Flight

instrument

LOCATION, VISIBILITY AND

GROUPING OF INSTRUMENT
PANELS, BASIC INSTRUMENT
PANELS & MECHANISM, DISPLAY-
LAYOUTS, ECAM/EICAS/EFIS
 Basic flight instruments
▪ Crucial amongst the flight instruments
fitted to any aircraft are those that indicate
the position and attitude of the aircraft.
These basic flight instruments are required
to display information concerning:-
Heading
Altitude
ALTIMETER INDICATOR AIRSPEED INDICATOR
Airspeed
Rate of turn
Rate of climb (or descent)
Attitude (relative to the horizon).

ATTITUDE INDICATOR HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

 Overview on FLIGHT
▪ Instruments
Aircraft instruments and display systems play an
extremely important role in assisting the pilot to
fly the aircraft safely and in a desired attitude.
▪ As per LOCATION OF AIRCRAFT
INSTRUMENTS, they are grouped into THREE:-
Blind Flying Panel or BASIC-SIX grouping -> Out dated
BASIC “T” grouping -> Used in modern aircraft.
“need-to-know” basis –> Used in on-board computers
automatically decide and select as to which
instruments need to be presented to the pilot
depending on the phase of the flight.
▪ Well-identified phases of flight ->ground taxiing
from departure point, take off, climb, cruise,
descent and ground taxiing to arrival terminal.
BASIC SIX Group aircraft
instrument
▪ Gyro Horizon:-> aircraft’s attitude
(displaying pitch, roll and yaw motions of aircraft) occupies
the central top position. By far this is the most important
aircraft instrument which is relied upon by the pilots.
▪ Air speed and vertical speed Indicator:-> they are positioned
on the two sides of the Gyro Horizon.
▪ Direction Indicator (DI) :-> direction of the aircraft heading.
Directional changes are achieved by rolling (banking) and
yawing (turning) the aircraft.
▪ Turn and Bank Indicator:->
Positioned at the right side of DI.
▪ Altitude Indicator (ALTI):->information of flight level usually in
flight level units of 100 feet; Placed to the left of DI.
 BASIC “T” group aircraft
instruments
▪ For safely flying the aircraft and without much effort of
eye, the pilots scan most important indicators are:-
Air Speed Indicator (ASI), Attitude Director Indicator (ADI) and
Altitude Indicator—ALTI, which form the horizontal bar of T.
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) is at the centre and makes
up the vertical bar of T.
⦿ Attitude direction Indicator:->gives direction of aircraft’s attitude.
▪ Horizontal situation Indicator:->gives directional
information to the pilots.VSI is placed right of HSI gives
rate of climb or descent of the aircraft—not really so
flight critical.
▪ Radio magnetic Indicator:-> gives Magnetic heading &
Bearing
“need-to-know” Basis
▪ After 1980, more sophisticated, all
Electronic Flight Instruments Systems
(EFIS) replace individual ADI and HSI.
▪ Present day aircraft (2009) use just one
Active matrix LCD (AMLCD) color monitor
for each of the pilot and co-pilot, located
directly in front of them.
▪ The on-board computers automatically
decide and select as to which instruments
need to be presented to the pilot on a
“need-to-know” basis, depending on the
phase of the flight.
Specific grouping: Power plants
Instruments
▪ The specific grouping of instruments
required for the operation of power plants is
governed primarily by the type of power
plant, the size of the aircraft and space
available.
▪ For twin-engine aircraft and for certain
medium-size four-engine aircraft, they are
grouped the instruments at the centre of the
main instrument panel and between the two
groups of flight instruments
 INSTRUMENT PANELS
▪ All instruments are accommodated on
special panels the number and distribution of
which vary in accordance with the number of
instruments, the size of aircraft and cockpit
layout.
▪ A main instrument panel positioned in front
of pilots is common to all types of aircraft.
▪ Typical positions of other panels are:
overhead,
at the side,
on a control pedestal located centrally between
the pilots.
▪ Panels are invariably of light alloy, attached to the appropriate
parts of the cockpit structure.
▪ The attachment methods adopted vary, but all should conform
to the requirement that a panel or an individual instrument
should be easily installed and removed.
▪ Main instrument panels are supported on shockproof mountings
since they accommodate the flight instruments and their
sensitive mechanisms.
▪ The number, size and disposition of shockproof mountings
required are governed by the size of panel and distribution of the
total weight.
▪ All panels are normally mounted in the vertical position,
although in some current aircraft types the practice of sloping
main instrument panels forward at about 15° from the vertical is
adopted to minimize parallax errors.
▪ Instrument and all other control panels which for many years
were painted black, are now invariably finished in matt grey, a
color which apart from its 'softer' effects provides a far better
contrasting background for the instrument dials and thus
contributes to easier identification.
 BASIC INSTRUMENT
ELEMENTS & MECHANISM
▪ An instrument made up of Four principal
elements:
Elements ofDetecting Element :- Detects changes in value of
Instrumentsthe physical quantity or condition presented to it ;

Measuring Element:- Measures the value of the

physical quantity or condition in terms of small
translational or angular displacements;
Coupling Element:- Displacements are magnified
and transmitted ;
Indicating Element, which exhibits the value of the
measured quantity, by the relative positions of a
pointer, or index and a scale.
Mechanism
▪ MECHANISM refers to all four elements in
which the functions of each elements are
performed, integrated & governed by
relevant instrument operating principles and
construction.
▪ In aircraft instrument applications, Lever and
rod mechanisms are confined principally to
direct-reading pressure gauges and pitot-
static flight instruments.
▪ For temperature compensation, we adopt Bi-
metal strip method, thermo resistance
method, thermo- magnetic shunt method.
LEVER Mechanism
▪ In connection with lever mechanisms, two
terms are used to the Simple movement
lever mechanismand

calibration ofangle
Effect of Lever the indicating element;
▪ They are:-
Lever Length, which is the distanced between the
point of operation of the measuring element and
the pivoting point of the lever, Effect of
lever length
Lever Angle, which is the angle θ between the
lever and the link connecting it to the measuring
element
ROD Mechanism
▪ Rod mechanisms dispense with pin or screw-
Sine Mechanism
jointed linkages for The therotation of the rocking shaft is given
interconnection
by the trigonometrical relationship
of
component parts, relyh2on - h1 =rods
r(sin θ2in
- sincontact
θ1) with
and sliding relative to, each other.
▪ Contact between the rods under all operating
conditions is maintained by the use of a
hairspring which tensions the whole mechanism.
▪ These mechanisms can be divided into three
main classes named after the trigonometrically
relationships governing their operation.
▪ They are:
Sine mechanism
A tangent mechanism
Tangent mechanism and
The rotation of the rocking
Double-tangent mechanism. shaft is given by the
relationship
h2 -h1 =d(tanθ2-tan θ 1).
GEAR Mechanism
▪ The coupling and indicating elements of many aircraft
instruments employ gears in one form or another for the
direct conversion of straight-line or arc-like motion into full
rotary motion and for increasing or decreasing the motion.
▪ In applying gears to instruments and control systems, a
gear can always turn a small amount before it will drive one
in mesh with it. This loss of motion is termed as
BACKLASH .
▪ Backlash is unavoidable since the dimensioning of the gear
teeth must allow for a set amount of 'play' to avoid
jamming of the gears. The most commonly adopted in
geared mechanisms methods is a coiled hairspring to
minimize the unstable effects which backlash can create.
▪ The instrument systems involving the transmission of data,
is the anti-backlash gear that consists of two identical
gears freely mounted face to face on a common hub and
interconnected with each other by means of two springs so
that, in effect, it is a split single gear wheel.
Hairsprings
▪ Hairsprings are precision-made devices which, serve as
Method of zero adjustment
controlling devices against which deflecting forces are
balanced to establish required calibration laws and for
the restoration of coupling and indicating elements to
their original positions as and when the deflecting forces
are removed.
▪ Hairsprings are of the flat-coil type with the inner end
fixed to a collet, enabling it to be press-fitted to its
relevant shaft, the outer end beingMethodanchored to an
of attachment
adjacent part of the mechanism framework.
▪ The materials from which hairsprings are made are
generally phosphor-bronze and beryllium-copper, their
manufacture calling for accurate control and grading of
thickness, diameter and torque loading to suit the
operating characteristics of particular classes of
instrument.
 Temperature compensation of
Instrument Mechanism
▪ For temperature compensation, we adopt following
mechanism:-
▪ Bi-metal strip method,
Thermo resistance method,
Thermo- magnetic shunt method.
❑ Bi-metal strip method:-
▪ A bimetal strip consists of two metals joined together
at their interface to form a single strip. One of the
metals is invar, a form of steel with a 36% nickel
content and a negligible coefficient of linear expansion,
while the other metal may be brass or steel, both of
which have high linear expansion coefficients.
▪ An application of the bimetal-strip principle to a typical
rod-type mechanism is shown in Figure.
Thermo-resistance Method
▪ For temperature measurements in aircraft, electrical
moving-coil type instruments are employed . Coil
material is usually either copper or aluminum that
changes electrical resistance as temperature changes
and causes indication errors.
▪ Compensation method:- Thermo-resistor or
thermistor connected in the indicator circuit.
A thermistor is composed of a mixture of metallic oxides,
has a very large temperature coefficient of resistance
which is usually negative.
The thermistor resistance will, decrease for the same
temperature change and the resistance changes will
balance out to maintain a constant current and therefore a
constant indication of the quantity being measured.
Thermo-magnetic Shunt
Method
▪ It is alternative compensation method for
Thermo-resistance method.
▪ This is a strip of nickel-iron alloy sensitive to
temperature changes, which is clamped
across the poles of the permanent magnet so
that it diverts some of the air gap magnetic
flux through itself.
▪ Depending on the size of the permanent
magnet, a number of thermo-magnetic strips
may be fitted for required compensation.
 DISPLAY LAYOUT
▪ The most common forms of data
display applied to aircraft
instruments are
(a) Quantitative, in which the
variable quantity is presented in
terms of a numerical value and by the
relative position of a pointer or index.
(b) Qualitative, in which the
information is presented in symbolic
or pictorial form.
 Quantitative Display
▪ For quantitative displays it is of extreme importance that the
number of marks be chosen carefully in order to obtain quick
and accurate interpretations of readings.
▪ There are three principal methods by which information may
be displayed:-
Circular scale or 'clock' type of scale,
Straight scale,
Digital, or counter
❖ CIRCULAR SCALE:-
▪ Scale base refers to the line which may be actual or implied
running from end to end of the scale and from which the scale
marks and line of travel of the pointer are defined .
▪ Scale marks are the marks which constitute the scale of the
instrument.
Quantitative Display
▪ STRAIGHT SCALE:-
▪ In Straight scale, the sequence of numbering is
given from bottom to top or from left to right.
▪ In the field of aircraft instruments, the straight
scale and pointer displays are not suitable for
monitoring the measuring quantities.
▪ However, they do possess characteristics of
saving of panel space and improved
observational accuracy, particularly where the
problems of grouping and monitoring a large
number of engine instruments is concerned.
Quantitative Display
▪ Digital display:-
▪ A digital or Veeder-counter type of display is one in
which data are presented in the form of letters or
numbers-alpha-numeric display,
▪ Dual Indicator Display:-
▪ Dual-indicator displays are designed principally as a
means of conserving panel space, where the
measurement of the various quantities related to
engines is concerned.
▪ Color displays:-The use of color in displays can add their
value; by means of indicating specific operational
ranges of the systems with which they are associated
and to assist in making more rapid assessment of
conditions prevailing when scanning the instruments.
Qualitative Display
▪ These are of a special type presented in a
symbolic or pictorial form to show the
condition of a system, whether the value of
an output is increasing or decreasing.
Example:-
SYNCHRO SCOPE :- The synchro scope at is used in
conjunction with a rev./min. indicating system of an aircraft
having a multiple arrangement of propeller-type engines,
and its pointers, which symbolize the propellers, only
rotate to show the differences of speed between engines.
POSITION OF FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACE, LANDING
FLAPS, AND AIR SPOILERS:- The instrument contains
seventeen separate electrical mechanisms, which on being
actuated by transmitters, position symbolic indicating
elements so as to appear at various angles behind
apertures in the main dial.
ELECTRONIC FLIGHT
INSTRUMENTS
Why electronic flight instruments are required?
▪ Using electronic flight instruments ,data can
easily be exchanged between different
instrument systems and used as a basis for
automatic flight control.
▪ The basic Electronic flight instrument are:-
Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator (EADI)
Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI)
Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS)
Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring system
(ECAMS )
Electronic Indicating and crew alerting System
(EICAS)
HSI & EHSI
 ELECTRONIC FLIGHT
INSTRUMENT SYSTEM (EFIS)
▪ Most modern passenger aircraft use of
Glass cockpit electronic
A 320 flight
instrument system (EFIS) displays known as the glass
cockpit. N
D
▪ It is a graphical displays with underlying sensors, electronic
circuitry and software that effectively replaces all
mechanical flight instruments and gauges with a single unit.
▪ EFIS isPFD
fitted in large aircraft
▪ A typical EFIS system comprises:-
Primary flight display (PFD)
Navigation display (ND)
Display select panel (DSP)
Display processor unit (DPU)
Weather radar panel (WXP)
Multifunction display (MFD) A320 PFD and ND brightness
Multifunction processor unit (MPU).
and transfer controls
TYPICAL EFIS
ARCHITECTURE
▪ Systems providing EFIS PFD and ND functions
typically have three symbol generators
operating with four display units as shown in Fig.
▪ In normal operation, Each Symbol Generator
(SG) is able simultaneously to produce both the
PFD and ND formats. . Each symbol generator
sources its inputs from both left-hand and right-
hand sensors. The third SG is a hot spare.
▪ Each Display Unit (DU) sources its display
format from a normal or an alternative SG
source. Each display unit is able to select its
display input from a normal or an alternative
source.
TYPICAL EFIS
ARCHITECTURE
▪ CASE 1: If one symbol generator fails (say SG1),
▪ The affected display units (in this case PFD1 and
ND1) select their inputs from SG3. The formats
presented on PFD1 and ND1 remain
independent of those on the other side of the
flight deck.

▪ CASE 2:- If one DU fails (say PFD1),

▪ SG1 will reconfigure its output so that the image
on ND1 will be a composite PFD/ND display with
all requisite primary flight data including a
compass.
PRIMARY FLIGHT DISPLAY
(PFD)
▪ It is a multi-color CRT or AMLCD displaying
aircraft attitude and flight control system
steering commands, including VOR, localizer,
TACAN or RNAV deviation and glide slope or pre-
selected altitude deviation.
▪ The PFD provides flight control system mode
annunciation, auto-pilot engage annunciation,
attitude source annunciation, marker beacon
annunciation, radar altitude, decision height set
and annunciation, fast–slow deviation or
angle–altitude alert, and excessive ILS deviation.
NAVIGATION DISPLAY (ND)
▪ It provides a plan view of the aircraft’s
horizontal navigation situation.
▪ The ND can also be operated in an approach
format or an en-route format with or without
weather radar information included in the
display.
▪ Operational display parameters (such as
ground speed, time-to-go, time and wind
direction/speed) can be selected by means of
the display select panel (DSP).
MULTIFUNCTION DISPLAY
(MFD)
▪ It is a color CRT or AMLCD Display located in
Centre console of flight Deck.
▪ It installed in the location reserved for Radar
Display so that both flight crew can operate it
▪ During normal flight, the MFD displays
navigation and weather radar information (in
which the colours green, yellow and red are used
to indicate increasing levels of storm activity),
pictorial navigation map, checklists and other
operating data.
▪ It can be used as Back-up for the PFD & ND in
event of malfunction or failure.
FUNCTION OF DPU & MPU
▪ The display processor unit (DPU)/ multi function
processor unit (MPU) provides sensor input
processing and switching for the necessary
deflection and video signals, and power for the
electronic flight displays.
▪ The DPU can drive up to two electronic flight
displays with different deflection and video
signals.
▪ The MPU is located in avionics rack receives
various input signals from aircraft sensors on the
both side of the aircraft.
Schematic Block Diagram of
EFIS
 EICAS & ECAMS
Function :-
▪ EICAS/ECAM are used to display various engine
parameters includes
Engine pressure ratio ,
Engine torque & Inter-stage turbine temperature,
Exhaust gas temperature
Fuel flow & oil temperature and
Hydraulic system pressure & Electrical system.
▪ EICAS/ECAMS monitors the various aircraft system and
display caution and warning information in event of
system failure and produce advisory messages that need
to be evaluated by the crew.
USES:-
▪ EICAS used in modern Boeing aircraft and ECAMS used
in airbus
EICAS
EICAS: PURPOSES
▪ EICAS improves reliability through
elimination of traditional engine gauges and
simplifies the flight deck through fewer
stand-alone indicators.
▪ EICAS also reduces crew workload by
employing a graphical presentation that can
be rapidly assimilated.
▪ EICAS can also help to reduce operating
costs by providing maintenance data.
▪ EICAS displays certain aircraft system and
engine parameters on Demand basis
 EICAS : Constructional
▪Features
EICAS System features include:-
▪ A typical two large high resolution color displays together with
associated control panels
Primary engine parameters displayed on a fulltime basis,
Secondary engine parameters displayed as required , Automatic monitoring
of systems, Fault codes, fault history, self test (lower display)
Two or three EICAS data concentrator units (DCUs)and
A lamp driver unit .
▪ The primary EICAS display presents primary engine indication
instruments and relevant crew alerts. They are as follows:-
RPM and temperature
fuel flow and quantity
engine vibration
gear and flap details (where appropriate)
Caution Alerting System (CAS) messages (colours-code to indicate
importance)
▪ The secondary EICAS display indicates a wide
variety of options to the crew and serves as a
backup to the primary display. They are selectable
in pages using the EICAS control panel and include
the display of information relating to:
landing gear position
flaps/trim
auxiliary power unit
cabin pressurization/anti-ice
fuel/hydraulics
flight control positions
doors/pressurization /environmental
AC and DC electrical data.
Operation of EICAS
▪ The EICAS displays receive data bus inputs from the EICAS data
conversion unit (DCU). The EICAS displays provide data bus
outputs to the Integrated Avionics Processing System (IAPS)
data concentrator units (DCUs). Note that the pilot or co-pilot
can select either display.
▪ The EICAS control panel is used to select pages. The information
on the data buses is routed to both EICAS displays , are multi-
function displays.
▪ The DCU receives data in various formats from a variety of
sensors including the high and low-speed bus from analogue
and discrete inputs from the engines and other aircraft systems.
▪ Output includes:-
Crew-alerting logic, engine data -> displays,
Maintenance, diagnostic and aircraft data -> IAPS
DCU indicator lamp data -> Lamp driver unit (LDU),
Aircraft system data ->flight data recorder (FDR) and data link
management unit.
▪ The LDU is a dual-channel unit capable of driving up to 120
indicator lamps.
EICAS: Format & Indication of
msg
▪ EICAS formats vary with aircraft model. However, there are common
formats used in EICAS operated in three modes; primary, secondary &
Compact mode.
▪ Primary mode format displays on main display in normal operation
shows different level of indication A,B,C&D.
▪ Secondary mode format displays auxiliary display shows engine
parameters like N2 rotor speed, fuel flow, oil pressure, oil temp, oil
quantity & engine vibration.
▪ Compact mode is used during flight when one display is inactive or being
used to show maintenance page. Data are displayed digitally. Compact
information can be shown on either main or auxiliary display.
▪ LEVEL A->Warning messages are red(Cabin pressurization and engine
fire) accompanied by an audio alert (prompt action is required by the
crew)
▪ LEVEL B->Caution messages are Amber, accompanied by an audio alert
(timely action is required by the crew).
▪ LEVEL C->Advisory messages are Amber or light blue as per specific
EICAS model, no audio alert (time available attention is required by the
crew).
▪ LEVEL D-> Memos displayed in white used for crew’s reminder.
Schematic block diagram of
EICAS
 ECAMS
▪ ECAMS comprises of two CRT or LCD displays that are
vertically arranged in the centre of the instrument panel. The
upper (primary) display shows the primary engine parameters
(N1/fan speed, EGT, N2/high pressure turbine speed), as well
as the fuel flow, the status of lift augmentation devices (flap
and slat positions), along with other information. The lower
(secondary) ECAM display presents additional information,
including that relating to any system malfunction and its
consequences.
▪ This is a flight-phase-related architecture; displays are
automatically selected for:-
pre-flight
take-off
climb
cruise
descent
approach.
Illustration of ECAM Features
▪ During the pre-flight phase, checklists are displayed on
the left-hand screen; this includes information such as
brake temperatures, APU status and advisory messages.
▪ During the pre-flight checks, the right-hand display
provides a graphic representation of the aircraft, e.g. if
doors are open or closed. The system automatically
changes to the relevant pages needed for the next flight
phase. System warnings are prioritized, ranging from level
one to level three; the warning hierarchy is similar to
EICAS.
▪ Both EICAS and ECAM reduce flight deck clutter by
integrating the many electro-mechanical instruments that
previously monitored engine and aircraft systems.
Reliability is increased and the pilot workload is reduced.
 DIFFERENCE
ECAMS
▪ Electronic centralized
aircraft monitoring system
▪ Designed by airbus
▪ Data always displayed in
checklist and schematic
format.
▪ Displays correction action
to be taken using failures.
▪ Errors are presented to the
pilot which then disappear
once it is resolved
EICAS
▪ Engine indicating and crew
alerting system.
▪ Designed by Boeing.
▪ Data not necessarily always
shown.
▪ No similar function.
▪ Instrument readings are
presented to the pilot who
then has to interpret what it
means.