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4.1 Summary
The contents of this section explain the reasons and applications for all the various artificial lift
methods available. It describes the various methods, detailing their advantages and disadvantages,
strengths and weaknesses. It gives the completion engineer first point access to issues to consider if
planning a completion design including current or artificial lift options.
4.2 Introduction
This section details when artificial lift (AL) is required and the applications of the various artificial
lift methods. It also details the completion design implications of adopting the various AL methods.
Descriptions are given of the various methods showing the equipment and procedures involved,
detailing the strengths and weaknesses of each method.
In all well planning and completion design exercises, artificial lift options should be considered,
since often minor modifications can have a significant influence on the ability to retrofit artificial
lift economically at a later date. If this is not done, the subsequent retrofit options are often limited
and costly.
When designing wells for one type of artificial lift, alternative methods should also be considered as
contingency measure(s), should the primary method fail.
Page 1
4.4 Generic Classification Of Artificial Lift Methods
Artificial lift methods (discussed further in sections 4.5 and 4.6) can be classified into one of the
following:
Physical property modification of the well fluids (e.g. density reduction)
Pumping to provide external energy to the system.
Power for these pumping units can be transmitted downhole by electrical cables, reciprocating or
rotating drive rods, or high pressure hydraulic fluid. The maximum power which can be delivered to
a well differs for different types of lift systems.
Page 2
The principles and best practices associated with optimised natural flow, which are addressed
elsewhere in the Completion Design Manual, are not discussed in detail here. However, the key is to
ensure that flow conduit diameters and geometries along the length of the wellbore are appropriately
selected to avoid:
Excessive frictional pressure losses
Unstable flow conditions leading to well kill
A common method of reducing liquid slippage in a completion is to install a ‘velocity string’. This
involves installation of a small diameter tubing string inside a existing production tubing causing a
reduction in the flow area and a resultant increase in flow velocity. Fluid flow can be through,
either, the velocity string or the resulting annular space or both.
One area of particular concern relates to long horizontal sections where trajectories invariably
undulate in a series of shallow peaks and troughs. Under certain conditions the troughs can become
liquid filled whilst the peaks become gas filled. Periodic unloading can occur, resulting in discrete
slugs of liquid and gas entering the deviated section of the well. It is possible that the de-gassed
liquid slugs can kill naturally flowing wells. The installation of smaller liners over the horizontal
section minimises the slug sizes and alleviates this problem.
Page 3
When bringing a well onstream after completion, with the well filled with completion fluid or after
a prolonged shut-in where the fluids have segregated, the normal gas lift pressure is not sufficient to
achieve maximum gas lift valve depth. In this case it is generally necessary to empty the liquid-
filled tubing and casing in stages. This is achieved by applying gas pressure to a series of GLVs
(termed unloading valves) set progressively deeper from top to bottom. These unloading valves are
designed to open at a pre-set pressure and then to close again at a slightly lower pre-set pressure so
that, by manipulating the injection pressure, the gas circulated through each in turn from top to
bottom. In a properly designed gas lift completion under normal production only the lower injection
operating valve should be open and the unloading valves should all be closed.
Operating valves are specifically designed for continuous flow whereas the unloading valves are
designed solely for unloading.
Figure 4.1 – Typical Gas Lift System Illustrating Both Continuous And Intermittent Lift
Page 4
The maximum depth of the operating GLV (OGLV) is limited due to:
Maximum gas supply pressure and delivery rate.
Flowing tubing head pressure at the intended flow rate.
Depth of the packer (which is the maximum depth of the deepest gas lift mandrel).
Pressure differential required to keep the higher (unloading) gas lift valves closed, and
therefore the pressure at the OGLV stable.
Tubing collapse and casing burst ratings.
It is important that the choice of GLV should be made in the design stage.
Page 5
Side-Pocket Mandrels (SPMs) are the most commonly used receptacle for the retrievable gas lift
valves. These have large ODs which can cause clearance problems in small casings and liners.
Alternatives with smaller ODs are available, but care should be taken in the design stage to ensure
wireline retrieval of the gas lift valves is feasible through the completion. Otherwise a full tubing
pull workover may be required to reinstate failed valves.
Page 6
4.5.2.2 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Gas Lift
Advantages and disadvantages of the gas lift method are as follows:
Advantages Disadvantages
Reliable operation. Inefficiency in low volume systems due to
compression and gas treatment capital costs.
High tolerance to solids (though erosional Requirement for start-up gas to kick-off.
velocities in tubing and Xmas tree may be
critical).
Ability to handle high production rates. Difficulty with very heavy/viscous crude.
Usefulness in offshore operations where space Potential for hydrate problems on surface or in
for pump systems may be limited. the GLVs.
Generally maintainable with wireline. Requirement for continuous monitoring,
optimisation and trouble shooting. (This is not
straightforward but essential.)
Full-bore, through-tubing access to below gas Limitation often imposed by restricted
lift valves. maximum lifting depth (governed by minimum
FBHP).
Deviation not restrictive. (If wells are deviated Possible requirement for high strength tubing
beyond the wireline access limit, they can be and casings due to high annular lift gas
serviced with coiled tubing.) pressures (used to reduce the need for
unloading valves).
Relative insensitivity to corrosion.
Page 7
4.5.2.4 Gas Lift Design Criteria
During the design process, the following must be evaluated:
Optimum injection depth.
Available, and required, lift gas supply rate and pressure.
Resultant production rate and, hence, the effective injection GLR (IGLR).
This is an iterative process. The process of designing the unloading and operating of a tubing
produced annulus gas lift completion is illustrated in Figure 4.3.
The figure shows pressure on the horizontal axis and true vertical depth on the vertical axis.
The available kick-off pressure gradient is first plotted on the graph. This kick-off
pressure (i.e. the maximum available surface pressure) is usually higher than the normal
operating pressure of the gas lift system.
Next, the annulus fluid gradient is plotted, starting at the flowing tubing head pressure
of the production system.
The intersection of the annulus fluid gradient with the kick-off pressure gradient
determines the location of the first unloading GLV. Gas passes through the first GLV
and lightens the fluid column to surface, according to the total gas liquid ratio (TGLR)
curve shown.
As the fluid gradient in the tubing changes, the gas in the casing moves down to the
second GLV, unloading fluid from the casing. To determine the depth of this second
valve the annulus fluid gradient is plotted from the first valve depth and where it
intersects the kick-off pressure gradient determines the depth of the next valve.
As the gas reaches the second GLV and begins to lighten the fluid column at this depth,
the first GLV should be designed to close, so that all gas is passing through the second
GLV.
The process continues until the fluids in the casing annulus have been displaced, and the
gas is passing through the OGLV.
Once the well has been unloaded, the operating pressure on the casing will be lower than the initial
kick-off pressure. At some time during the unloading procedure, the reservoir will have begun to
produce fluids. The production rate from the well is a function of a number of parameters, including
reservoir pressure, PI, water cut and gas injection rate. After the well is producing at a stabilised
rate, production should be optimised by varying the gas injection rate.
The well off-take will increase with increasing lift gas rate until a maximum production rate is
achieved; further increase of the gas rate above this optimum level will reduce the off-take, as
shown in Figure 4.4.
Page 8
Figure 4.3 – Example Gas Lift Design
3600
Liquid Rate (STB/d)
3400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Injection Gas Rate (MMscf/d)
Figure 4.4 – Typical Gas Lift Performance
Page 9
There is an optimum GLR (OGLR) which provides the lowest BHFP. Most gas lift systems are
designed either on the basis of a near optimum GLR (NOGLR: BHFP within 20 to 50psi of the
minimum), or on the basis of available injection gas supply volumes, Qi. Clearly:
Liquid rate (q) depends on the IPR and attainable BHFP.
Total GLR = Producing GLR + Injection GLR Optimum GLR
Injection GLR = Qi /q
Note: The valve spacing is designed based on a true vertical projection of the well.
SPM setting depths must be properly converted to measured depth. The deeper
valves may be only a few tubing joints apart, making spacing in this region
highly critical.
Page 10
Figure 4.5 – Plunger Lift System
Page 11
The advantages and disadvantages of plunger lift are:
Advantages Disadvantages
Specifically for use in low rate wells with Low production rates.
liquid loading problems, for example for de-
liquification (water or condensate) of low rate
gas wells or for unloading oil wells
The good reliability, combined with easy Live annulus.
maintenance and low operating costs, make
this an attractive lift method.
Solids handling ability is reasonable. Produced solids may be accommodated by using brush-type
plungers, but these reduce efficiency. The plunger also tends to control any scale and paraffin build-
up in the tubing.
A common option is to install the bottom bumper spring above a gas lift mandrel, thereby allowing
the gas lift system to provide additional energy to the system.
Advances in controllers, making intelligent adaptations to timing depending on pressure build-up to
optimise production, are continuously being developed.
Page 12
Demulsifiers are often added at surface to improve separation efficiency and can be used further
upstream, e.g. to prevent viscous emulsions forming downhole. Applications include spiking of lift
gas to break downhole emulsions.
Diluent injection, commonly is medium API crude, is often utilised to reduce the viscosity of heavy
oils. Downhole salt dropout from high salinity, saturated produced waters can also be prevented by
the injection of water. This is often combined with artificial lift at little additional cost.
Commonly placement of these chemicals is through capillary tubes, intermittently injected into the
tubing from surface, or into the annulus and then via an orifice to the tubing. The injection of some
additives can be easily supplied via, for example, lift gas or hydraulic power fluid. By adding the
chemical to the drive fluid not only is additional installation cost minimised, but the mixing will be
highly efficient.
The chemical specification is generally application dependant. Normally a suitable recipe can be
established with input from BP production chemists and the chemical vendors.
Page 13
4.6.1.1 Method, Principles and Components
Beam Pumps, and ‘Hydraulic Piston Pumps’, discussed in section 4.6.6, are types of positive
displacement piston pumps. Piston pumps consist essentially of a piston inside a barrel and may be,
either, single acting or double acting. Single acting pumps are generally used in combination with
mechanical drive and double acting with the hydraulic drive pumps, though other options are
available. Figure 4.6 illustrates a typical beam pumping system.
Page 14
Piston pumps are mechanically efficient and technically simple. Production rates are easily adapted
by adjusting the drive rate and achievable minimum downhole pressures are very low. Viscous
fluids are not usually a major concern. However, moving parts and sliding surfaces mean they have
a limited tolerance to solids production and the limited rates achievable (although increasing with
new developments) only make them suitable for low and medium rate wells.
There are two main downhole pump design variations: tubing pump, and insert or rod pump rods
(refer to Figure 4.7). The tubing pump (fixed to the end of the tubing) has a higher capacity, but
servicing requires the entire tubing string to be pulled. The insert pump is more commonly used, as
it can be retrieved by pulling the rods. It also provides higher compression ratios and, therefore, has
less difficulty handling gas.
Tubing is used as the production conduit, often anchored to the casing and set under tension to
minimise tubing movement, buckling and rod wear. Anchoring the tubing, as opposed to leaving it
free hanging, results in higher production by reducing tubing stretch and allowing a longer, more
effective plunger stroke that lifts higher quantities of oil. Using unanchored tubing allows a degree
of movement with the rods such that the transfer of load when the travelling valve closes is more
gradual, however there is a higher shock load when the travelling valve closes.
Packers are not normally installed, to allow any free gas being separated downhole to be vented via
the annulus. A gas anchor (a perforated device installed below the pump to improve downhole
separation and allow the gas to go up the annulus) can be added to prevent gas-locking.
Page 15
The annulus can also be used to determine FBHP by measuring the depth of the annular fluid level
(e.g. acoustically).
The maximum setting depth is usually restricted by the weight and strength of the rods, in
combination with friction and pumping dynamics. Rod stretch can be significant and limit the
output and system efficiency. Tapered rod strings are commonly used to overcome this problem.
This interdependence of surface unit, rod string, subsurface unit, and achievable rate and drawdown
makes the design process an iterative one.
Advantages Disadvantages
Reliable, low maintenance Limited rates
High residual value surface equipment Bulky for offshore operations
Rate easily adjusted at surface Deviation causes wear of rods
Large drawdown achievable Low resistance to solids production
Choice of power source (diesel, electric) Internal tubing coatings not possible
Straightforward analysis and troubleshooting Limited depth (rod-strength)
High temperature tolerance
Page 16
Surface units are now available which can overcome the traditional unit’s size, weight and footprint
constraints. Nitrogen sprung, hydraulically driven designs now available from many vendors, have
smaller footprints for similar performance as traditional units. Following these developments, beam
pumps now are an even more viable artificial lift alternative even in some offshore environments,
e.g. Trinidad.
Rotating production tubing, possibly coupled with a rotating rod string, is being used to adapt rod
pumping systems to highly deviated wells.
Page 17
System design is an iterative and complex process for which a number of dedicated software
packages exist with vendors as well as in the public domain. BP recommended packages are listed
in section 4.12.
Dynamometer Cards
Page 18
Pumps with double-helical rotors are also available which enables higher flowrates with lower
vibration levels which can be particularly problematic in downhole driven systems. The component
most prone to failure is the gearbox between the motor and the PCP. The failures are commonly seal
leaks or mechanical breakdown due to excessive vibration.
PCPs are mechanically efficient, relatively inexpensive and can handle heavy oil or very high
viscous crude and very large amounts of sand (possibly up to 50-90%). They are typically used for
low to medium rate wells but are not suitable for very light crudes. They are reliable with no valves
to stick, or lock, and require little maintenance.
The stator is mounted in the tubing string which is generally installed free hanging. The rod string,
with the rotor attached, is hung off from a rotating bearing with a seal. The achievable differential
pressure is dependent on the type of downhole pump but the maximum possible is between 900 and
3,500psi. Flow rate is proportional to rotation speed and lies between 5 and 5,000bpd.
Since the rod string is hung off in the wellhead unlike the reciprocating rod system, counter
balancing of the string weight is not necessary, thereby reducing the surface facilities footprint and
weight.
Common rotation speeds are around 100rpm, but up to 500rpm is possible in certain configurations.
The stator rubber material is selected according to fluid characteristics (API gravity, solids) and
operating temperature.
The selection of stator elastomer material is critical and must take into account the expected
operating parameters, (e.g. solids content, temperature, rotational speeds and crude characteristics).
Page 19
Figure 4.10 – Rod Driven PCP
Page 20
4.6.2.5 Sizing/Design Criteria
Downhole unit options are selected by matching vendor information with the required rate, head,
temperature, setting depth, etc. The selection of stator material will depend on the well fluids, solids
content, temperatures and rates and could affect vendor selection.
Surface unit selection must take into account the available space, power and maintenance
requirements.
Impeller
Diffuser
Figure 4.11 – Downhole Centrifugal Pump Stage
Page 21
Centrifugal pumps are generally driven by, either, a downhole electrical motor (ESP) or a downhole
hydraulically powered motor (HSP, Weir) and can handle very high volumes at a reasonably high
efficiency. However, they tend to have a limited solids tolerance and a limited operating range for
an individual pump and they are normally not good at handling free gas. Solutions to improve these
weaknesses exist, such as combining mixed-flow with radial flow impellers for improved gas
tolerance.
Surface equipment consists of a power supply and a means of monitoring and controlling the
production rate. Pumps generally have upper and lower production limits. Keeping the production
rate between these design margins is essential for the life of the (floating) pump bearings.
Compression bearings help extend this production window on the low side.
Production rate control can be achieved using either a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) or a
production choke. VFDs consume less power and allow the pump efficiency to be optimised once
deployed, but are costly and require more operator technical knowledge and expertise. Choke
systems must be appropriately sized for the individual well initial and future expected rates.
Though the standard model ESPs are limited to handling less than 10% free gas, appropriately
designed ESP/separator combinations can currently handle up to 50% free gas.
BP Milne Point, Forties and Wytch Farm have many ESP completions.
Page 22
Figure 4.12 – Typical ESP System
Page 23
4.6.3.3 Completion Variants
If a rotary gas separator is installed in an ESP completion and it is planned for gas to flow up the
annulus, there may be major safety implications in some completion designs which need to be
evaluated and catered for during the design process.
Some ESP completion designs often include Y-tools above the pump and allows access to tubing
run alongside the pump. This derives a number of advantages including providing well intervention
access to the reservoir below the pump and the capability to free-flow, or inject into, the well by-
passing the pump.
Also, multiple pumps can be installed in a single well to, either; produce from different zones,
increase head, or serve as a backup to extend the lifespan of the ESP.
Some models of Y-tools have automatic lockouts to give the ability to direct flow through the ESP
or the flow-by conduit, without the need for a well intervention. Note: as a consequence of using Y-
tools, the maximum pump and motor size which can be installed alongside the flow-by conduit is
significantly reduced.
ESPs can be installed on coiled tubing, either, with external, or internal cables. Internal cables
reduce the risk of cable damage by being protected by the tubing.
A system which has been specially designed which utilises coiled tubing with an internally run
electrical power cable and a retrievable packer is now available. It was specifically designed for
fluid flow outside the tubing up the annulus.
A design problem with coiled tubing installed pumps is the provision of an adequate downhole
safety system. One solution used in Norway, was the installation of a shear seal valve immediately
below the Xmas tree tied into the platform ESD system which can ultimately be used to cut the
tubing and close in the well in the event of an uncontrolled well flow.
Reversed designed pump systems can be installed in injection wells for downhole injection to
reduce surface injection pressures.
The selection of the type of elastomers for the seal section must be appropriate for the
circumstances; for example, classic ‘labyrinth’ type seals work well in vertical installations with a
limited number of start/stop sequences, but highly deviated installations require the ‘bag’ type seals.
It is often prudent to include a contingency lift method in the completion design, such as provision
of a SSD (sliding side door) to enable gas lifting, etc.
Page 24
The impact of incorrect pump operation has a significant impact on MTBF. For example, placing an
ESP back onto production soon after a shutdown before the back-spin has stopped, may easily shear
the drive shaft. A number of semi-automated monitoring and control systems are available to
prevent this occurring the cost of which can be easily justified.
Wireline retrievable pump unit designs are also available enabling pump unit replacement while
leaving the motor in situ downhole.
A hydraulically powered ‘mixer’ unit is also available which can re-inject the produced gas into the
production stream above the ESP, assisting flow to surface (ref Weatherford).
The start up current requirement needs to be considered during the design stage. Direct on-line start
up requires an initial current up to 10 times the running current stated in the specifications for a
period of time ranging between 0.1 - 2 seconds. VFD type units reduce the current demand to
around 1.6 times the stated running current. It is important that the surface electrical system can
accommodate this demand without causing damage through overheating the transformers, etc.
Design requirements must be discussed with the electrical engineers on this topic is essential.
Subsea completions have been completed and tied back to host facilities up to a distance of 15 miles
away in the past. The critical issue when producing at such distances is harmonic oscillations.
Hz 50
500 300
Hz 60
450
Down thrust Limit Hz 70
400
Hz 80
350
200 HTHZmin
Frequency
Head/stage(ft)
300
HTHZmax
HP
250 HP
200
Up thrust Limit
100
150
Horse Power
100
50
0 0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000
Qgross(rb/d)
Page 25
If a VFD is selected for the system, the operating range is determined by the combined restrictions
of the VFD and the pump.
Production rate should be kept within the design margins for standard floating bearing ESPs. If an
ESP is expected to operate some of its life producing below the minimum rate, a compression ESP,
a type with a thrust bearing, should be considered.
It is critical to ensure that adequate cooling of the motor can be provided by wellbore fluids flowing
past the housing. If flow velocity is too low, a ‘shroud’ must be used to increase the velocity up to
the level needed.
When free gas might present a problem, the gas flow system must be fully considered (i.e. where the
separated gas will be produced, as well as full modelling of the flow fluid and conduit). Note: a gas
conduit may actually produce liquids as well.
Scale deposition on the impeller blades is a common problem and produced water should be tested
for scaling potential.
Abrasion resistant ESPs with special impellers and bearings are available for high solids content
installations.
The feed-through of the electric cable through the wellhead (and packer, if used) requires particular
attention as it is a high potential cause of failure.
The selection of the type of gearbox to be used is critical to the design, since
a relatively large number of failures associated with ESPCPs are related to
gearbox failures rather than pump or motor failures.
Since the main application for ESPCPs is for heavy oil production, gas
handling is generally not an issue; but ESPCPs can handle limited amounts of
free gas without difficulty.
Preferably, a multi-lobe PCP should be used to reduce vibration and,
therefore, improve the life span of the gearbox and motor and also assist in
achieving higher rates.
Page 26
4.6.4.2 Advantages And Disadvantages Of ESPCPs
Advantages and disadvantages are:
Advantages Disadvantages
Good sand tolerance Lower MTBF than ESP
High efficiency (> 70%) Electrical (cable) failures
Unaffected by deviation Rig or hoist required on failure
Good data gathering tie-in The rate is limited (e.g. 2500stb/d
in 4 ½”)
Heavy crude handling
Easily controlled
The main components of a jet pumping system, (refer to Figure 4.17), are:
Surface power fluid pumping facilities
Downhole jet pump with appropriate nozzle/throat combination
Conduits for power fluid and produced fluids.
Page 27
The power fluid is pumped to the nozzle section of the pump. The
high pressure power fluid stream is then converted to a high velocity
jet. The jet exits the nozzle and contacts the produced fluids within
the throat section of the pump. As the fluids mix in the throat
section, momentum transfer occurs between the power and produced
fluids causing production of the produced fluids. In the diffuser
section of the pump the velocity reduces while the pressure increases
(refer to Figure 4.15).
Since jet pumps have no moving parts, they are very reliable. The
limiting factor on operating life is often the ancillary equipment and
the mode of operation in the well. They are relatively tolerant to
solids in the power fluid stream as well as the produced stream.
Power fluid can be obtained, either, from a convenient high pressure
source such as an injection water system or from a dedicated surface
pumping unit. Water (seawater or produced water) or dead crude are
commonly used as power fluids. The pumps are generally powered,
either, through the tubing with production up the annulus (termed
normal circulation) or vice versa (reverse circulation).
Page 28
4.6.5.1 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Jet Pumps
Advantages and disadvantages of jet pumps are:
Advantages Disadvantages
No moving parts Low efficiency (30-35%)
Tolerant to solids in production stream (and in Limited energy transfer
power fluid)
Wireline retrievable or pump-out (‘free’) Sensitive to back pressure
design
Chemical treatments (corrosion, scale, Spare capacity in surface facilities required
emulsion) easy to perform
Fairly high GLR tolerance (3000scf/bbl)
Cost of change out (compared to ESP)
Based on operating experience (i.e. BP Milne Point, Alaska), it is noted that, on the negative side,
jet pumps use much more power compared to ESPs; however, the average jet pump change-out cost
(using slickline) is only around 4% that of an ESP.
Page 29
Production after conducting a fracture stimulation prior to installing an ESP.
As wells need to be flowed several days to remove loose proppant before running an
ESP, an alternative production method can be used to speed up the process. Instead of
using conventional nitrogen services, a jet pump may be run inside frac workstring
equipped with a sliding sleeve, with a temporary power fluid supply hooked up at the
surface.
Conversion of injection wells to production wells.
It may be possible to perforate the tubing above the packer and retrofit a jet pump.
Fitting a permanent downhole surface read-out pressure gauge below the jet pump is beneficial in
diagnosing pump performance.
Depending on the power fluid, it is important to ensure scale deposition, emulsification, and other
chemical and temperature effects are investigated prior to selection of the system.
Recent research has proved the economic feasibility of pumping viscous crude with a water-
surfactant mix as a power fluid, e.g., 2000, ENI-Agip/EU Thermie.
Installations using a lighter crude oil from a nearby production well in order to dilute and lift a
heavy viscous crude are also successfully in operation.
2000 20000
Qpower_fluid(stb/d)
Qform_oil(stb/d)
1500 15000
1000 10000
Qform_oil
0 0
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Nozzle Size
Page 30
For a given set of well conditions, any particular nozzle size has a corresponding optimum throat
size which maximises formation production rate. Note: the power fluid rate is insensitive to throat
size. In order to minimise power fluid rates, it is better to operate with the maximum possible power
fluid pressure. From a practical viewpoint, 5,000psia is typically the maximum due to surface pump
limitations.
System design and selection of the optimum pump for the application should be carried out using,
either, commercially available computer programs or the vendor’s programs, (refer to section 4.12).
Care must be taken to avoid cavitation within the pump although this aspect is normally catered for
in the available software.
Page 31
The hydraulic piston pump is a reciprocating engine in which fluid is forced into, and drawn out of,
cylinders by pistons. As shown in Figure 4.19, the engine piston incorporates a rod, connecting it to
the pump piston. Internal check and shuttle valves control the reversals and exhaust the spent power
fluid. Single and double acting pump designs are available.
Wireline retrievable or pump retrievable designs are commonly installed and selection depends on
surface access, the cost and frequency of well entries expected.
They can often be installed into the same tubing nipple profiles as jet pumps. Systems are available
which can segregate power fluid and production fluids, a feature not possible with jet pump system
designs. Since piston pumps can achieve far greater drawdowns, they may be used to replace jet
pumps at a future stage in the well life.
Developments are ongoing to improve reliability, increase solids tolerance and increase production
rates.
Advantages Disadvantages
Good volumetric efficiency Mechanical movement, hence wear and tear
No electrical connections Low solids tolerance in power fluid
Wireline retrievable or pump-out design Low solids tolerance in production fluid
Easily adjustable rate Low to medium production rates
Deep, deviated wells (up to 18,000ft)
Page 32
4.7 Less Common Artificial Lift Methods
This section covers the less commonly used artificial lift methods and combinations of artificial lift
methods. Most of the techniques described have been applied successfully in the field. This sub-
section is intended to illustrate the large range of possibilities and to stimulate a creative approach to
Artificial Lift challenges. The list is by no means exhaustive and there remains scope for further
innovation in this area.
Page 33
4.7.2.1 ESP/Auto-Gas Lift For High PI Wells
An extremely successful installation involves installation of an ESP with a gas separator set deep in
the well and producing the liquids through the tubing with the gas up the annulus (ref SPE 64466).
The specific design ensures that the annulus gas flow will ‘auto-gas lift’ a proportion of the
reservoir-fluids up the annulus, effectively having a double flow conduit; one of high GLR and one
of low GLR. Both are then combined at surface into a single production line. This system
significantly improves ESP run life, as well as increasing total production rate.
Page 34
4.7.3 Postponed Installation
Often wells are capable of sustaining natural flow early in their life cycle, but at some stage an
artificial lift system may be required to optimise flow. Postponed installation is often an economic
choice as it can easily be achieved with some artificial lift methods and a number of choices are
available which do not require a well re-entry to initiate.
Beam pump completions can be run without the costly surface unit and insert pump, but will require
a limited scope workover when required to be put on stream.
Jet pump landing nipples can be installed in the completion, with the costly power fluid system
postponed. When required, the pump can be pumped into the completion, or alternatively installed
by wireline.
ESPs can be installed in Y-tools (Phoenix, 1999) with automatic flow-through flappers, allowing
the well to produce naturally whenever the ESP is not running, preventing pump spinning and
damage to the pump. Also wireline or coiled tubing access must be available.
Page 35
Figure 4.20 – Surface Boosting Well Combination System
This system uses jet pumping technology for surface boosting. How a working system is set up
depends on the type of power fluid available. Clearly this technology is particularly useful if a
source of high pressure gas and/or high pressure well fluids are available to drive the pump (or
pumps). Jet pumps can drive multi-phase streams with drive-liquid, as well as gas streams with
drive-gas.
The set up can incorporate an inline separator followed by a parallel system of a water driven liquid
jet pump and a gas driven gas jet-pump, or as shown in the diagram a single booster jet pump. Note:
the additional energy required may be available from another producing well, or from a high
pressure liquid or gas source.
With an external power source available and with sufficiently low GLRs, horizontal ESPs and
ESPCP also offer surface boosting solutions. A number of vendors supply these surface installations
as standard units.
Alternative methods of multi-phase pumping may also be considered.
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4.7.8 Pig Lift
In order to overcome deviation and flow-rate limitations of plunger lift, a lift method utilising two
tubing strings connected with a U-shaped junction at the bottom of the well has been successfully
installed in a number of wells (ref SPE 36598).
The system incorporates a standing valve at the bottom of the tubing to enable the strings to fill up
for a predetermined time with reservoir fluids. Then a foam pig is launched, pressured by a surface
gas system, and ‘circulates’ around the loop carrying the accumulated liquid slug before back up the
well to surface. A surface valve system reverses the pig flow direction for the next pig run.
Wells have been completed with this method since 1993 and are in production both onshore as well
as offshore.
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Figure 4.21 – Examples Of Round And Flat Cable
Typically the cable is installed by being clamped to the outside of the tubing. Recently, coiled
tubing with the electrical cable within the coil has become available for, both, temporary and
permanent installations.
Common applications of electrical power transmission are Electrical Submersible Pumps and
Electrical Submersible, where downhole electric motors drive centrifugal or screw pumps. Electric
sub-surface piston pumps are not available.
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4.9 Factors Affecting AL Method Selection/Performance
Due to the many possible combinations of well parameters, countless factors will affect AL
selection and performance. This section compares and addresses the technical limits of the various
lift systems, followed by a description of a number of the most common and important issues
involved, and offers some general guidance to potential solutions. The solutions are by no means
exhaustive and are intended merely to assist the required design process.
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4.9.2 Technical Limits
The relative performance or operating envelopes of competitive artificial lift methods is illustrated
in Figure 4.22 with natural flow included for benchmarking. The operating envelopes of each
system lie below and to the left of the respective curves. Taking any particular lift system, constant
power, corresponding to the maximum practical value, is assumed at all flowrates. For example, for
ESPs the current maximum power is circa 1000HP for pumps which can be accommodated within
7” casing. Depending on well characteristics this power can be consumed in large flowrate-small
head applications or conversely in small flowrate-large head applications.
Rod Pump
NATURAL FLOW
FLOWRATE
System operation is within the ranges to the left of the curve but will require a smaller power
demand. Whilst the operating envelopes are qualitative, the relative positions are realistic.
Examination of Figure 4.22 brings into focus a number of popular misconceptions, for example, jet
pumps, often considered to be low production rate systems, can actually achieve high rates albeit
with low heads. Figure 4.22 also conveys an important message that is: that popular misconceptions
abound, therefore, maintain an open mind and consider all the options.
A practical method of comparing the performance of competitive artificial lift systems is to plot the
respective operating envelopes on the familiar FBHP versus Qgross diagram. With respect to Figure
4.23, operating envelopes for natural flow, gas lift, jet pump and ESP lifted flow are presented for
a specific well. The IPR is also superimposed; this enables direct comparison of the performance of
the competing lift methods. It is also beneficial to include any field operating data since this will
give an indication of individual well potential under various lift methods. The field example
included in Figure 4.23, illustrates a naturally flowing well operating at 4,500stb/d. Artificial lift
will improve off-take to a maximum of 7,800stb/d under ESP lift.
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Field Example - Well Performance Technical Limits
8000
IPR
ESP
Natural Flow
6000 Gaslift
Field Data
FBHP(psia)
Jetpump
4000
2000
0
0 5000 10000 15000
Qgross(stb/d)
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Well Equipment (downstream) Surface System
temperature constraints pressure demands (changing over time)
flow constraints min/max rates acceptable (changing over time)
erosion resistance energy supply type (changing over time)
corrosion resistance energy supply amount (changing over time)
well integrity aspects cost of modifications
pressure limitations
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V/L(bbl/bbl)
2 4 6 8 10
1500
P(psia) 1000
500
0
0 5000 10000 15000
Qo(stb/d)
All pumping methods have, to a greater or lesser extent, a limited ability to handle free gas. The
reasons for this are twofold. Firstly, most pumps have a well defined ceiling rate which is
determined by the pump geometry (diameter, etc), this is limited by the casing size. Secondly, pump
performance decreases as the free gas content increases. The effect is most noticeable in centrifugal
pumps where efficiency decreases to a point where pumping totally ceases because of gas locking.
A good handle on free gas production throughout field life is essential.
In most situations it is necessary to separate and remove the gas prior to pumping. Any gas
separated can be recombined into the production stream by some method, or possibly even used to
enhance production of the well or a neighbouring well, (e.g. annular auto-gas lift described in
section 4.7.2.1). In example Figure 4.25, the majority of the free gas is separated from the gassy
reservoir fluid and is produced by a dedicated tubing string. The degassed fluid is then pumped to
surface via a second conduit, normally the casing tubing annulus.
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Figure 4.26 – Free Gas Flow Up The Annulus
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4.10 Well Design Impact
The existing boundary conditions of well design such as ID restrictions, kick-off points, deviation,
maximum wireline-access-depth, and maximum doglegs are very important factors. Casing and
tubing connections and pressure ratings will determine whether hydraulic lift or gas lift is possible,
and, if so, which circulation direction will be selected. Packer setting depth will determine the
maximum lifting depth for most hydraulic lift systems.
However, rather than assuming that a design is fixed, options to overcome the restrictions should be
examined. For example, the choice of the design of a multi-lateral (short radius versus long radius)
may impact on the methods of AL applicable and possibly on pump setting depths. Even if the
producing target zone is the same in either option, the production opportunities may be vastly
different, as seen by the following examples:
It may not be possible or at least highly risky to deploy an ESP below a specific angle of dogleg.
Very long pumps (e.g. with a large number of stages) particularly have this problem, especially in
slim hole applications.
The maximum dogleg for the section where an ESP or HSCP is positioned during operation has
limits. An ESPC is more flexible, but the gearbox alignment is critical.
Horizontal ESPs may suffer from solids build up around the pump intake, in which case lower
angled installation, or alternatively pump stand-off would need to be ensured.
Surface drive pumps create casing wear at dogleg areas.
Because of the diversity in multi-lateral configurations, apart from the geometrical issues, minimum
diameters and orienting keys can interfere with deployment.
Packer depth is determined from the completion design, particularly in multi-lateral designs, which
limits the maximum setting depth for hydraulic pumps and gas lift valves, hence affecting pump
system efficiency.
Merely moving casing shoes down, reducing maximum doglegs, or incorporating a short straight
‘tangent’ section for ESP positioning could derive significant future benefits.
Wellhead selection will also have a great impact and in the design stage it must be taken into
account for future options in power cable feeds, maximum pressure or temperature ratings, or
hydraulic control lines.
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4.10.2 Expected BHP
A reduction in bottom hole pressure later in field life might result in a different method of AL for
optimisation, therefore selecting a flexible system which can be reconfigured to achieve greater final
drawdown may be prudent. For example, a jet pump system can have the pump replaced with a
hydraulic piston pump.
Scale, wax or asphaltenes may be a problem following a pressure or temperature drop which could
affect well inflow performance and possibly damage the pump. Alternatively, the AL system itself
may draw down the well further than was planned, causing drop out of contaminants which would
also effect the well inflow performance. If prevention squeezes are expected to be carried out later
in field life, a lift system through which inhibitor can be pumped from surface should be selected.
Also propped fractures will back produce proppant during the initial production phase continuing
over a period of time. In this case, the AL system must, either, be installed after the well has cleaned
up, or it is capable of handling intermittent proppant production. The installation of other safeguards
such as screens or filters may be a possible solution.
Setting a pump in a near horizontal section may cause the piling up of produced solids so a washing
system, or ensuring pump stand off, is recommended. Solids fall back in vertical sections may also
plug ESPs, flapper valves, beam pumps and most other mechanical well equipment which can be
cured by using specially designed check-valves.
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4.10.6 Maximum Temperatures And Pressures
Increasing the liquid flow rate may increase the surface temperature which may on impact wellhead
or flowline selection and also prohibit the use of temperature restricted AL options. Increased
temperature may also impact on the bubble point pressure and GLR causing cavitation in jet pumps.
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An AL system may be selected on the basis that it is easily interfaced with a data gathering or
control system. Alternatively, an AL system may be selected because it requires very little data for
optimisation or maintenance, if it is difficult to interface with the data gathering/control system.
An essential issue to consider is data storage and access. The wealth of data needs to be readily
available so it can be analysed and put to maximum use for optimisation and historical recording of
AL performance.
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4.10.11 Well Location
Remote locations may have enormous penalties through cost of utilities or by poor reliability
resulting in workover costs. Remote locations may place a premium on automated and reliable data
gathering, or data-transmission methods.
The location will determine the choice of power supply as ESPs currently have a maximum subsea
step-out of 15 miles and could also require a back-up AL system to be installed from the start.
High power electrical power supply via rotating turret moorings (e.g. FPSO) has as yet to date not
been successful.
Inhabited locations place a premium on low-profile and low-noise units.
Platform locations put a premium on low-weight surface units. They may also have access to high
pressure gas or fluids, as a source of AL drive energy.
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4.10.14 Other Economic Issues
By initially installing a gas lift completion for anticipated future use, but postponing installation of
the compression facilities, a significant financial benefit may be derived. On the other hand,
advancing the starting time of an artificial lift system should also be investigated since it could even
make early installation of a working system viable.
Often the considerations during the design phase are different from those in the operating phase and
contingencies may have been omitted. Retrofitting gas lift without pulling completion tubing is
possible, although the restriction due to valve sizes may reduce the maximum achievable rates and
servicing much more complex as removing lower valves involves pulling all higher valves.
However, this may be more economic than waiting on equipment to install a full conventional gas
lift system.
4.12 Software
Software tools are available for every stage in the planning, design and operation stages of an
artificial lift system; from highly specific design tools for specific equipment, to fully integrated
nodal analysis reservoir-to-well-to-facilities performance packages.
Due to the iterative processes involved in most artificial lift design exercises, it is worth considering
design packages at an early stage in the process. The most commonly used software packages are
listed overleaf in Table 4.1.
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