another name for agent less passive
Medio passive: a sentence with ergative verb is called medio passive.
Pseudo transitive verb: it is a verb that takes object , but can’t be used in passive voice
e.g. The white dress suits her. She owns a house in the hills
Mono transitive verb: it is a verb that takes two objects.
e.g. she sent a postcard to Fahim. ( two objects: postcard and Fahim)
Passive form of future tense (focus on grammar 3, page 29)

See page 141for information on passive form of future tense.
Passive form of modal auxiliaries (focus on grammar 4, page 31)

See page 141for information on passive form of modal auxiliaries.
Conditional clauses (focus on grammar 5, page 33)
See page 11 for information on conditional clauses.
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PERSPECTIVES TWO (2000) UNIT 3&4
SHOULD/ OUGHT TO + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
Unit three
Passive form of past tense (focus on grammar 2, page 47)
See page 140 for information on passive form of past tense.
Passive forms of present perfect and past perfect (focus on grammar 3, page 51)
See page 140 for information on the passive forms of present perfect and past perfect.
Unit four
Should have + past participle and ought to have + past participle (focus on grammar 2, page 65)
 These structures are used to give advice.
How to give advice
1. How to give advice in present or future.
 We use the modal auxiliary should to give someone advice in present or future .
Structure: subject+ should + verb + R.S (rest of sentence)
a) She has a test tomorrow. She should study for the exam.
b) Ali is sick. He should go to the doctor.
In sentence a) the speaker is giving her advice. The sentence means that it is good for her to study
for the exam.
In sentence b) the speaker is giving Ali advice. the sentence means that it is good for Ali to go to the
doctor.
See page 27 for further information on should.
2. How to give advice about the past .

 We use the structure ( should have and ought to have ) to give someone advice now about
the past.
 These structures mean that it was good for someone to do something , but he didn’t do it.
Structure: subject+ should / ought to + have + verb3 + R.S ( rest of sentence)
e.g. c) S1 I failed the math test . S2: you should have studied hard.
In sentence c) S2 is giving S1 advice now about the past . S2 mean that it was good for the S1 to
study hard, but S1 didn’t study hard.
e.g. Amir : I bought a used car and now it is not working.

Saad: you ought to have bought a new car.
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MIGHT / MAY /COULD + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
In the above example: Saad is giving Amir Advice now about the past. The sentence (you ought to
have bought a new car) means that it was good for Amir to buy a new car, but he didn’t buy a new
car.
Note
 A positive sent5ence with should have or ought to have has a negative meaning in reality
e.g. Usman ought to have done his homework.
The structure (ought to have) is positive, but has a negative meaning in reality. It means that it was
good for Usman do his homework, but he didn’t do his homework.
 An negative sentence with should have or ought to have has positive meaning in reality
e.g. Hassan ought not to have watched TV.
The structure (ought not to have) is negative, but has positive meaning in reality. it means that it was
not good for Usman to watch TV, but he watched it.
Might / may / could + have + past participle (focus on grammar 3, page 67)
Might / may / could / have + verb3
 We use the above structure to say now that something probably happened in the past.
Structure: subject + might / may/ could + have + verb3 + R.S rest of sentence)
e.g. S1: Ali didn’t come to class yesterday.
S2 he might / may / could have been sick.
In the above example, S2 is saying now that Ali was probably sick yesterday.
e.g. S1: I called Bilal last night, but he didn’t answer my phone.
S2: he could have gone outside
In the above example, S2 is saying now the Bilal probably went outside
Note: we can say a sentence of might may / could + have + verb3 in this way too.
Structure: maybe+ subject + verb2 + R.S (rest of sentence)
e.g. He might have been sick  maybe he was sick
Bilal could have gone outside  maybe Bilal went outside
Other usages of could have + verb3
 We can use could have + verb 3 to say that someone had the chance to do something but he
didn’t do it.
e.g. S1: last night was very boring.
S2: yeah, but we could have gone to the cinema.
In the above example, S2 means that we had the chance or opportunity to go to the cinema, but we
didn’t.
e.g. S1: I needed some money yesterday.
S2: you could have asked me. I was with you all day yesterday.
In the example, S2 means that you had the chance or opportunity to ask me for money, but you
didn’t
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MUST+ HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
 The negative form of could have + verb3 means that it was impossible for someone to do
something in the past.
e.g. S1: Javid Killed himself last night.
S2: he couldn’t have killed himself. He was so happy yesterday.
In the above example, S2 means that it was impossible for Javid to kill himself because he was very
happy yesterday.
e.g. S1: I saw your father last week.
S2: you couldn’t have seen him. He went to America last month.
In the above example, S2 means that it was impossible for S1 to see his father because he was in
America last week.
e.g. S1: Bangladesh won the cricket world cup.
S2: Bangladesh couldn’t have wont it. They are so weak.
In the above example, S2 means it was impossible for Bangladesh to win the cricket world cup
because they are so weak.
Must have + past participle (focus on grammar 4, page 69)

 Must have + past participle (i.e. verb3) shows that we are sure now that something
happened in the past? We are sure (over 90%) because we know from facts.
Structure: subject + must have + verb3 + R.S (rest of sentence)
e.g. S1: Bilal didn’t come to the class yesterday.
S2he must have been sick because he said he was feeling ill.
In the above example, S2 is sure that Bilal was sick . S2 is sure because he know from the fact that
Bilal was feeling ill yesterday.
e.g. S1: we called Shakib at 1:30 yesterday, but he didn’t answer.
S2: he must have gone to mosque. 1:30 is the prayer time.
In the above example, S2 is sure that Shakib went to mosque. S2 is sure because he knows from the
fact that 1:30 is prayer time and Shakib is good at praying on time.
Note: another way of saying that we are sure something happened in the past its:
Subject + be (is / am /are) sure + subject + verb3 + R.S (rest of sentence)
e.g. He must have been sick.  I am sure that he was sick.
Past unreal conditional clause (focus on grammar 5, page 71)

See pages 11-114 for further information on past unreal conditional clause.
See page 218- 222 for information on adverb clause of condition.
See page 152 for past unreal conditional clause with present meaning.
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EXPRESSING PURPOSE: SO THAT / IN ORDER TO
Unit five
Expressing purpose: so that , in order to + verb and to + verb ( focus on grammar 2, page 82)
 We can use the following three structures to show purpose:
1. So that 2. In order to 3. To + verb
1. So that
 So that is a subordinating conjunction . so that means with the intention that.
 So that is followed by a clause ( subject + verb)
 We use so that to show the purpose of doing something.
e.g. Ahmad Studies hard so that he will get a good position.
In the above example, so that shows the purpose of Ahmad’s studying . the purpose of his studying
is he will get a good position.
Points to remember about so that

1. If the verb is the main clause is in present ( e.g. plays or playing) , we use can or
will after so that.
Structure: subject+ verb (in present) + so that + can / will + verb1
Main clause conjunction clause after so that showing purpose
e.g. a) Haleem is going to the market so that he can buy some milk.
b) My uncle works in London so that he can earn a lot of money.
c) Javid is leaving early so that he wont5 miss the bus.
In sentence a) so that shows that the purpose of Haleem’s going to market is that he can buy some
milk.
In sentence b) so that shows that the purpose of my uncle’s working in London is that he can earn a
lot of money.
In sentence c) so that shows that the purpose of Javid’s leaving early is that he won’t miss the bus.
Notice: that can and will are used after so that in the above sentences because the verbs in the main
clause are in present forms (e.g. going, working, and leaving).
Note: present tense can also be used after so that in place of will or won’t. The present tense here has
future meaning.
e.g. d) Javid is leaving early so that he doesn’t miss the bus
2- If the verb in the main clause is in the past (e.g. played), we use could or would after so that.
Structure: Subject+ verb (in past) + so that + subject + could / would + verb1
Main verb conjunction clause after so that showing purpose
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EXPRESSING PURPOSE: SO THAT / IN ORDER TO
e.g. e) Daud went to the market so that he could buy some milk.
f) we worked in London so that we could earn a lot of money.
g) Javid left early so that he wouldn’t miss the bus.
In sentence e) so that shows that the purpose of Daud’s going to the market was that he could buy
some milk.
In sentence f) so that shows that the purpose of our working in London was that we could earn a
lot of money.
In sentence g) so that shows the purpose of Javid’s leaving early was that he wouldn’t miss the
bus.
Notice: that could and would are used after so that because the verbs in the main clauses are in past
forms ( e.g. went , worked, left).
2. In order to + verb1
 In order to is a variation of infinitive ( to verb).
 In order to also shows the purpose of doing something.
Structure: subject + verb + in order to + verb + R.S (rest of sentence)
This part of the structure shows purpose
Note : the verb before in order to can be in any tense.
e.g. h) I am going to the market in order to buy some milk.

i) we called her in ord3er to invite her to the party.
j) she will attend the class in order to learn English.
In sentence h) in order to shows that the purpose of my going to the market is to buy some milk.
In sentence i) in order to shows that the purpose of our calling her was to invite her.
In sentence j) in order to shows that the purpose of her attending the class will e to learn English. S
3. To + verb
 In place of in order to + verb, we can use to + verb without in order.
e.g. k) I am going to the market to buy some milk.
Extra information
 Another variation of to + verb is so as to + verb. It also shows the purpose of doing
something.
e.g. l) I am going to the market so as to buy some milk.
* For + noun can be used to show purpose as well.

e.g. m) I am going to the market for some milk.
 For+ verb ing shows the purpose of a thing and usually comes after the structure be used for
with a thing as subject.
e.g. n) A knife is used for cutting vegetables
~ 15 ~
SO + ADJECTIVE + THAT / SUCH+ THAT / SO MANY / SO MUCH
For + verb ing is never used to show the purpose of a person. To + verb is used to show the purpose
of a person.
e.g. Wrong He went to bazaar for buying milk.
Correct: He went to bazaar to buy milk.
Expressing cause and result ( focus on grammar3 , page 84)
 There are some of the structures which can show cause and result.
1. So + adjective / adverb + that
See page 94 for details on this structure.
2. Such + ( A/ AN) + Adjective + Noun
See page 94 for details on this structure
3. So many, so few, so much and so little

So many and so few
 So many and so few are followed by a plural noun ( e.g. cars, students)
 So many and so few show cause and result.
Structure: subject + verb + so many / few + plural noun + that + subject + verb
This part of the structure shows cause this part of the structure shows result
e.g. a) Peshawar has so many cars that there is always a traffic jam
b) We have so few chairs that half of the students cannot sit down.
So much and so little
 So much and so little are followed by a non-count noun (e.g. sugar, oil).
 So much and so little show cause and result.
Structure: subject + verb + so much / little + non count noun + that + subject + verb
This part of the structure shows cause this part of the structure shows result
e.g. c) Peshawar has so much pollution that we have to wear masks.
d) We drank so little water that I am thirsty again.
4. Because, since, because of and due to (focus on grammar 4, page 88)
To show cause and result , we can also use

a. conjunctions b. preposition
a. using conjunctions to show cause and result
 These conjunctions can be used to show cause and result.

1. Because :
 Because means for the reason that. S
 We use because to give a reason or cause that listener doesn’t know.
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BECAUSE / SINCE / AS
 The clause after because shows reason or cause.
Structure: subject + verb + because + subject + verb
This part of the structure shows result this part of the structure shows cause or reason
e.g. e) Ali came late to the party because there was too much traffic.
f) I went to the doctor because I was sick.
g) Because she killed her husband, the police arrested her.
In sentence e) because gives the reason for or cause of Ali’s coming late. The reason or cause is that
there was too much traffic. Note that this reason is new information for the listener.
In sentence f) because gives the reason for my going to the doctor. The reason or cause is that I was
sick. Note that this reason is new information for the listener.
In sentence g) notice the position of because. It can come at the beginning of the sentence too. A
comma is used when because starts the clause.
Note: when we want to emphasize the reason or cause, we use because clause second as in e) and f).
2. Since:
 Since means because.
 We use since when the listener or reader already knows the reason.
 Since is usually used at the beginning of a sentence.
e.g. h) Since this is perspective ii, we must always speak English.
i) Since the car is fixed, we can go on a trip.
In sentence h) since gives the reason for the action we must speak English. The reson is that the class
is perspective ii. The listener already knows this reason.
3- As
 As means because
 We use as to give reason when the listener or reader already knows the reason.
 As is usually used at the beginning of the sentence.
e.g. j) As the weather was hot, we went swimming.
k) As Sunday was off, we played soccer.
Note: the clauses with because, since and as are called adverb clause (see page 206) other words
meaning because.
1- In as much as
e.g. i) In as much as the weather was hot, we went swimming
2- As long as
e.g. m) As long as the weather was hot, we went swimming.
3- Now that
 The clause after now that must be in present tense or present perfect tense.
 Past tense can’t be used after now that.
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PAST UNREAL CONDITIONAL CLAUSE WITH PRESENT RESULT
e.g. n) Now that the weather is hot, we should go swimming.
o) Now that he has married, he has a lot of responsibilities.
B. using prepositions, to show cause and result
 Because of and due to are proposition that give the reason for or the cause of an action.
 We use a noun or gerund (verb + ing) after because of and due to.
Structure: subject + verb + because of / due to + noun / verb + ing

e.g. p) Many people die every year because of cancer.
q) Usman failed the chemistry exam due to studying little.
In sentence p) because of give the reason for or the cause of many people’s death; the reason or
cause is cancer. Notice that a noun (cancer) is used after because of.
In sentence q) due to give the reason for or cause of Usman’s failing the exam; the reason I studying
little. Notec that a gerund ( studying) is used after due to .
 Because of and due to can be used at the beginning of the sentence too.
e.g. Because of / due to cancer, many people die every year.
Extra information
 We use a noun or a gerund after because of and due to as in examples p and q above but we
can also use a cause ( subject t+ verb ) after because of and due to. Because of and due to
must first be followed by the fact that.
e.g. Because of hot weather, we went swimming.
Noun
Because of the fact that the weather was hot, we went swimming.
Subject verb
Past unreal condition clause with present results. (Focus on grammar 5, page 90)
 It is possible to use a past unreal conditional clause with present result.
 The structure of past unreal conditional clause is If+ subject+ had + verb3 ( see page 111 for
further information on past unreal conditional clause)
 The structure to show present result is subject + would / could + verb1
Structure together: if + subject + had+verb3 subject + would /could+ verb1
This shows that an action didn’t happen in the past this shows the imaginary result
e.g.
a) If I had eaten breakfast, I wouldn’t be hungry now.
b) If she had worked harder, she could be the director of the company
c) If they had married, they would have kids now.
Sentence a) means that I didn’t eat breakfast in the past, so the result in the present that I am hungry
now.
Sentence b) means that she didn’t work harder, so she can’t be the director of the company.
Sentence c) means that they didn’t marry, so the result in the present is that they have no kids.
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STATIVE VERBS
Unit six
Stative verbs (focus on grammar 3, page 104)
 A verb shows action or state of being.
e.g. a) The doctor is cleaning his car. B) His clothes are dirty.
In sentence a) the verb (is cleaning) shows action.
In sentence b) the verb ( are) shows the state of his clothes not action.
Kinds of verbs: according to the definition of verbs above , there are two kinds of verbs:
1. Action verbs 2. Stative verbs
1. Action verbs:
 Action verbs are also called progressive verbs of dynamic verbs.
 Action verbs show action ( as in sentence a above)
 Action verbs can be used in simple tense ( e.g. present tense , past tense , future tense or
present perfect etc.) and in continues tenses ( e.g. present continues , past continuous or
present perfect continuous etc.)
e.g. c) Hassan washes his car every day. D)he is washing it right now.
In sentence c) the verb wash is an action verb. It is used in present tense.
In sentence d) the vcerb wash is used in present continuous tense.
Grammar terms
Dynamic verb or progressive verb: these are other names for action verbs.
2. Stative verbs:
 Stative verbs are also called non progressive verbs.
 Stative verbs show state of being (as in sentence b above) they don’t show action.
 Stative verbs are only used in simple tenses (e.g. present tense, past tense, future tense or
present perfect etc.)
e.g. e) I Abu bakar needs some money to buy a car.

f) He needed some money to buy a bike last year.
In both the above sentences (e and f) the verbs ( need and needed) are Stative verbs and are used in
simple tenses like present tense ( e) s and past tense ( f).
 Stative verbs are not used in continuous tenses ( e.g. present continuous etc).
e.g. g) I am needing some money to buy a car.

h) I was needing some money to buy a car.
Both the above sentences are wrong because the verb need is a Stative verb and cant be used in
continuous tenses.
~ 19 ~
STATIVE VERBS
How to know whether a verb is a stave verb
 If a verb
a) Shows mental activity , emotion, state of being or possession and/ or
b) Refers to human senses
Then the verb is a Stative verb.
For example, the verb remember is a Stative verb because it shows mental activity.
Stative verbs showing mental activity

 These verbs show mental activity or activity performed by mind.
Believe, know, remember, forget, guess, imagine, understand, think
Stative verbs showing emotion or attitudes

 These verbs show emotions: like hate , love , need , want, feel , dislike , prefer
 These verbs show attitude : seem , look , sound , appear
e.g. His children like to eat ice creams. Our teacher looks sad today.
Stative verb showing state of being

 This verb show state of being : be ( is , am ,are was , were , been)
e.g. we were very happy last night.
Stative verbs referring to sense

 These verb refer to human senses : see , hear, smell, taste
e.g. She hears some noise right now
 These verb referring to senses are not Stative verbs: watch, listen to , observe ,touch
e.g. she is listening to the radio or she listens to the radio .
Stative verbs showing possession
 These verbs show possession : have , own , belong to , possess

e.g. Tahir’s uncle owns a cement factory.
Stative verbs that can be used in continuous tenses

 Some Stative verbs can be used in continues tense in these cases :
1. When there is a change in physical condition: the Stative verb feel is used in this case.
e.g. I felt sick yesterday, now I am feeling well.
The verb feel is used in continuous tense because there is a change in physical contention (I.e. The
change from sick to well)
2. When the Stative verbs show an activity of a short time. The Stative verbs be, smell and taste
can be used in this case.
a. Be subject + is/ am / are/ + being + adjective
~ 20 ~
STATIVE VERBS
Note: the word being is the continuous form of be and means behaving.
e.g. a) Ali is being stupid. B) They were being kind yesterday.
Sentence a) means that Ali is behaving stupidly Ali’s behavior of being stupid is for a short time. At
the time of speaking, Ali is doing something that is stupid. if we say Ali is stupid, this means that ali
is stupa all the time.
Sentence b) means that they were behaving kindly. Their behavior of being kind was for a short
time. If we say they were kind, this means that they were kind all the time.
Note: these are some of the adjective s that are used in the above structure with being. boring ,
crazy , funny , lazy , silly , friendly , brave , polite , naughty etc.
B) Taste and smell
e.g. c) She is tasting the sauce. d) They were smelling the roses.
Note: taste and smell are not used in the ing from when they are followed by adjective.
e.g. e) The soup tastes delicious. F) This dish smells nice.
3. When Stative verbs have other means.

 These Stative verbs can be used in continuous tense when they have other meanings.
Have think, look, see
a. Have
 When have means eat, enjoy, drink or take, it can be used in continuous tense.
e.g. g) Amjad is having a burger. (Having means eating)
h) We were having orange juice. (Having means drinking)
I) He is having a good time. (Having means enjoying)
j) When I called Ali, he was having a bath. (Having means taking)
 When have shown ownership, it cannot be used in the i8ng form.

e.g. k) My uncle has a big car. (Has shown ownership)
b) Think
 When think refers to activity going on in mind. It can be used in continuous tenses and is
usually followed by the preposition about.
E.g. I) we are thinking about this grammar point.
 When think means believe or have an opinion, it cannot be used in the continuous tenses. In
this case, a clause (subject + verb_ is used after think.
e.g. m) I think the government is corrupt. (Think means believe)
c) Look
 Look with preposition at can be used in continuous tenses.
e.g. n) the new student is looking at the teacher.
~ 21 ~
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
 Look followed by an adjective can’t be used in continuous tenses.
e.g. o) Imran looks sick today. (Not he is looking sick)
D) See
 See meaning to meet by appointment can be used in continuous tenses

e.g. p) Ahmad Zia is seeing the doctor tomorrow.
Future continuous tense (focus on grammar 4, page 106)

 We use future continues tense to show an action that will be in progress at a specific time in
future.
 The action will start before that specific time, but at that specific time, the action will be in
progress.
Structure: subject + will + be + verb ing + R.S (rest of sentence)
e.g. a) Don’t call me, Ali. I will be sleeping at 12:00 pm tonight.
b) Your class stats at 3:00 at 3:30 you will be studying.
in sentence a) my action of sleeping will start before 12:00 but at 12:00 my sleeping action will be
in progress.
In sentence b) your action of studying will start before 3:30, but at 3:30 your studying action will be
in progress.
Extra information
 The structure be going to can also be used in future continuous tense. Be going to is
informal.
Structure: subject + be (is/ am/ are) + going to + be + verb ing + R.S
e.g. c) I am going to be sleeping at 12:00 tonight.
~ 22 ~
DIRECT SPEECH AND INDIRECT SPEECH
Unit seven
Direct speech and indirect speech
 When we want to say one person’s sentence to another person, we can say it in these two
ways. 1- direct speech 2- indirect speech
1- Direct speech
 Direct speech is also called quoted speech and direct quotation.
 In direct speech, we say another person’s exact words without any changes.
For example: yesterday Usman told me this: I want to go to London. Now if I want to say his
sentence to you. I can say it in direct speech or indirect speech. In direct speech, I will say his exact
words like this: Usman Said, “I want to go to London.”
How to say in direct speech what another person said
i. Start the sentence with the name of person whose sentence you are saying.
ii. Add a reporting verb e.g. said.
iii. Say another person’s words.
e.g. Usman said, “I want to go to London. “

Reporting speech reported speech
In the above sentence, the first part of the sentence (Usman Said) is called reporting speech. The
words in inverted commas also called quotation marks (“ “_ are called reported speech.
 In writing, a comma is used after reporting speech (after said) and inverted commas or
quotation marks are used at the beginning and end of reported speech.
e.g. Usman Said, “I want to go to London.”
Extra information
 The reporting speech can be used after reported speech
e.g. “I want to go to London, “Usman Said.
 When the reporting speech comes at the end, it can be inverted.
e.g. “I want to go to London, “Said Usman.
 Tell can be used in direct speech, but it must be used after the reported speech.
e.g. “I want to go to London,” Usman Told.
2- Indirect speech
 Indirect speech is also called reported speech or indirect quotation.
 In indirect speech, we say or repeat another person’s words with some changes.
e.g. Usman’s above sentence in indirect speech
Usman Said that he wanted to go to London.
First change second change
~ 23 ~
We repeated Usman’s sentence in indirect speech. We made a few changes in his sentence. We
changed the pronoun I to he and changed the verb want to wanted.
How to change direct speech to indirect speech

 When we change a direct speech to indirect speech , we make these three changes in the
direct speech and it changes to indirect speech.
1- Changes in tenses 2- changes in pronouns 3- changes in some words
1- Changes in tenses
 Tenses are changed when we change direct speech to indirect speech if the verb in the
reporting speech is in past ( e.g. Said)
i. Changing simple tenses
a. Change present tense ( verb + (s, es)) to past tense ( verb2)
Direct speech Bilal Said, “I work hard.”
Indirect speech Bilal Said that he worked hard
b. Change past tense ( verb2) to past perfect ( had+ verb3)

Direct speech Bilal said, “I enjoyed the party.”
Indirect speech Bilal Said the he had enjoyed the party.
c. Change present perfect (has. Have + verb 3) to past perfect ( had + verb3)
Direct speech Bilal Said, “I have painted the room.”
Indirect speech Bilal said that he had painted the room.
d. Change future tense (will) to would.

Direct speech Bilal Said, “I will paint the kitchen.”
Indirect speech Bilal said, that he would paint the kitchen
e. Change future perfect ( will have + verb3) to would have + verb3

Direct speech Bilal said, “I will have eaten lunch.”
Indirect speech Bilal said, the he would have eaten lunch
ii. Changing progressive tenses

a- Change present continuous ( is/am /are) + verb ing ) to past continuous (was/ were+ verb ing)
Direct speech Bilal Said, “I am writing a letter,”
Indirect speech Bilal said that he was writing a letter.
b- Change past continuous ( was/ were + verb ing ) to past perfect continuous ( had + been +
verb ing )
~ 24 ~
Direct speech Bilal said, “I was waiting for the bus ,”

indirect speech Bilal said, that he had been waiting for the bus.
c- Change future continuous (will + be + verb ing) to (would + be + verb ing).

Direct speech Bilal Said, “I will be playing a game.
Indirect speech Bilal said, that he would be playing a game.
d- Change present perfect continuous ( has/ have + been + verb ing_ to past perfect continuous
( had + been + verb ing)
Direct speech Bilal said, “ I have been writing a letter.”
Indirect speech Bilal said that he had been writing a letter.
Note: don’t change the tenses in these continuous. Change only pronouns.
1- When the verb in reporting speech is not in the past.
Direct speech Bilal says,” I teach well,”
Indirect speech Bilal says that he teaches well.
There are no change in the tense in the above example because the verb in reporting speech is not in
the past ( e.g. Said). It is in present ( e.g. says). Only the pronoun has changed.
2- When the sentence is a universal truth or fact.
Direct speech Bilal said, “ the sun is hot.”
Indirect speech Bilal said that the sun is hot.
The sentence in direct speech above (the sun is hot) is a universal truth, so we didn’t change the
tense in indirect speech (the sun is hot).
Grammar term
Back shift: the change in verb from one tense to another in indirect speech is called back shift.
3- Changes in pronouns
 Pronouns are changed when we change direct speech to indirect speech.
a- Change the pronoun to he or she.
Direct speech Bilal Said, “I have a class,”
Indirect speech Bilal said, that he had a class.
Direct speech Nooria said, “ I want water.”
Indirect speech Nooria said, that she wanted water.
b- Change the pronoun we to they.

Direct speech Bilal and Ali said, “We need water.”
Indirect speech. Bilal and Ali said that they needed water.
~ 25 ~
c- Change the pronoun you according to the object of the verb said.
Direct speech Bilal Said to me, “you need water.”
Indirect speech Bilal said to me that I needed water.
Direct speech Bilal said to her, “you look beautiful.”

Indirect speech Bilal said that she looked beautiful.
d- Don’t change these pronouns (he, she, they or it). They remain the same.
Direct speech Bilal said, “She loves green tea.”
Indirect speech Bilal said the she loved green tea.
Direct speech Bilal said,” they are sick.”

Indirect speech Bilal said, that they were sick.
3. Change in some words
I. changes in modal auxiliaries
a. Change the modal auxiliary may to might.

Direct speech. Bilal said,” I may visit Saudi.”
In direct speech Bilal said. He might visit Saudi.
b. Change the modal auxiliary will to would.

Direct speech Bilal said, “I will visit Saudi.”
Indirect speech Bilal said, that he would visit Saudi
c. Change the modal auxiliary must to had to.

Direct speech Bilal said, “I must visit Saudi.”
Indirect speech Bilal said, that he had to visit Saudi.
d. Change the modal auxiliary can to could.

Direct speech Bilal said, “I can visit Saudi.”
Indirect speech Bilal said, that he could visit Saudi
e. Don’t Change the modal auxiliary should and ought to.

Direct speech Bilal said, “I Should visit Saudi.”
Indirect speech Bilal said, that he should visit Saudi
~ 26 ~
ii. Change in other words
Direct speech indirect speech direct speech indirect speech

This that today that day
These those tomorrow the next day
Here there yesterday the previous day
Do did last night etc. The previous night etc.
Come go now then
Has/ have had next year etc. The following year etc.
The day after tomorrow in two days ‘time a year ago a year before
How to change questions to indirect speech
1- Yes/ no questions
 To change yes/no questions to indirect speech, follow these steps:
a. Change the verb from Said to asked or wanted to know.
b. Use if or whether after asked (e.g. asked if / whether)
c. Change the yes/ no question to a statement and then change the tense and pronoun
d. Change the question mark (?) To a period (.)
Direct speech Bilal Said, “am I sad?”

Step a. Bilal asked
Step b. Bilal asked if / whether
Step c. Change the question to statement i.e. I am sad. Change the pronoun I to he
and the tense (am to was).
Step d. Change the question to a period.
Indirect speech Bilal asked if he was sad.
Question with Be
Direct speech Hassan said, “ are they swimming?”
Indirect speech Hassan asked if / whether they were swimming
Direct speech Shazia said, “ was/I hired?”

Indirect speech Shazia asked if / whether she was hired.
Question with does / do /did

 The auxiliaries does do and did are not used in indirect speech.
Direct speech Sajaad said, “Does she like tea?”
Indirect speech Sajaad asked if / whether she liked tea.
 The negative forms of these auxiliaries ( doesn’t , don’t , didn’t ) are not removed from
indirect speech.
~ 27 ~
Direct speech Omar said, “Doesn’t Bilal enjoy movies?”
Indirect speech Omar wanted to know if Bilal didn’t enjoy movies.
Question with have

Direct speech Dauad Said, “have they found a house?”
Indirect speech Dauad asked if they had found a house.
2- WH questions / information questions

 To change Wh questions from direct speech to indirect speech , follow these steps
a. Change the verb said to asked or wanted to know.
b. Change the Wh question to an indirect question and then change the tense and
pronoun
c. Use a period or full stop at the end of indirect speech.
Direct speech:
Step a. Omar asked or wanted to know
Step b. Change WH question into an indirect question.
Where is she studying  where she is studying

Change this part to indirect question
Change the tense and pronoun. The pronoun she can’t be changed:
Where she was studying.
Step c. Use a period at the end of sentence.
Indirect speech Omar asked where she was studying.
Question with be
Direct speech He said, “When are they coming?”
Indirect speech he asked when they were coming.
Question with does/ do/ did

 The auxiliaries does, do and did are not used in indirect speech.
Direct speech I said to him, “how do you study?”
Indirect speech I asked him how he studied.
 The negative forms of these auxiliaries (doesn’t, don’t and didn’t) are not removed from
indirect speech.
Direct speech Fahim said,” why don’t they smile?”
Indirect speech Fahim asked why they didn’t smile.
Extra information
 We can also use (instead of ask) inquire wonder.
e.g. Fahim inquired why they didn’t smile.
~ 28 ~
 Ask can also be used in direct speech , buy must be used at the end of sentence.
e.g. “ why don’t they smile?” he asked
How to change imperative sentence to indirect speech.

 To change imperative sentences to indirect speech , follow these steps:
a. Change the verb form said to told or ordered
b. Use after told or ordered the name of the person to whom the
imperative sentence was spoken.
c. Use to + verb after told or ordered. The verb in ‘to + verb’ must
be the verb of imperative sentence.
Direct speech I said to Ali, “Open the gate.”
Step a. I told or ordered

Step b. I told or ordered Ali
Step c. I told or ordered Ali to open the gate.
Indirect speech: I told Ali to open the gate.

Direct speech she said to him , “ give me the book.”
Indirect speech she told him to give her the book.
 If there is a negative imperative sentence, use not before the infinitive.

Direct speech Bilal said to me, “Don’t touch the wire.”
Indirect speech Bilal told me not to touch the wire.
 If the imperative sentence implies advice, the verb said should change to advice.
Direct speech: the teacher said to the student, “Work hard.”
Indirect speech: the teacher divides the student to work hard.
 If the imperative sentence expresses a request, the verb said changes to request.
Direct speech Maiwand said to Omar, “Please wait for me.”
Indirect speech: Maiwand requested Omar to wait for him
~ 29 ~
NOUN CLAUSE
Unit eight
Noun clause (focus on grammar 2, page 142)

 A noun clause is a group of words that functions as a noun. A noun clause has a subject and a
verb.
e.g. a) His letter pleased me. B) What he wrote pleased me.
Noun verb noun clause verb
In sentence a) the letter is a noun and is the subject of the verb pleased.
In sentence b) what he wrote is a clause because it has a subject (he) and a verb (wrote). This clause
is the subject of the verb pleased. This clause functions as a noun, so we call this a noun’ clause.
 A noun clause has a subject and a verb and stats with one of these words:
1. Wh question words ( who, what , where, when , why , how)
2. That
1. WH question words
 We can make a noun clause from information or WH question.
WH Question where was Ali sleeping?

Noun Clause I don’t know where Ali was sleeping.
How to make noun clause from Wh Questions

Steps:
i- Change a WH question to indirect question.
We can do this by changing the part of the question after the WH question word.
e.g.
Where was Ali sleeping?  Where Ali was sleeping.
Change this part to indirect question
If the question has does, do and did, remove them form the question.
e.g. Where does he work?  Where he works.
When did he go to Kabul?  When he went to Kabul.
ii- Now you can use this indirect question as a noun clause and can be used a subject and
object of verb (e.g. know, remember, tell, ask etc.)
As subject Where Ali was sleeping is not clear.
Noun clause as subject of the verb (is)
As object of verb: I don’t remember where Ali was sleeping.
Noun clause as object of verb (remember)
e.g.
What do they want?  What they want.
As subject: What they want is a pair of shoes.
As object of verb we will ask them what they want.
~ 30 ~
NOUN CLAUSE
Note: these WH question words are called conjunctions when they are used as part of noun clause.
2- That
 That is a subordination conjunction.
 To make a noun clause with that, follow these steps:
i. Make a statement e.g. Ali works hard.
ii. Use that before the above statement: That Ali works hard.
iii. Now you can use this clause (that Ali works hard) as a noun clause. It can be
used.
As subject
Structure: that + subject + verb + verb (usually be) + adjective
e.g. a) That Ali works hard is clear.
b) That Aslam Failed that easy test is surprising.
In sentence a) That Ali works hard is a noun clause and is used as the subject of the sentence.
In sentence b) that Aslam failed that easy test is a noun clause and is used as the subject of the
sentence.
 That clause as subject can also be used in this way.

Structure: it + be (is/was) +adjective + that + subject + verb
e.g. c) It is clear that Ali work hard.
d) It is surprising that Aslam failed that easy test.
 Some adjectives that can be used in the structure are: obvious, strange, splendid,
disappointing, essential, astonishing etc.
b. As object of verb
 A noun clause can be used as object of such verbs as: know, believe, think, expect, inform,
agree, doubt, discover, guarantee, observe, promise etc.
e.g.
e) We know that Ali works and hard. F) He agreed that he would help us.
c. after adjective
 That clause can be used after such adjectives as: glad, pleased, sorry, afraid, anxious, certain,
confident, convinced etc.
e.g.
g) We are sorry that we couldn’t attend your wedding.
h) She is confident that she will pass.
Grammar term
Nominal clause: another term for noun clause.
~ 31 ~
YES/NO QUESTION / WH QUESTION
Wh Questions or information questions (focus on grammar 3, page 143)
 WH questions are also called information questions.
 We ask information questions when we need information
 As information questions starts with these words : Who, what, when , where, why, whose, how
WH equation structure: WH Question word + auxiliary + subject + verb

Explanation of structure
1. Wh question word : these Wh words can be used in the structure : who , what , when ,
where , why , whose , how
2. Auxiliary: these auxiliaries are used in the structure
a. To be auxiliary (is/ am / are/ was/ were): when these auxiliaries are used then the verb
after subject should be in the ing form (e.g. studying).
b. To do auxiliary (does/ do/ did) does and do are for the present and did for the past.
When these auxiliaries are used, the verb after the subject must be in the first form
(e.g. study).
c. To have auxiliary ( has/ have) when these auxiliaries are used , the verb must be in
the past participle form ( verb3) ( e.g. studied)
d. Modal auxiliary (can / should / will etc.): when these auxiliaries are used, the verb
must be in the first form (e .g. study).
3- Subject: these subject are used in the structure: he , she , I , you , we , they
4- Verb: the form of verb to be used is explained in auxiliary.
e.g. a) Where is Habib working? B) Why does he study so hard?

c) How did he go to Kabul? D) Whose books have you taken?
Structure 2: WH Question Word+ verb + R.S
Explanation of structure:
 The verb b is this structure can be in any of these tenses:
a) Present continuous : to make a present continuous question , we use be ( is) and the verb
must be in the ing form (e.g. studying)
e.g. e) Who is teaching the English class?
b) Present tense: the verb must take s or es because the WH question words as subjects are
singular.
e.g. f) What makes you sick g) who teaches the Arabic class?
c) Present tense: the verb must be in the second form.
e.g. h) Who called the teacher?
d) Present perfect: the has+ verb3 is used after the question word.
e.g. i) Who has bought this car?
e) Modal auxiliary:
e.g. J) who can fix this car?
~ 32 ~
INCLUDED QUESTIONS IN STATEMENTS
Included questions in statements (focus on grammar 4, page 144)
 Before this structure is explained in details, we must know which part is the included
question and which is the statement.
e.g. I don’t know where he lives.
Statement included question
In the above example, where he lives is included in the statement I don’t know.
 We can include these two questions into a statement.
1. WH questions 2. Yes / no questions
 To include Wh questions into statements, follow these steps
a. Change the WH question into an indirect question: to do so, place the subject of the
question after the WH question word.
e.g.
Where is she teaching?
Wh. Word aux sub verb
Use the subject she after the WH question word where, the question will change to an indirect
question: Where she is teaching.
If there is does, do or did in Wh question, delete it from the question . If the auxiliary does is
deleted , use s or es with verb.
e.g. When does he stat the class  when he stats his class.
If the auxiliary did is deleted, change the verb to second form (e.g. verb2)
e.g. Where did he go?  Where he went
The negative forms (doesn’t, don’t and didn’t) are not deleted from the questions.
e.g. Why doesn’t he work  why he doesn’t work.
Why didn’t they call me  why they didn’t call me.
b. Use the indirect question (made in step a) after these statements.
I don’t know I don’t remember I don’t understand I am not sure
Direct questions: when is she coming?

Included question in statement: I don’t know when she is coming.
Direct questions: where did she teach?
Included question in statement: I don’t remember where she taught
2. Yes/ no questions
 To include a yes/no question into statements, follow these steps:
a. Change a yes / no question to a statement: to do so, place the subject of the questions at
the beginning of the question.
Question: is she paying soccer? Are they painting the room?
~ 33 ~
INCLUDED QUESTIONS IN STATEMENTS
Use the subjects ( she and they) of the questions at the beginning of the questions and the questions
will change to statements.
Statements: She is playing soccer. They are painting the room.
If there is does, do or did in yes/ no question , delete it from questions. If the auxiliary does is
deleted use s or es with the verb.
Questions: does she work here? Do they watch TV?
Delete the auxiliaries (does and do). Use s or es with the verb if does is deleted.
Statements: she works here. Thy watch TV?
If the auxiliary did is deleted, change the verb to past form.
Questions: did she visit her uncle? Did we see him last night?
Delete did from the questions and change the verb to past (visited and saw).
Statement: she visited her uncle. We saw him last night.
The negative forms ( doesn’t , don’t , didn’t) are not deleted from questions.
Doesn’t he study?  He doesn’t study
b. Use if or whether with the statements made from questions in step a.
e.g. (above examples ) if/whether she is playing soccer
if / whether they are painting the room
c. Use the statements with if or whether after these statements:
I don’t know I don’t remember I am not sure
e.g.
I am not sure if she is playing soccer.
I don’t know if they watch TV.
Included questions in questions ( focus on grammar 5, page 145)
 Before we explain this structure in details , we must understand which part is the question
and which is the included question.
e.g.
Can you tell me where he lives?
Question included question
in the above example , can you tell me is the questio9n and where he lives is included in the
question , so is called included question .
 We use included question in question to ask a question politely. Included question in
question is more polite than a direct question.
 We include these questions in the questions:
1. WH questions 2. Yes/ No question
 To include a WH question into another question. Follow these steps:
a. Change WH question to indirect question ( see the above structure)
~ 34 ~
INCLUDED QUESTIONS IN QUESTION
b. Use the indirect question after these questions:
Can you tell me do you know do you remember
e.g.
Simple question: where is Ali?
Included question in question can you tell me where Ali is?
Simple question: when does the class finish?

Included question in question do you know when the class finishes?
2. Yes/ NO questions
 To include a yes/no question into another question , follow these steps:
a. Change the yes/ no question into a statement ( see the above structure page 167)
b. Use if or whether with statement made from yes/ no question in a step a.
c. Use the statement with if and whether after these questions:
Can you tell me do you know do you remember

e.g.
Simple question: is he fixing my car?
Included question in question can you tell me if he is fixing the car?
Simple question: does he understand English?

Included question in question do you know whether he understands?
Grammar terms
Embedded questions: another terms for included question
Indirect question: another term for included question
Polar question: another term for yes/no question
~ 35 ~
EXPRESSING WISH
Unit Nine
Expressing wish (focus on grammar 2, page 159)
 We can express wish in present, past and future.
1- Expressing wish in present
 We use the structure (wish _+ past tense) to say that something is not as we want it to be or
we use the structure (wish + past ten se) to show a desire that is not as we want.
 We use past tense after wish, but the meaning is present.
Structure: subject+ wish (es) + subject + verb2+ R.S (rest of sentence)
e.g. a) I wish I had a car. B) She wishes she spoke English.
Sentence a) means that I wish to have a car, but the situation is not as I want it to be. In reality, I
don’t have a car. Or my desire is to have a car, but I it is not real
Sentence b) means that she wishes to speak English, but the situation is not as she wants it to be. In
reality, she doesn’t speak English. Or her desire is to speak English, but it is not real.
Structure2: subject + wish (es) + subject + were+ adjective / place/name of job

Note: were is used with all subjects both singular ( he, she) and plural ( I, you , we, they).
Was is not used
e.g. d) I wish I were a doctor. ( doctor  name of job)
e) He wishes he were in America. ( in America  place)
f) She wishes she were rich. ( rich  adjective)
Sentence d) means that I wish to be a doctor, but the situation is not as I want it to be . in reality I
am not a doctor.
Sentence e) means that he wishes to be in America, but the situation is not as he wants it to be. In
reality he is not in America.
Sentence f) means that she wishes to be rich, but the situation is not as she wants it to be. In reality
she is not rich.
2- Expressing wish in past

 We use the structure (wish + past perfect) to show that someone is sorry now about an action
that he did or didn’t do in the past.
Structure: subject + wish (es) + subject + had+ verb3 + R.S.
e.g. g) Usman failed the test. He wishes he had studied harder.
h) She left school. She wishes she hadn’t left school.
Sentence g) means that he is sorry now that he didn’t study in the past.
Sentence h) means that she is sorry now that she left the school in the past
Note: if the clause after wish is positive (e.g. had + verb3),it has negative past meaning
(e.g. didn’t + verb1) as in sentence g)
~ 36 ~
EXPRESSING HOPE (HOPE + PRESENT FUTURE)
If the clause after wish is negative (e.g. hadn’t + verb 3), it has positive past meaning (e.g. verb2) as
in sentence h)
3- Expressing wish in future

 We use the structure (wish + would) to show that the speaker is dissatisfied with a situation
and wants a change in future.
Structure: subject+ wish (es) + subject + would+ verb1+ R.S.
e.g. I) I wish they would listen to me.
j) She wishes her husband would eat little.
Sentence i) means that I am dissatisfied with the situation i.e. the fact that they don’t listen to me. I
want a change I future in their not listening. I want them to listen to me.
Sentence j) means that she is dissatisfied with the situation i.e. the fact that her husband eats a lot.
She wants a change in future in her husband’s eating habit. She wants her husband to eat little.
 The structure I wish you would is used to make a polite request.

e.g. k) I wish you would open the door, (please open the door.)
l) I wish you wouldn’t drive fast. (Please don’t drive fast.)
Grammar terms
The structures wish + past tense and wish + past perfect are said to be in subjunctive mood
Expressing HOPE ( focus on grammar 3, page 162)

 We can use the verb hoe to show a desire.
 We can use present tense or future tense after hope with no difference in meaning

Structure: subject + hope (s) + that + subject + verb (s,es) + R.S
Present tense
subject + hope (s) + that + subject + will +verb1+ R.S

Future tense
e.g. a) I hope that she comes at 5:00. Or I hope that she will come at 5:00
b) they hope that the quests go. Or they hope that the guests will go
Note : when the subject before hope is the same as the subject after hope, we can use infinitive ( to
+ verb) instead of subject + verb.
e.g. c) she hopes she will pass the test. ( subject + verb ( she + will pass ))
she hopes to pass the test ( to + verb ( to pass))
~ 37 ~
EXPRESSING HOPE (HOPE + PRESENT FUTURE)
Future perfect tense (focus on grammar 4, page 163)

 We use future perfect tense to show an action that will happen before another action or time
in future.
 These actions are joined by the conjunctions when and before.
Structure:
Subject + will have + verb3 + when/ before + subject + verb (s, es)
This action will happen first conjunctions this action will happen second
e.g. a) You will have studied this book before you start the next book.
b) They will have eaten when they come to class.
In sentence a) the action (will have studied) will happen before the action (you start the next book)
In sentence b) the action (will have eaten) will happen before the action (they come to class).
 We also use future perfect to show an action that will happen before a specific time in future
 The time expression usually comes after prepositions by and before
Structure: subject + will have + verb3 + by/ before+ time
e.g. c) She will have reached London by Monday.
d) Our class will have finished before 10:00.
~ 38 ~

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PERSPECTIVES TWO (2000) UNIT 1

Indefinite pronouns (focus grammar 5, page 12)

Someone: refers to an unspecific person. Someone is used in positive sentences.

Sentence e) means that Ahmad didn’t meet anyone.

How to change an active sentence to passive voice

Active and passive forms of tense.

c) Present perfect tense

d) Past perfect tense

f) Future perfect tense

b. Past continues tense

Active forms passive forms

Active forms passive forms

E.g. Study example a) and b) above.

e.g. He smokes (cigarettes). She is singing ( a song) .

Passive form of future tense (focus on grammar 3, page 29)

Passive form of modal auxiliaries (focus on grammar 4, page 31)

See page 27 for further information on should.

2. How to give advice about the past .

e.g. Amir : I bought a used car and now it is not working.

Must have + past participle (focus on grammar 4, page 69)

Past unreal conditional clause (focus on grammar 5, page 71)

Points to remember about so that

e.g. h) I am going to the market in order to buy some milk.

* For + noun can be used to show purpose as well.

3. So many, so few, so much and so little

To show cause and result , we can also use

 These conjunctions can be used to show cause and result.

Structure: subject + verb + because of / due to + noun / verb + ing

e.g. e) I Abu bakar needs some money to buy a car.

e.g. g) I am needing some money to buy a car.

Stative verbs showing mental activity

Stative verbs showing emotion or attitudes

Stative verb showing state of being

Stative verbs referring to sense

Stative verbs showing possession

 These verbs show possession : have , own , belong to , possess

Stative verbs that can be used in continuous tenses

3. When Stative verbs have other means.

 When have shown ownership, it cannot be used in the i8ng form.

 See meaning to meet by appointment can be used in continuous tenses

Future continuous tense (focus on grammar 4, page 106)

e.g. Usman said, “I want to go to London. “

How to change direct speech to indirect speech

b. Change past tense ( verb2) to past perfect ( had+ verb3)

d. Change future tense (will) to would.

e. Change future perfect ( will have + verb3) to would have + verb3

ii. Changing progressive tenses

Direct speech Bilal said, “I was waiting for the bus ,”

c- Change future continuous (will + be + verb ing) to (would + be + verb ing).

b- Change the pronoun we to they.

Direct speech Bilal said to her, “you look beautiful.”

Direct speech Bilal said,” they are sick.”

3. Change in some words

I. changes in modal auxiliaries

a. Change the modal auxiliary may to might.

b. Change the modal auxiliary will to would.

c. Change the modal auxiliary must to had to.

d. Change the modal auxiliary can to could.

e. Don’t Change the modal auxiliary should and ought to.

Direct speech indirect speech direct speech indirect speech

How to change questions to indirect speech

Direct speech Bilal Said, “am I sad?”

Indirect speech Bilal asked if he was sad.

Direct speech Shazia said, “ was/I hired?”