CHAPTER 7 – STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS

In the preceding chapters you came across a large variety of organisms, both unicellular
and multicellular, of the animal kingdom. In unicellular organisms, all functions like
digestion, respiration and reproduction are performed by a single cell. In the complex body
of multicellular animals, the same basic functions are carried out by different groups of
cells in a well-organised manner. The body of a simple organism like Hydra is made of
different types of cells and the number of cells in each type can be in thousands. The human
body is composed of billions of cells to perform various functions. How do these cells in
the body work together? As you have already learnt in your earlier classes, in multicellular
animals, a group of similar cells, along with intercellular substances, perform a specific
function. Such an organisation is called tissue.
You may be surprised to know that all complex animals consist of only four basic types of
tissues. These tissues are organised in specific proportions and patterns to form an organ
like the stomach, lung, heart and kidney. When two or more organs perform a common
function by their physical and/or chemical interaction, they together form an organ system,
e.g., the digestive system, respiratory system, etc. Cells, tissues, organs and organ systems
split up the work in a way that exhibits division of labour and contributes to the survival of
the body as a whole.

7.1 ANIMAL TISSUES

• Tissue – A group of cells which are similar in structure, function and origin and
performs a specific function is called tissue.
• The term tissue was coined by Bichat.
• The study of tissue is known as histology, a term introduced by Bayer.

TYPES OF ANIMAL TISSUES

The structure of a cell varies according to its function. Therefore, different types of tissues
are found in the body of animal at different locations.

Depending on their location, structure and function; the animal tissues have been broadly
classified into four types. These are:
All these tissues occur in the vertebrates and also in most invertrebrates. Now, let us study
these tissues in detail:

7.1.1 EPITHELIAL TISSUE

• It is commonly referred to as epithelium.

• The term ‘epithelium’ was introduced by Ruysch.
• An epithelium is made up of one or more layers of cells that covers or lines the external
and internal surfaces of various body parts.
• Glands are also composed of epithelial tissue.
• Structure: It consists of variously shaped cells closely arranged in one or more layers.
They are compactly arranged with little intercellular material between the cells.
• It consists of a basal surface and a free surface.
• The basal surface lies in contact with a delicate non-cellular layer called basement
membrane.
o Function of basement membrane: It provides elastic support and also anchors
the epithelial tissue to the underlying connective tissue for obtaining nutrients.
• Free surface: It faces either a body fluid or the outside environment. It provides a
protective covering to the external and internal exposed surfaces to the body parts.
TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE

They are divided into two types:

a) Simple epithelium – It consists of a single layer of cells resting on a basement

membrane. It functions as a lining for body cavities, ducts and tubes.
b) Compound epithelium – It consists of two or more layer of cells. Only the cells of the
deepest layer rest on the basement membrane. They provide protection to underlying
tissues against mechanical, chemical, thermal or osmotic stresses.

SIMPLE EPITHELIUM

Based on the shape or structural modifications of cells, they are divided into different types:

A. Simple squamous epithelium

B. Simple cuboidal epithelium
C. Simple columnar epithelium
D. Simple ciliated epithelium
E. Pseudostratified epithelium
F. Glandular epithelium
A. Squamous epithelium
• It is made up of a single thin layer of flattened cells with irregular boundaries.
• It is also called pavement epithelium due to its tile-like appearance. It is also called
tessellated epithelium due to its wavy epithelium.
• The cells seem to be polygonal in shape. The nuclei of the cells are flat and often lie at
the centre of the cells.

Location: Walls of blood vessels, air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs, lymph vessels, wall of
Bowman’s capsule, loop of Henle of the nephrons of the kidneys, coelomic cavities,
innermost lining of heart (endocardium) etc.
Function:

• Filtration in Bowman’s capsule.

• Exchange of materials between blood capillaries and tissue fluid
• Exchange of gases in alveoli
B. Cuboidal epithelium
• It consists of a single layer of cube-like (cubical) cells lying on a basement membrane.
• Nuclei are rounded and lie in the centre of the cells.
• Free surface of the cells may be smooth or bear minute finger-like projections known
as microvilli which provides a brush-like appearance to their free border and also
increases the surface area to several times. Such an epithelium is known as brush-
bordered cuboidal epithelium.

Location: Tubular parts of nephrons in kidneys, ducts of glands, thyroid follicles, ovaries
and testes (germinal epithelium). The epithelium of Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) of
nephron in kidney has microvilli (brush-bordered cuboidal epithelium).

Function:

• Brush-bordered cuboidal epithelium present in the PCT of nephron is responsible for

reabsorption of useful substances.
• Secretion and excretion by glands.
C. Columnar Epithelium
• It consists of a single layer of tall and slender cells, lying on a basement membrane.
• Nuclei are somewhat elongated along the long axis of the cells.
• Nuclei lie near the bases of the cells.
• Free surface may be smooth or bear microvilli for increasing the absorptive surface
area.
• Some cells of this epithelium produce mucus and are called goblet cells.
• The epithelium containing mucus-secreting cells, along with underlying supporting
connective tissue is called mucosa or mucous membrane.
• The intestinal mucosa bearing microvilli is called brush-bordered columnar
epithelium.

Location: lining of stomach and intestine

Function: Absorption and secretion

D. Ciliated Epithelium
• If the columnar or cuboidal cells bear cilia (hair-like outgrowths) on their surface, they
are called ciliated epithelium.
• The cilia remain in rhythmic motion and create a current to transport the materials
which come in contact with them.
• They are of two types:
o Ciliated cuboidal epithelium – It consists of cubical cells which have cilia on
their free surface. It occurs in smaller bronchioles.
o Ciliated columnar epithelium – It consists of columnar cells which have cilia
on their free surface. It occurs in the inner surface of hollow organs like fallopian
tubes (oviducts) and most of the respiratory tract.
Function:

• Ciliated columnar epithelium is responsible for the passage of ovum through fallopian
tube.
• In respiratory tract, it helps in expelling the mucus and particles trapped in it, towards
the pharynx.
E. Pseudostratified epithelium
• It is a modification of columnar epithelium where though comprising only a single layer
of cells, has its cell nuclei positioned in a manner suggestive of stratified epithelia.
• Its cells are columnar but unequal in size.
o The long cells extend upto free surface and have oval nuclei.
o The short cells do not reach the outer free surface and have rounded nuclei.
• Mucus-secreting goblet cells also occur in this epithelium.

Location: Urethra of human male, parotid salivary gland, trachea and large bronchi

F. Glandular Epithelium
• Some of the cells of epithelium ger specialized for secretion and are called glandular
epithelium.
• Cells are columnar or cuboidal in outline.
• The glands (may be a cell, tissue or organ) are formed from the glandular epithelium.
Location: Goblet cells of alimentary canal, salivary glands, sweat glands, gastric glands,
sebaceous (oil) glands etc.

COMPOUND EPITHELIUM

Compound epithelia may be stratified or transitional:

a. Stratified epithelium:
• The deepest layer is formed by columnar or cuboidal cells.
o In stratified cuboidal epithelium – superficial cells are cuboidal. E.g., inner
surfaces of larger salivary and pancreatic ducts.
o Stratified non-keratinised squamous epithelium – It has several superficial
layers of living squamous cells and deeper layers of interlinked polygonal cells.
It covers moist surfaces such as buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus.
o Stratified keratinised squamous epithelium – It has many superficial layers
of horny, scale-like remains of dead squamous cells and several deeper layers
of living polygonal cells. It covers the dry surface of skin
• Heavy deposits of the insoluble protein keratin in the dead superficial cells make the
epithelium impervious to water and highly resistant to mechanical abrasions.
b. Transitional epithelium:
• It is much thinner and more than the stratified epithelium.
• It has a single layer of cuboidal cells at the base, 2-3 middle layers of large polygonal
or pear-shaped cells and a superficial layer of large, broad, rectangular or oval cells.

Location: Inner surface of urinary bladder and ureters.

Function: It allows considerable expansion of organs to accommodate urine, because

stretching considerably flattens and broadens the cells of superficial and middle layers.
 CELL JUNCTIONS:

1. Tight junctions: Plasma membrane in the apical parts oof the adjacent epithelial cells
become tightly packed together or are even fused to form tight junctions. They help to stop
substances from leaking across the tissue.
2. Gap junctions: Facilitate the cells to communicate with each other by connecting the
cytoplasm of adjoining cells, for rapid transfer of ions small molecules and sometimes big
molecules.
3. Adhering junctions: They perform cementing to keep the neighbouring cells together.
They serve anchoring function.
4. Intermediate junctions: These usually occur just below tight junctions. They probably
serve anchoring functions.

7.1.2 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Connective tissues are the most abundant and widely distributed in the body of complex
animals.
• They are named connective tissues because of their special function of linking and
supporting other tissues/organs of the body.
• They range from soft connective tissues to specialised types, which include cartilage,
bone, adipose and blood.

Structure: It is composed of three components: matrix, cells and fibres.

➢ The matrix (ground substance) is mainly a mixture of modified polysaccharides and

proteins which are secreted by component cells of the tissue.
➢ Different types of cells such as fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, adipose cells
etc. occur in the matrix.
➢ In all connective tissues except blood, the cells secrete fibres made of structural proteins
called collagen or elastin which provide strength, elasticity and flexibility to the tissue.

Types of connective tissues

Connective tissues can be classified into three types: Loose, Dense and Specialised
connective tissues
A. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Loose connective tissue consists of cells and fibres loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground
substance (matrix). Examples: Areolar tissue and Adipose tissue

(a) AREOLAR TISSUE

• It is the most widely distributed connective tissue in the animal body.
• It is present beneath the skin.
• It serves as a support framework for epithelium.
• It joins skin to muscles, fills spaces inside organs and is found around muscles, blood
vessels and nerves.

Structure of Areolar tissue

• It consists of ground substance, the matrix which is made up of modified

polysaccharides (mucopolysaccharides) and proteins.
• In the matrix, various kinds of cells are present which perform different functions in
the body:
o Fibroblasts – these cells produce and secrete fibres and matrix.
 o Macrophages – Ingest cell debris, bacteria and foreign matter.
o Mast cells – Produces histamine (which dilates the walls of blood vessels in
inflammatory and allergic reactions), heparin (checks clotting of blood inside
the blood vessels) and serotonin (which constricts blood vessels to check
bleeding).
o Plasma cells: Produce antibodies.
Functions of Areolar tissue:
➢ Acts as a supporting and packing tissue between organs lying in the body cavity.
➢ Helps in repair of tissues after an injury
(b) ADIPOSE TISSUE

It is a fat-storing connective tissue.

Structure of Adipose tissue

• It is basically an aggregation of fat cells or adipose cells (adipocytes).

• Each fat cell is rounded or oval and contains a large droplet of fat that almost fills it.
• The protein fibres are few in number and form a loose network for supporting the fat-
laden cells.

Location: It is located mainly beneath the skin and also around the heart, kidneys,
eyeballs etc., where fat is stored.

Function:

• Serves as a fat reservoir.

• Forms a shock-absorbing cushion around the eyeballs and kidneys.
• Acts as an insulator. Being a poor conductor of heat, it reduces heat loss from the body.
B. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Dense connective tissue consists of fibres and fibroblast cells which are compactly
packed in the matrix.
• It is the principal component of tendons and ligaments.

There are two types of dense connective tissue: (i) Dense regular connective tissue (ii)
Dense irregular connective tissue.

(a) DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• In the dense regular connective tissue, the collagen fibres are present in rows between
many parallel bundles of fibres. Examples: Tendons & Ligaments
a. Tendons: Cord-like, strong, inelastic structures that join skeletal muscle to bone. They
consist of parallel bundles of collagen fibres.
b. Ligaments: They are the structures which connect bone to bone. They consist mainly
of collagen fibres arranged in bundles and fibroblasts present in rows between bundles

Tendons Ligaments
Inelastic in nature Elastic in nature
Connects muscle to bone Connects bone to bone
Made up of white collagen fibres Made up of bundles of elastic fibres and
few collagen fibres.
(b) DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

It has fibroblasts and many fibres (mostly collagen) that are oriented differently. This tissue
is present in the skin.

C. SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE

They include cartilage, bones, blood and lymph.

(a) SKELETAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• It is the connective tissue in which the extracellular matrix is solid.
• It forms the endoskeleton or internal framework of the vertebrates.
• It supports the body, protects various organs and helps in locomotion.
• It includes cartilage and bone.
a. CARTILAGE
• It is elastic, harder than dense connective tissue but softer than bone.
• Overmost covering of cartilage is called Perichondrium.
• It is found more abundantly in vertebrate embryos.
• It is commonly found in the body of adult vertebrates.
• Matrix (known as chondrin) is solid and pliable and resist compression.
• Fluid filled spaces called lacunae are present in the matrix.
• Cartilage forming cells are called chondrocytes.
• Chondroclast are cartilage destroying cells.
Location: Tip of nose, outer ear joints, between adjacent bones of the vertebral column,
limbs and hands in adults

Functions:

o Provides support and flexibility to the body parts and resist compression.
o Smoothens the surface at joints and thus prevent wear and tear of bones due to friction.
b. BONE
• It is the hard connective tissue.
• Outermost covering of bone is called Periosteum.
• It is a very strong and non-flexible tissue.
• Matrix is very hard and non-pliable because of the presence of calcium phosphate,
calcium carbonate etc. and proteins like ossein and collagen fibres.
• Haversian canals are present which are longitudinal canals in the solid matrix.
• Matrix is present in the form of layers called lamellae.
• Bone producing cell is Osteoblast which divide to form Osteocyte.
• Bone destroying cells are Osteoclast cells.
• In long bones such as limb bones, a cavity called bone marrow cavity is present which
is filled with bone marrow. This is the site of production of blood cells (such as RBCs,
WBCs, Platelets etc.)

Location: It forms the endoskeleton of adult vertebrates

Function:

o Provides structural framework to the body.

o Serves as storage site of calcium and phosphate.
o Supports and protects softer tissues and organs such as brain, lungs etc.
o Provides surface for attachment of muscles and helps in locomotion/movement.
(b) FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE

It is made up of fibre-free fluid matrix and specialised living cells that can neither divide
nor secrete matrix. Vascular tissue regularly circulates in the body and helps in the
transportation of various materials such as nutritive elements, gases, excretory products,
hormones etc.

The two main fluid connective tissue present in animals are blood and lymph.

7.1.3 MUSCULAR TISSUE

• All types of movements are brought about in the body with the help of muscular tissue.
This tissue constitutes the muscles.
• Each muscle is made up of many long, cylindrical, fibre-like cells arranged in parallel
arrays called muscle fibres.
• The muscle fibres contain long thread-like proteinaceous fibrils called myofibrils,
present in the cytoplasm known as sarcoplasm.
• Muscle fibres contract (shorten) in response to stimulation, then relax (lengthen) and
return to their uncontracted state in a coordinated fashion.

CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLES

On the basis of location, structure and function; there are three types of muscles:

1. Skeletal muscle
2. Smooth muscle
3. Cardiac muscle
1) SKELETAL MUSCLE
• It is also known as striated or striped muscle.
• They are the most abundant type of muscle fibres found attached to all the bones, hence
called skeletal muscle fibres.
• They are voluntary in their activity i.e., they are under the control of our will power.
• In a typical muscle such as the biceps, striated skeletal muscle fibres are bundled
together in a parallel fashion.
• They show alternate dark and light bands giving a characteristic striped or striated
appearance.

Location: It is found attached to the bones. But, the most common parts to find such muscle
are arms, legs, body wall, face and neck.

Function:

• Striated muscles provide the force for locomotion and all other voluntary movements
of the body.
• Striated muscles are powerful and undergo rapid contraction. These muscles can be
tired and need rest.
2) SMOOTH MUSCLE
• It is also known as non-striated muscle or unstriped muscle.
• They are found in the walls of the hollow visceral organs except that of the heart.
• They are involuntary in their activity i.e., their functioning cannot be directly controlled.
• They never connect with the skeleton.
• They are elongated and spindle-shaped i.e., pointed or taper at the ends (fusiform) and
broad in the middle.
• These fibrils do not show any light and dark bands.

Location: Posterior part of oesophagus, stomach, intestine, lungs, urinogenital tract,

urinary bladder, blood vessels, iris of eyes etc.