Method Explanation Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Headturn Preference Procedure Measures infants' preferences by Type of audio stimulus (e.g., natural Looking time, orientation time
(HPP) observing the direction and duration vs. unnatural speech)
of their head turns towards different
stimuli.
Habituation (hab) Infants are repeatedly exposed to a Type of stimulus (familiar vs. new) Looking time, response time
stimulus until their response
decreases, indicating familiarity.
New stimuli are then introduced to
measure renewed interest.
Eye-Tracking (ET) Tracks where and how long Visual stimuli Fixation points, gaze duration,
individuals look at various stimuli, saccades
providing data on visual attention
and processing.
Electroencephalography (EEG) Records electrical activity in the Type of stimulus Brain wave patterns (e.g., event-
brain using electrodes placed on the related potentials)
scalp, used to study brain responses
to different stimuli.
Behavioral Observes and records physical Type of task or stimulus Observable behaviors (e.g., actions,
actions and responses to stimuli, reactions, choices)
often used in conjunction with other
methods.
Causal Approach Tests causal relationships by Manipulated variable Outcome variable
manipulating one variable to see the
effect on another.
Cognition Investigates cognitive organization, Cognitive tasks or stimuli Accuracy, reaction time, error rates
representation, and processing by
examining how information is
understood, stored, and retrieved.
Map Tasks Participants describe a route on a Map complexity Accuracy, communication
map to another person, used to study effectiveness
communication and spatial
language.
Tangram Tasks Participants describe geometric Shape complexity Description accuracy,
shapes to each other, used to study communication clarity
linguistic and communicative
strategies.
 Grid Tasks
Opinion Tasks
make decisions about various topics,
Diapix: Repetition of Minimal Pairs
Lucid Corpora
language data for linguistic analysis.
Lexical Decision Task with Priming
prime word related morphologically,
fNIRS
Auditory Presentation of Stimuli
Dichotic Listening Paradigm
ET (Self-Paced Reading)
ET (Visual World Paradigm)
Participants navigate a grid-based Grid layout Navigation accuracy, decision time
environment, often used to study
spatial reasoning and decision-
making.
Participants provide opinions or Topic or question Opinion given, reasoning process
used to study reasoning and
preference.
Participants repeat pairs of words Phonemic differences Accuracy of repetition, response
that differ by only one phoneme, time
used to study phonetic perception
and production.
Collection of spoken and written Type of language data Linguistic features (e.g., syntax,
vocabulary)
Participants decide if a string of Type of prime (morphological, Decision accuracy, reaction time
letters is a word, preceded by a semantic, orthographic)
semantically, or orthographically.
Measures brain activity by Type of stimulus Blood flow changes in specific brain
monitoring blood flow, useful for regions
studying brain responses to stimuli
in infants.
Presents auditory stimuli to Type of auditory stimulus Response accuracy, reaction time
participants to study perception and
processing of sounds.
Participants listen to different audio Type of task (repeat vs. story) Accuracy of repetition or
streams in each ear and are tasked comprehension of the story
with focusing on one stream (e.g.,
repeat vs. story task).
Participants read sentences at their Text complexity Reading time per segment,
own pace while their eye regression frequency
movements are tracked to study
reading processes.
Tracks eye movements while Type of visual scene Fixation points, gaze duration
participants look at a visual scene,
used to study language
comprehension and processing.
 Grammaticality Judgment
Computational Modeling
Rapid Serial Visual Presentation
(RSVP)
Electromagnetic Articulometry
Electropalatography
Ultrasound
Long-form Audio Recordings
Video Recordings
Systematic Sampling
Non-word Repetition Tasks
Picture Identification Tasks
Participants judge whether sentences Sentence structure Accuracy of judgment, reaction time
are grammatically correct, used to
study linguistic competence.
Uses computer simulations to model Model parameters Model accuracy, predictive validity
cognitive processes and predict
behavior based on theoretical inputs.
Presents stimuli rapidly one after Presentation speed, type of stimuli Accuracy of recognition, reaction
another to study attention and time
processing speed.
Measures the movement of speech Type of speech task Articulator movement patterns
articulators (e.g., tongue, lips) using
magnetic sensors, used to study
speech production.
Measures contact between the Type of speech sound Tongue-palate contact patterns
tongue and palate during speech,
used to study articulation patterns.
Uses ultrasound imaging to visualize Type of speech sound Tongue movement patterns
tongue movements during speech,
used to study articulation.
Captures naturalistic speech in Setting (e.g., home, school), time of Amount and type of linguistic input,
various settings for observational day language production
study.
Documents interactions and Context of interaction (e.g., play, Communication behaviors, language
communicative behaviors for instruction) production
detailed analysis.
Collects data at regular intervals to Time interval, context Linguistic input, language
ensure representativeness in production
observational studies.
Assesses phonological processing by Type of non-word (e.g., length, Accuracy of repetition, phonological
having participants repeat made-up complexity) processing skill
words.
Tests comprehension of syntactic Type of sentence (e.g., active vs. Accuracy of picture selection,
structures by having participants passive) reaction time
identify pictures that match spoken
sentences.
Tablet-based Word Recognition Evaluates lexical knowledge through
Tasks word recognition tasks presented on
a tablet.
Submental Electromyography Measures muscle activity in the
(EMG) submental area to study swallowing.
Inductive Respiratory Assesses respiratory-swallowing
Plethysmography phase relationships during
swallowing tasks.
Looking-while-listening Tasks Measures how long children look at
images while listening to spoken
language to infer comprehension.
Type of word (e.g., familiar vs.
unfamiliar)
Type of swallowing task (e.g.,
volume, consistency)
Volume of liquid swallowed,
presence of mechanical ventilation
Type of auditory stimulus, visual
scene
Accuracy, reaction time
Muscle activity patterns, swallowing
coordination
Respiratory-swallowing
coordination, phase relationships
Looking time, comprehension
accuracy